Spring Final Exam Review

Transcription

1 Spring Final Exam Review 2015

2 Evolution Evolution Charles Darwin said that evolution occurred due to Natural Selection. = change in a POPULATION over time

3 Natural Selection occurs due to: a. Variation exists in nature b. More offspring are produced than will survive c. There is a constant struggle for survival d. Some individuals in the species will have variations that cause them to be the most fit in a particular environment. e. Vast amount of time is required for a species to change

4 Evolution What evolves? The individual does not evolve; the POPULATION evolves. Where does the variation within a species originate? Mutations in DNA are the source of all new variations Helpful mutations increase fitness of the individual Harmful mutations decrease fitness. The frequency of the mutated gene will increase if it is a helpful mutation

5 Evidence to Support Evolution What are adaptations? Physical or behavioral traits that helps an individual survive & reproduce in its environment. The long neck of a giraffe is an example of an adaptation. Fossil Records Fossils in lowest sedimentary rock layers are older and simpler than fossils found in higher layers of rock. Example of Relative age dating The youngest and most complex fossils are found in the top layers of rock.

6 Evidence to Support Evolution Homologous Structures Similar structures but different functions Whale s flippers and humans arms are examples of homologous structures. Show evidence of a common ancestor Vestigial Structures structures or organs that are reduced in size; do not seem to serve a useful function Hip bones in whales and snakes are examples of vestigial organs because they serve no function. Analogous Structures Similar structure, similar function Originated from different embryological structures Example: Wing of an insect and wing of a bird

7 Evidence to Support Evolution Similarities in Embryology The embryos of vertebrates are very similar during early development. Common cells & tissues growing in similar ways produce homologous structures. The same groups of embryonic cells develop in the same order and in similar patterns to produce tissues & organs. All vertebrate embryos are alike in that they all have similar patterns of development, especially in the very early stages, which suggests a common ancestor.

8 Survival of the Fittest & Natural Selection Darwin proposed that natural selection was the mechanism for evolution. Individuals vary in one or more traits & there can be slight differences in their ability to survive & reproduce (FITNESS). Nature selects those individuals w/ favorable traits to leave more offspring that are better suited (FIT) for their environment.

9 Label Each Type of Evidence for Evolution A B C Embryology D Vestigial Structures Homologous Structures Fossil Record

10 3 Types of Natural Selection: 1. Directional Selection 2. Disruptive Selection 3. Stabilizing Selection

11 Directional Selection By favoring either of the extreme forms of a trait, directional selection can lead the one population to evolve into a new species.

12 Disruptive Selection In this type, both extreme forms of a trait are favored. In some cases, there may be no intermediate forms, which can lead to the evolution of two new species. (Speciation occurs)

13 Stabilizing Selection This type of natural selection favors average individuals. In this way, variation in a population is reduced. Evolution does not occur. Stabilizing Selection Low mortality, high fitness High mortality, low fitness Selection against both extremes keep curve narrow and in same place.

14 Types of Natural Selection Practice B _a a. Does not lead to speciation or evolution. C _ b. Cause one species to evolve into two different species. A c. Causes one species to evolve into a different species. A _ d. Type of selection that favors one extreme variation. B _ e. Type of selection that favors the average variation. C _ f. Type of selection that favors the two extreme variations.

15 Genetic Drift Another source of evolutionary change. Allele frequencies can become more or less common simply by chance. Genetic Drift - Random change in allele frequencies that occurs in small populations. The smaller a population is, the farther the results may be from what the laws of probability predict. Unlike natural selection because: 1. It happens by chance - such as random mating or a natural disaster (fire, landslide or lightning strike).

16 How does Geographic and Reproductive isolation lead to speciation? Geographic isolation: a barrier that physically separates members of a species into two or more groups. Members of an original species can no longer breed together to produce fertile offspring so they are reproductively isolated and now 2 species.

17 Behavioral Isolation 2 species do not breed due to behavior Female meadowlark only responds to mating call of males that are like them Blue-footed boobies perform elaborate dance to show off blue feet. Helps identify himself to female as a potential mate. Male fireflies signal to females by flashing their lights in specific patterns. Females only respond to signals flashed by own species (keeps them from mating with other closely related firefly species)

18 Survival of the fittest and Genetic Equilibrium Nature selects (Natural selection) those individuals w/ favorable traits to leave more offspring that are better suited (FIT) for their environment Genetic Equilibrium when no change takes place. What must occur in order for allele frequencies to remain constant? Random mating, no mutations, no movement into or out of population and no natural selection

19 Why do we classify organisms? 1. Why Classify? a. To study the diversity of life b. To group organisms according to shared lines of evolutionary descent 2. Why are organisms given scientific names? a. Common names are misleading jellyfish silverfish star fish None of these animals are fish!

