Ecosystem observations. Geosphere. Geosphere: soil. Geosphere: soil. Geosphere: soil horizons

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1 Ecosystem observations Living and nonliving components? Similarities and differences? Ecology Biosphere Ecosystems Communities Populations Organisms species Geosphere Geosphere: soil Components? Millions of microorganisms Minerals/Nutrients O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg Decaying organic matter (humus) Void space water Void space air Geosphere: soil Properties? Porosity Permeability Color Grain size Soil Texture ph - Acid, < Alkaline, > 7.0 Geosphere: soil horizons O - surface litter layer Humus provides N, K, binds particles, enhances soil moisture retention A - topsoil layer Most productive layer Mixture of organic / inorganic products B & C Subsoil to substratum Dense Lower in organic matter 1

2 Atmosphere Hydrosphere Rain clouds to land Runoff Transpiration from plants Condensation Transpiration Surface runoff (rapid) from land from ocean to ocean Infiltration and Percolation Groundwater movement (slow) Surface runoff (rapid) Ocean storage Biosphere Food chain and trophic levels Solar energy First Trophic Level Producers (plants) Second Trophic Level Primary consumers (herbivores) Third Trophic Fourth Trophic Level Level Secondary Tertiary consumers consumers (carnivores) (top carnivores) Detritivores (decomposers and detritus feeders) Solar Energy Plant nutrients From atmosphere, soil and water Decomposers Bacteria Fungi: Bracket, cup, Pore fungi, Chanterelles, Gilled mushrooms, etc. Slime molds Water molds Producers Green plants Some bacteria Primary Consumers Herbivores Plant parasites Secondary Consumers Omnivores Carnivores Animal parasites Scavengers Vertebrate Grazers and Seedeaters: Deer, elk; mice, rabbits, squirrels; Seed- and fruit-eating birds Invertebrate Grazers and Seedeaters: Herbivorous insects Parasites on Plants: Fungi, bacteria, parasitic flowering plants; insect galls, nematode worms, some protozoa Vertebrate Omnivores: Black bear, raccoon, opossum, crow Vertebrate Carnivores: Coyotes, bats, bobcats, weasels, mole shrews; many birds: owls, flickers, warblers, etc. Invertebrate Carnivores: Many insects like beetles, wasps Animal Parasites: Worms, protozoa, bacteria, fungi Scavengers: Crows, many invertebrates Autotrophs (producers) Net primary productivity: rate at which producers turn solar energy to biomass minus respiration, or the energy available to consumers (chlorophyll mg/m3) Willapa Bay, WA 2

3 Autotrophs (producers) Washington Native Plant Society Douglas fir Red Cedar Western hemlock Source: NASA Autotrophs (producers) Washington Native Plant Society Autotrophs (producers) Washington Native Plant Society Salal Bigleaf Maple Cascade Oregon grape Madrone Red alder Red Huckleberry Devil s Club Autotrophs (producers) Nonnative, invasive Elk Douglass Fir tussock Moth Black tailed deer Black capped chickadee Douglas squirrel Banana slug

4 Raccoon Spider wasp Western long ear bat Spotted Owl Cougar, or Mountain lion Black bear Chanterelle Turkey tail mushroom Slime mold Cup fungus Nutrient Cycles: Sulfur Humans release sulfur dioxide by: Burning coal and oil Refining petroleum Converting metallic ores into free metals (copper, lead, and zinc) (SO 3 ) (H 2 SO 4 3- ) (SO 3 ) (H 2 SO 4 3- ) (SO 2 ) (H 2 S) (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 (SO 2 ) (H 2 S) (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 (CH 3 ) 2 S phytoplankton (CH 3 ) 2 S phytoplankton (SO 4 2- ) (SO 4 2- ) (xs 2- ) (H 2 S) (S 2- ) (H 2 S) Nutrient Cycles: Water Nutrient Cycles: Carbon Rain clouds to land Runoff Transpiration from plants Condensation Transpiration Surface runoff (rapid) from land from ocean to ocean Infiltration and Percolation Groundwater movement (slow) Surface runoff (rapid) Ocean storage 4

5 Nutrient Cycles: Nitrogen Nutrient Cycles: Phosphorus Species Indicator Keystone Foundation Species: Indicator serve as early warnings of ecosystem damage Puget Sound indicator species of toxic contam. Chinook/coho salmon Mussels Harbor seals English sole Puget Sound indicator species of human waste Shellfish Canary in the coal mine Nearly 1 in 3 of 5,743 described amphibian species are in decline Species: Keystone determine types and numbers of other species in a community Species: Keystone determine types and numbers of other species in a community Sea otter Starfish Chinook salmon salmon runs in SE Alaska add up to 170 tons of phosphorous per year to Lake Illiamna 3, and the number of salmon carcasses carried by brown bears adds phosphorous to terrestrial systems at a rate of 6.77 kg/ha -- the equivalent application rate of commercial fertilizers for evergreen trees

6 Species: Foundation create and enhance habitats that can benefit other species Eelgrass Western hemlock Competition Predation Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism DNR/Helen Berry Coral Competition, specialization, resource partitioning Predation Predators may have camouflage, speed, patience, inject paralyzing chemicals Predation Prey evolve defenses Parasitism Parasite benefits, host is harmed 6

7 Parasitism live in host microorganisms, tapeworms live outside host fleas, ticks, mistletoe plants, sea lampreys little contact with host dump-nesting birds Parasitism: myco-heterotrophs Indian Pipe Candystick Mutualism species interact in a way that benefits both Mutualism Lichen: algae + fungus Cleaner fish mycorrhizal association on pine roots Commensalism benefits one species but has little/no effect on the other Population growth Stable growth Epiphytes 7

8 Population growth Irruptive or Mathusian growth Stable growth Reproductive patterns r-selected species Many small offspring (400/yr) Little - no parental care of offspring Early reproductive age (3-4 mo.) Most offspring die before reaching reproductive age Pioneer species k-selected species Fewer, larger offspring (2-3 every 2 years) High parental care of offspring (born blind) Later reproductive age (4-7 yrs old) Most offspring survive to reproductive age Late successional species Biomes Evolution Billions of years ago Formation of Earth s crust, atmosphere and oceans Small organic molecules form in the sea Large organic molecule form in the sea First protocells form in the sea Single-cell prokaryotes form in the sea Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas Multicellular organisms form in the seas, later on land today Red algae Humans Credit: Berkeley, Palomar College Evolution: Homonids Billions of years ago today Evolution: Natural selection how? genetic variability traits must be heritable trait must lead to differential reproduction leads to adaptations: heritable traits that enable survival and reproduction - Structural, behavioral/sexual, physiological Source: Reed et al., PLOS Biology 8

9 Structural adaptations Greater Koa-finch Kona Grosbeak Kuai Akialaoa Amakihi Evolution: Genetic variation mutations: random changes in the structure or # of DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by offspring how? Akiapolaau Crested Honeycreeper Maui Parrotbill Apapane Unknown finch ancestor Evolution: Genetic drift random selection allows maladaptive traits in small populations - probability - chance how? Worms of different color over 4 generations: Evolution Large gene pool - Increases biological fitness of the species Small gene pool - Fewer traits for natural selection - Genetic drift has significant affects - Increased potential of extinction Hunted to near extinction, 30,000 to 1,000 in 1900 Evolution Behavioral, or Physiological, or Structural Genetic drift Coevolution Speciation through adaptations Speciation through chance/ probability/human selection Interacting species engage in a back and forth genetic contest Convergent evolution Organisms not closely related, independently evolve similar traits due to similar ecological niches 9