INTERCONNECTEDNESS REDUCE REUSE RECYCLE

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1 **** All Quizzes and Tests or Exams, Experiences, are cumulative!! **** For the Final, approximately two thirds to three fourths will be on topics studied for the first three experiences. The remainder will be on later development, Phylum Rotifera and Subphylum Vertebrata (Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals) You should be able to define any term printed in bold in the text, even if the term was not mentioned in class. Also, check the chapter reviews & concept checks. Be sure you can answer those questions! At least some of the questions that many students missed on prior experiences will be on the final experience. At the end of this guide, there will be some example questions. Some of these, or questions very similar to them will appear on the final! The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by unchanging species (how?) Malthus Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the unity and diversity of life. Natural vs. artificial selection? What is the evidence? Fossils, molecular clock, gene flow, genetic drift, founder effect, bottleneck effect, fitness, et al. Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence Genetic variation makes evolution possible. New understanding of animal phylogeny is emerging from molecular data. Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible 1953, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey Key events in life s history include the origins of single-celled and multi-celled organisms and the colonization of land Abiotic to biotic Origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts Evolution is not goal oriented Animals are 1) multicellular, 2) heterotrophic 3) eukaryotes with 4) tissues that develop from embryonic layers. (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm). Mesenchyme cells? 1

2 What is Achaeopteryx lithographia? What is its significance in general & historically? p & lecture notes. Differences and similarities between an Intron and a codon. Hardy-Weinberg equation, five (5) conditions necessary, gene pools & allele frequencies Sponges (Phylum Porifera) are basal animals that lack true tissues. - Basal: a specific group of organisms whose evolutionary lineage diverged early in the history of the group. Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans. - Eumetazoan: member of a clade of animals with true tissues. (All animals except sponges and a few other groups are eumetazoans. - Eu = true metazoan = multicellular animals with differentiated tissues Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of animal body forms. - Lophophore feeding structure + trochophore larva structure p. 664 Ecdysozoans are the most species rich animal group. - Ecdysis molting process of emerging from an old exoskeleton. Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes. So what is a protostome? What is a deuterostome? Animals can be characterized by body plans (radial, bilateral, cups, tubes). The history of animals spans more than half a billion years. Know what is and how do you tell what is a: - Porifera - Cnidaria - Playtyhelmenthes - Rotifera - Annelida - Mollusca - Nematoda - Arhtropoda - Echinoderamta - Chordata - What are these groups called? How are they subdivided? (I.e check your text and what you saw in lab what characteristics differentiate the groups?) Know what is and how do you tell what is a: 2

3 - Lophotrochozoa - Ecdyszoa - Deuterostomia What is the difference between a Choanocyte and a Choanoflagellate? Phylum Arthropoda - general characteristics? - Chelicerates arachnids - Myriapods millipedes & centipedes - INSECTS - CRUSTACEANS Phylum Echinodermata - deuterostomes - Asteroidea - Echinoidea Phylum Chordata - deuterostomes - 4 subphyla: - Cephalochordata (lancelets) - Urochordata (tunicates) - Craniates - Myxini (hagfishes) - Vertebrata Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization. (I.e. anatomy & physiology are related. Size & shape? Hierarchical Organization of body plans? Organ systems? Dumb King Phillip Could Only Find Green Snakes (Sometimes) Domain Kingdom Phylum (Phyla)* Class Order Family Genus (Genera) Species (Sub-species) *In Botany, Phyla are called Divisions Chondrichthyes Osteichthyes Amphibia Reptilia Aves 3