20 Cladograms Diagram used to show the evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms The more derived characteristics the organisms have in common, the more closely related they are.

21 Which letter designates the most recent common ancestor of the ant and grasshopper? C The traits on the lines are called derived characters Give the number of where would you place the trait doubled wing pairs 2 Which letter designates the most recent common ancestor of all of the organisms shown? A Which organisms would have the most similar DNA? The butterfly and dragonfly or spider and caterpillar? Butterfly and dragonfly

22 Binomial Nomenclature Created by Linnaeus Why do we care? Allowed scientists to give each organism a universally accepted two-part name In order to avoid confusion The first part is the Genus; the second part is the species First letter in Genus is always capitalized EX Homo sapiens

23 Classifications Kingdom (most general) Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species (most specific) King Philip came over for good sweets!

24 Cell Type: none because not a cell Cell wall: not a cell just a capsid (protein coat) Body Type: noncellular Nutrition: N/A Reproduction: Replication requiring a host cell Examples: influenza and HIV (attacks the immune system)

25 Viruses are Highly Specific HIV infects Helper T cells part of the immune system. Different cold viruses attack the cells lining the nose and sinuses. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses. Viruses can cause changes in a cells DNA which can lead to cancer (uncontrolled cell growth mitosis)

26 Two methods of virus replication Lytic and Lysogenic Both result in the host cell being destroyed and more copies of virus being released Lytic Replication virus enters a cell, makes copies of itself, and causes the cell to burst relatively quickly Host cell is lysed and destroyed.

27 1. Virus attaches 2. Virus injects genetic information into host 3. New viral proteins and genetic material are made 4. Viral parts are assembled 5. New viruses are released as host cell lyses (bursts) and is destroyed.

28 Lysogenic Replication Virus integrates its genetic information into the DNA of the host cell Viral genetic information replicates along with the host cell s DNA for a relatively long period of time

29 Vocabulary to remember Prokaryote: lacks a nucleus Eukaryote: contains a membrane-bound nucleus Unicellular: contains one cell only Multicellular: contains two or more cells Autotroph: makes its own food Heterotroph: must consume food

30 Kingdom Archaebacteria: Live in Extreme Habitats Classification of Living Things Domain Archaea Kingdom Archaebacteria Cell Type Prokaryotic Cell Structures Cell walls do not have peptidoglycan Number of Cells Unicellular Nutrition Autotroph or heterotroph Examples Methanogens Halophiles Thermophiles Bacillus infernus lives in deep sea vents in the ocean obtains energy from Earth s heat

31 Kingdom Eubacteria Classification of Living Things Domain Bacteria Kingdom Eubacteria Cell Type Prokaryotic Cell Structures Cell walls have peptidoglycan Number of Cells Unicellular Nutrition Autotroph or heterotroph Examples Streptococcus, Escherichia coli E. coli bacteria (yellow) on the head of a needle. Streptococcus :

32 Kingdom Protista Cell Type: Eukaryotic Cell wall: Cellulose (some) Body Type: Unicellular and Multicellular Nutrition: Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Are Mobile (can move around) Examples: paramecium, euglena, algae

33 What is a Protist? Kingdom Protista = Junk Drawer Kingdom Protists are eukaryotes that are not members of the Kingdoms Plantae, Animalia, or Fungi. Prefer to live in moist, aquatic conditions Classified according to their mode of nutrition: Heterotrophic (animal-like) Autotrophic/Photosynthesis (plant-like) External digestion (fungus-like) Commonly classified As: protozoa, ameoba, paramecium

34 Cell Type: Eukaryotic Cell wall contains Chitin Kingdom Fungi Body Type: Unicellular and Multicellular Nutrition: Heterotrophic Are Immobile (cannot move around) Examples: yeast, morel, earthstar puffball, bread mold (Rhizophus stolonifer), mushrooms

35 Kingdom Plantae Cell Type: Eukaryotic Cell wall contains Cellulose Body Type: Multicellular Nutrition: Autotrophic Examples: corn, ferns, roses, pine tree

36 Kingdom Animalia Cell Type: Eukaryotic Nutrition: Heterotrophic Body Type: Multicellular Examples: insects, humans, coral, starfish

37 Importance of bacteria and fungi Bacteria are helpful and harmful organisms Helpful: 1. Food 2. Clean up oil spills 3. Aids in human digestion (E. coli) and other life processes 4. Carry out photosynthesis 5. Decomposers (recycle nutrients) 6. Fix Nitrogen (bacteria live on plant roots & turn nitrogen in air into forms that plants can use to make proteins) Fungi play an essential role in maintaining equilibrium in nearly every ecosystem. recycle nutrients by breaking down the bodies and wastes of other organisms

38 Cladograms Show shared derived characteristics Lungfish, mammals, birds, and lizards evolved with vertebrate and lungs They share these two derived characteristics All living organisms share the same molecule of DNA (or genetic information)

39 What is an Animal? Characteristics of All Animals 1. Animals are Multicellular 2. Animals are Eukaryotic 3. Animals are Heterotrophs 4. No cell wall

40 Evolutionary/Developmental Milestones in Animals 1. Cell specialization and levels of organization. Cells Tissues organs organ systems organism 2. Development of body symmetry and segmentation 3. Development of an internal body cavity and tissue layers

41 What is homeostasis? All of the organ systems work together to keep the body in a state of HOMEOSTASIS. Homeostasis is the process by which an organism maintains a relatively stable internal environment.

42 ANIMAL BODY SYSTEMS Body systems are all interrelated and work together to perform their functions in animals. Body systems can be organized and studies by these functions: REGULATION: Excretory & Nervous Systems NUTRIENT ABSORPTION: Respiration, Digestion, & Circulatory Systems DEFENSE: Immune, Integumentary, Lymphatic, Skeletal, & Muscular Systems REPRODUCTION: Reproductive & Endocrine Systems

43 Animal Systems- Defense! Defense! Integumentary System Acts as a protective barrier; helps prevent excess water loss; helps regulate body temperature (sweating and shivering). Skeletal System The skeletal system produces immune cells (immune system) to protect against disease causing bacteria and viruses. These immune cells(white blood cells) are then carried by the circulatory system for the immune response when needed. The main organs of the skeletal system are the bones. Bones work with muscles to move, protect, and support sensitive internal organs.

44 Animal Systems- Defense! Defense! Muscular System main organs of the muscular system are the muscles. There are 3 types of muscles tissue made up of individual muscle cells, called fibers Bones and muscles work in opposing pairs to perform body movement. Muscles and bones support, protect, and maintain posture for the human body coordinates with the nervous system to respond to environment. Immune/ Lymphatic System Your skin is your first line of defense. The skin works to keep pathogens out, then the immune system will attack pathogens if they get in

45 Nutrient Absorption Digestive Breaks down food into nutrients like glucose converts food into simpler molecules that can be used by the cells of the body; absorbs food and eliminates waste Circulatory 1. Transports O 2 & nutrients (sugars, amino acids, hormones) to the cells 2. Carries wastes away from cells Respiratory Takes in oxygen Provides O 2 to the blood for cellular respiration in the cells and removes CO 2 from the body Exchange of gases occurs through the walls of the lungs

46 Animal Systems-Reproduction Reproductive combines genetic information from both parents (in most animals) to produce new life forms. This system produces sex cells (gametes), delivers them, and protects developing fetus until birth. Endocrine regulates long-term changes in the body such as growth and development It is made up of glands that release their products into the bloodstream

47 Animal Systems-Regulation Nervous maintains homeostasis by controlling and regulating all other parts of the body. Excretory regulates the concentration of water and other components of body fluids.

48 Cellular respiration What is the equation for Cellular Respiration? Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy/atp What system provides the glucose for this process? digestive What system provides the oxygen for this process? respiratory Where in the cell does this process occur? mitochondria

49 Components of blood and their function White blood cells fight off pathogens & destroy bacteria and pathogens Platelets help clot blood Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen Plasma liquid part of blood

50 Gametes The female gametes are called ova/egg and are released from the ovaries. The male gametes are called sperm and are produced in the testes

51 3 types of Muscles and examples Skeletal Skeletal is attached to bones for movement Cardiac cardiac muscle is only found in the heart Smooth smooth is found lining the blood vessels, stomach, small intestine and diaphragm

52 The picture to the left is represents the cells of the nervous system which are what? Neuron!

53 Skeletal Body System Interactions: Circulatory System: bones help produce new blood cells in addition to storing minerals transported by the circulatory system. Muscular System: bones and muscles work in opposing pairs to perform body movement. Muscles and bones support, protect, and maintain posture for the human body. Nervous System: bones protect many vital organs of the nervous system Skull (brain), Vertebrae (spinal cord).