4 Mammalia (Monotremata, Marsupialia, Eutherea) Feedback control maintains the internal environment of many animals. Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function & behavior. Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity & environment. What are the organ systems in mammals? Components? Functions? [Esp. Digestive, Ventilation (Respiratory), Immune, Reproductive, Excretory & Circulatory!] Osmoregulation Endothermic, ectothermic, poikilothermic, homeothermic? An animal s diet must supply chemical energy, organic molecules and essential nutrients. Vitamins? Essential amino acids, minerals? Undernutrition vs. malnutrition? Golden rice? The main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. Terms? Mechanical, chemical and enzymatic components? Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system. (And how these vary from other animals digestive strategies.) Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet. What are the four main feeding mechanisms? Feedback circuits regulate digestion, energy storage, and appetite. Directional, disruptive & stabilizing selection. Homologous and vestigial structures from a common ancestor vs. convergent evolution Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells throughout the body. What are the various types? And how do the function? Coordinated cycles of heart contraction drive double circulation in mammals. How does this compare with the other types? Esp. how this compares with the other types of vertebrate circulatory systems? How many are there? How are they the same and how are they different? Patterns of blood pressure and flow reflect the structure and arrangement of blood vessels. What is the structure of arteries and veins, arterioles and venules, capillaries? What is the function of the lymphatic system? (See also immunity.) Why is blood pressure lowest in the capillary beds? How does this help the various functions? 4

5 Blood composition and function: Plasma (55%) Water, Ions (Electrolytes), Plasma proteins Cellular elements (45%) Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) Basophils Lymphocytes Eosinophils Neutrophils Monocytes Platelets Eurythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) Hæmoglobin ( vs. myoglobin) Gas exchange Respiratory System (structure, function & benefits) - Ventilation Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces: Partial Pressure Gills Countercurrent Exchange Tracheal System Tracheae Tracheoles Lungs (generally, but specifically for mammals and birds!) Nasal Cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi (Bronchus) Broncioles Alveoli (Aviolus) Diaphram Surfacant Positive Pressure Breathing Negative Pressure Breathing Tidal Volume Vital Capacity Residual Volume Avian Ventilation Air Sacs Parabronchi Airflow 5

6 Immune System Innate Immunity Recognition and response rely on traits common to groups of pathogens Invertebrates vs. vertebrates Barrier defenses Cellular Innate Defenses Toll-like Receptors Neutrophils Macrophages Eosinophils Dendritic cells Natural Killer Cells Antimicrobial Peptides & Proteins Interferons Complement System Inflammatory Response Histamines (antihistamines) Mast cells Cytokines Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity Found only in vertebrates Receptor provide pathogen-specific recognition Defends against infection of body fluids and body cells Lysozyme Phagocytosis Humoral & cellular response Lymphocytes T cells thymus Helper T cells Antigen-presenting cells B cells bone marrow Antigen & antigen receptors Epitope Effector cells Memory Cells Clonal Selection Immunoglobulin (Ig) Immunological Memory Primary Immune Response 6

7 Tools Secondary Immune Response Active & Passive immunity Immunization & Vaccination Monoclonal antibodies Blood groups Tissue & Organ transplants Allergies Autoimmune diseases Rheumatoid Arthritis Lupus, etc. AIDS Latency ( Shingles ) Cancer Excretory System: Osmoregulation & Excretion Osmosis & Osmotic Challenges Marine vs. Freshwater organisms Terrestrial dwellers Countercurrent exchange Ammonia vs. Urea vs. Uric Acid Renal structure Renal corpuscle, Loop of Henle Reproduction Asexual Reproduction: Fission Budding Parthenogenesis Reproductive Handicap Sexual Reproduction: Ova (Ovum) Sperm Zygote Fertilization Animal Development: Cleavage Morula vs. Blastula Gastrulation 7

8 Neurulation, somites Cytoplasmic Determinants Fate Mapping & Cell Fate Limb Development Example short & long answer questions: (Note there are some questions in the list above that would make good questions for the final..) Explain the biological, morphological, ecological and phylogenetic species concepts, gene flow, and reproductive isolation. (20 points) Use three examples that demonstrate that the term "descent with modification" applies to the phyla of animals we have studied this quarter. Among eumetazoans, embryos may be diploblastic or triploblastic. What is the difference? (In other words define.) 2 points (extra point for defining eumetazoan.) Explain how tapeworms can survive without a coelom, a mouth, a digestive system or an excretory system! (3 points) What are choanocytes and choanoflagellates, where are they found and what is their evolutionary significance? (10 points) (There may be an additional sheet of sample questions added later.) 8