54 Interactions Among Systems to Achieve Nutrient Absorption Nutrients are obtained from food that the digestive system has broken down. The respiratory system obtains oxygen from the atmosphere. These nutrients are transported by the circulatory system to cell of the body for absorption.

55 The Endocrine system working with other body systems Nervous System: Hormones provide feedback to the brain to affect neural processing. Reproductive System: hormone production for sexual development to make offspring Muscular and Skeletal System: endocrine system controls the growth of both bone and muscles Immune System: the development is controlled by the endocrine system Digestive System: The endocrine system controls the rate of metabolism

56 1. Sunlight 2. Water 3. Minerals 4. Gas Exchange 5. Transport of water and nutrients throughout the plant body Remember Photosynthesis: 6H 2 O + 6CO 2 C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 (water + carbon dioxide + sunlight glucose + oxygen)

57 Plants most likely evolved from an organism like the freshwater multicelluar green algae living today. Plants had to overcome challenges as they moved from water to land: Adapt to be able to acquire water Adapt features to transport water Be able to conserve water more efficiently

58 Vascular vs. Nonvascular VASCULAR PLANTS Contain tube-like cells for transport Can grow large and farther away from water source NONVASCULAR PLANTS Don t contain tubelike cells for transport Water and nutrients travel by diffusion and osmosis. Small and grows close to water source

59 4 main plant groups: Nonvascular 1. Bryophytes (Mosses and their relatives) Vascular (Tracheophytes) 2. Seedless Vascular (Ferns and their relatives) 3. Seeded Vascular a) Gymnosperms (cone-bearing plants) b) Angiosperms (flowering plants)

60 Same for both: Eukaryotic Multicellular Need water for reproduction Moist, shady habitats Reproduce with spores Photosynthetic

61 Small size Non-vascular (don t have water conducting tissue) No true roots, stems, and leaves Mosses

62 Vascular True roots, stems, and leaves Ferns

63 Seed plants - gymnosperms Bear their seeds directly on the surface of cones. Vascular plants Gymnosperm means naked seed Includes conifers such as pines and spruces

64 Angiosperms flowering plants Reproduce using fruits, nuts, or flowers

65 #10 Difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms? Gymnosperms reproduce with cones. Angiosperms reproduce with fruits and flowers.

66 STAMEN Reproduction of angiosperms MALE PART = ANTHER THAT PRODUCES POLLEN AND THE FILAMENT (STALK THAT SUPPORTS THE ANTHER) CARPEL FEMALE PART = STICKY STIGMA,TUBELIKE STYLE, AND OVARY WHICH CONTAINS OVULES WITH EGGS INSIDE

67 The ovary develops into the fruit Can be dry (nuts and grains) or Fleshy (peaches, tomatoes, squash) Fruits protect the seeds and aid in dispersal

68 POLLINATION Pollination Transfer of pollen from the stamen to the pistil. Methods of Pollination: 1. Wind 2. Animals (most are pollinated by animals) Pollination Adaptations That Attract Animals: 1. Nectar 2. Petal Color 3. Scent

69 Plants have 3 main organs: roots, stems, & leaves

70 Important Plant Structure Terms 1. Roots-Underground structure that help prevent soil erosion 2. Cuticle- Waxy covering on leaves that prevents water loss 3. Guard Cells- Cells that surround leaf openings that control the amount of transpiration by closing during hot or dry times 4. Mesophyll- The part of leaf where photosynthesis occurs 5. Xylem- Vascular tissue that transports water through the roots, stems and leaves

71 Important Plant Structure Terms Continued 6. Root Hairs-Tiny projections that increase the surface area for the absorption of water and nutrients from the soil 7. Stomata- Opening found in leaves that allows for gas exchange and transpiration with the environment 8. Phloem- Type of transport tissue that transports food through the leaves, stems and roots 9. Transpiration- Process by which water evaporates from the leaves of plants

72 How do plants obtain their energy? Photosynthesis: o6h 2 O + 6CO 2 C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 (water + carbon dioxide + sunlight glucose + oxygen) REACTANTS PRODUCTS o Carried out by chloroplasts in the leaves Plants also carry out cellular respiration: Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP) REACTANTS PRODUCTS o Carried out by mitochondria in the cells

73 What Is Ecology? Ecology- is the study of the interactions among organisms and between the organisms and the environments in which they live. (eco means house ). Biotic factors all living things Ex. Types of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, etc. Abiotic factors all non-living things Ex. Climate, temperature, amount of rainfall, humidity, light, wind, soil type, nutrients available, etc.

74 Levels of Ecological Organization (most specific) Species Population Community Ecosystem Biome Biosphere (most broad) Important Ecology Terms 1. Species - Group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring. 2. Population - Groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area.

75 3. Communities - Assemblages of different populations that live together in a defined area. 4. Ecosystems Collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving, or physical, environment. 5. Biome -- Group of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities. 6. Biosphere -- Contains the combined portions of the planet in which all of life exists, including land, water, and air, or atmosphere

76 Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem Sunlight Producers Consumers Decomposers Producers: autotrophic organisms that are able to make own food from a inorganic substances. Ex. Plants, algae (phytoplanktonmicroscopic marine plant life)

77 Consumers: Consumers: heterotrophic organisms that get energy by eating producers and other consumers. (ex. Deer, hawk, bear) Herbivores: eat producers ex. Deer, grasshopper, cow Carnivores: eat other consumers ex. Frog, wolf, hawk Omnivores: eat producers and consumers ex. Grizzly bear, humans Level of Consumers: Primary consumer Secondary consumer 3 rd, 4 th level consumer Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore & decomposers Sunlight Producers Consumers Decomposers can be 1 st,2 nd or higher level consumer

78 Sunlight Producers Consumers Decomposers Decomposers: Obtain energy from the dead and decaying organisms (recyclers) Two Principle Decomposers: Bacteria and Fungi Bacteria Earthworms and termites (detritivores) also aid in the breakdown of organic matter, which replenishes nutrients to the soil. Worms Fungi Termites

79 What Do Food Chains and Food Webs Demonstrate? Each step in a food chain or web is called a trophic level, or a feeding relationship between organisms. Both food chains and food webs show the flow of energy in an ecosystem. Energy flows from the leaf to the mouse Energy flows from the snake to the hawk

80 Food Chains Food Chain: one way flow of energy, illustrates only one feed relationship 5 th Quaternary consumers Arrows show the flow of energy and matter 4 th Tertiary consumers 3 rd Secondary consumers Primary consumers 2 nd 1 st Producers

81 Food Webs Food Web: shows many possible feeding relationships within an ecosystem What if plants were removed? No energy in system What happens to owl population if foxes are killed? Over populate When studying the overall health of an ecosystem, we study food webs.

82 Ecological Pyramids Pyramid of energyused to illustrate the amount of usable energy at each trophic level Only 10% of the energy available is passed on to the next level The other 90% is given/lost as heat.

83 Three Types of Symbiotic Relationships Mutualism- Both organisms benefit from the relationship Bees and flowers Parasitism- One organism benefits, and the other is harmed (host) Ticks (benefits) and deer (harmed) Commensalism- One organism benefits, and the other is neither helped nor harmed Barnacles (benefits) and whales (not harmed/nor helped)

84 Mutualism Both organisms benefit from the relationship. This bird will eat the insects found on the zebras body. The bird is high above the ground and has food, the zebra is removed of pests. Bees receive food, while the flower s pollen is spread for reproduction.

85 Parasitism One organism benefits, and the other is harmed (host). Ticks feed on the blood of the host in which they live. The closer together organisms live, the easier these parasites can spread through the population.

86 Commensalism One organism benefits, and the other is neither helped nor harmed. Barnacles live and grow on the bodies of various ocean organisms, however, they do not cause any harm to them. They do not aid them in any way, though.

87 The Carbon Cycle In photosynthesis, producers remove CO 2 gas from the atmosphere to make organic molecules (sugars). Cellular respiration Animals burn the food they eat releasing CO 2 gas as a waste product. Combustion: Burning Fossil Fuels. When they are burned, CO 2 gas is returned to the atmosphere and increases the amount of CO 2 gas in the air.

88 The Nitrogen Cycle

89 Ecological Succession Ecosystems are constantly changing in response to natural and human disturbances. As an ecosystem changes, older inhabitants gradually die out and new organisms move in, causing further changes in the community. Ecological Succession Series of predictable changes that occurs in a community over time

90 Primary Succession Soil starts to form as lichens and the forces of weather and erosion help break down rocks into smaller pieces When lichens die, they decompose, adding small amounts of organic matter to the rock to make soil

91 Lichens Fungus + Algae Fungus gets food from the algae The algae get water and minerals from fungus

92 Secondary Succession Begins in a place that already has soil and was once the home of living organisms A disturbance of some kind changes an existing community Occurs faster and has different pioneer species than primary succession Example: after forest fires