An Interpersonal Interaction Model of Buyer Behavior.

Transcription

1 Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 1972 An Interpersonal Interaction Model of Buyer Behavior. William Morgan Pride Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Pride, William Morgan, "An Interpersonal Interaction Model of Buyer Behavior." (1972). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact

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3 TTJTC ntcqpr'tatton HAS RFFN MTCROFTT.MF.D EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. I PRIDE, William Morgan, 19*12- AN INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR. The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Ph.D., 1972 Business Administration U niversity Microfilms, A XEROX Com pany, Ann Arbor, M ichigan

4 AN INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR A D is s e rta tio n Subm itted to the G raduate F acu lty o f the L ouisiana S ta te U n iv e rs ity and A g ric u ltu ra l and M echanical C ollege in p a r t i a l f u lf illm e n t of the requirem ents fo r the degree of D octor o f Philosophy in The Departm ent o f M arketing by W illiam Morgan P rid e B.S., N orthw estern S ta te C o lleg e, 1965 M.B.A., Oklahoma S ta te U n iv e rs ity, 1967 A ugust, 1972

5 PLEASE NOTE: Some pages may have indistinct print. Filmed as received. University Microfilms, A Xerox Education Company

6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I deeply a p p re c ia te the time and e f f o r t expended by Dr. Parks Dimsdale and Dr. S. Lee R ichardson in s tim u la tin g my thoughts and guiding my e f f o r ts during the w r itin g of th is d is s e r ta t io n. T heir ad v ice, c o n s tru c tiv e c r it ic i s m, and su g g estio n s a s s is te d me in both reco g n izin g and so lv in g numerous problems which surrounded the re se a rc h s e t fo rth in th is document. In a d d itio n, I wish to thank Dr. Fred E ndsley, Dr. J e f f H a rris, Dr. Steve Brown, and Dr. Q uentin Jen k in s for th e ir recomm endations re g a rd in g both s tr u c t u r a l c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s of the re se a rc h as w ell as methods o f p re s e n ta tio n. For the ty p in g of th is d is s e r ta t io n, I extend a g re a t d e a l of thanks to Mrs. K atherine C rochet, Mrs. Mary Lou T urner, and Mrs. Diane Reed. F in a lly, I w ish to thank my w ife, Nancy, fo r her u n d erstan d in g p a tie n c e and her a b i l i t y to show me numerous d iv e rs io n s which made the re se a rc h and w ritin g of a d is s e r ta t io n a le ss te d io u s ta sk. ii

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY... 1 Statem ent of Purpose and Scope... 2 M ethodology... 2 J u s t i f i c a t i o n of th e Research... 4 L im ita tio n s of the Research... 5 D e fin itio n of Terms... 6 Consumer Behavior and Buyer Behavior... 6 T ra n sa c tio n... 7 Human I n te r a c tio n... 7 B ehavioral Payoff... 7 Preview of P re s e n ta tio n... 7 I I. SELECTED MODELS OF BUYER BEHAVIOR AND EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF BUYER-SELLER INTERACTION: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. 9 M icroscopic Models of Buyer Behavior The K om hauser and L a z a rsfe ld A nalysis of Consumer A c t i o n s K o tle r 's Buyer Behavior Models Buyer Behavior Model by Howard and S h eth The B erry and Kunkel B ehavioral Model o f Man., A ndreasen's D ecision Model of A ttitu d e s and Customer B e h a v i o r M icroscopic Buyer Behavior Models in P e rs p e c tiv e Comprehensive Models of Buyer Behavior N ic o s ia 's Model of Consumer D ecision P ro c e s s e s The E n g el-k o llat-b lack w ell Model of Consumer M otiv atio n and B e h a v i o r Comprehensive Buyer Behavior Models in P e rs p e c tiv e S tu d ie s of B u y e r-s eller I n te r a c tio n The W ille tt-p e n n in g to n Study of On-Going I n te r a c tio n.. 42 R esearch Focused Upon th e A fte r-e ffe c ts of I n t e r a c tio n E m pirical S tu d ie s of B u y e r-s e lle r I n te r a c tio n in P e r s p e c t i v e Sum m ary iii

8 iv Chapter I I I. Page INTERPERSONAL ECONOMIC TRANSACTIONS AND THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE INTERACTION MOEEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR.. 51 Human I n te r a c tio n and In te rp e rs o n a l E v a lu a tio n of B e h a v i o r P ay o ffs of In te rp e rs o n a l Economic T ra n s a c tio n s The I n te r a c tio n M o d e l B oundaries of th e M o d e l The V a r i a b l e s Endogenous V a ria b le s Exogenous V a ria b le s Sum m ary IV. THE INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTUAL VARIABLES OF THE INTERACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR The P e rc e p tu a l P ro cess P e rc e p tu a l S e le c tio n P e rc e p tu a l O rg an iza tio n P e rc e p tu a l I n te r p r e ta ti o n Flows of S o c ia l In fo rm atio n I n p u ts C ognitive F a c to rs of Im pression Form ation C o g n itiv e O rg an iza tio n C ognitive C om plexity C o g n itiv e R ig id ity C ognitive F a c to rs of Im pression Form ation: A Sum m ary O rder of In fo rm atio n In p u ts in R e la tio n to Im pression F o r m a tio n P e rc e p tio n of P h y sic a l A ttr ib u te s of People A ttr ib u tio n : The P e rc e p tio n of B eh av io r Models of A ttr ib u tio n Types o f A t t r i b u t i o n A ttr ib u tio n o f A tti tu d e s A ttr ib u tio n o f I n te n t io n A ttr ib u tio n o f C a p a b ility Sum m ary V. THE INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION VARIABLES OF THE INTER ACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR P erceiv ed S im ila r ity of the I n t e r a c t a n t s Congruency A ttr ib u tio n of I n t e n t i o n s l i t y Sum m ary VI. POTENTIAL ATTRACTION EFFECTS ON THE BUYER AND INTER PERSONAL TECHNIQUES P o te n tia l B eh av io ral E ffe c ts o f A ttr a c tio n Toward the S e l l e r

9 V Chapter Page C om petitive and C ooperative B ehavior A n tic ip a to ry Responses R egarding Subsequent I n t e r a c t io n A ggressive B ehavior Com pliant B eh av io r P o te n tia l C ognitive E ffe c ts of A ttr a c tio n Toward the S e l l e r P e rc e p tio n of Communication C ontent A ttitu d e and O pinion Change Commitment E g o -In v o lv e m e n t D esire to I n f l u e n c e A u th o rita ria n is m Summary of E f f e c ts Upon A ttitu d e and O pinion Change. 170 In fe re n c e of A ttitu d e S im i la r i ty Summary of P o te n tia l C ognitive E ffe c ts of A ttr a c tio n In te rp e rs o n a l T echniques Proxemic Communication K in e sic Communication T a c til e Communication Language P a r a li n g u is ti c Communication In te rp e rs o n a l Techniques in P e rsp e c tiv e Sum m ary V II. SUMMARY OF THE INTERACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR, SUG GESTED HYPOTHESES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH, PROPOSED METHODOLOGIES FOR SELECTED HYPOTHESES, AND CONCLUSIONS Summary of the I n te r a c tio n Model o f Buyer B ehavior The B oundaries of the M o d e l The Exogenous V a ria b le s The Endogenous V a ria b le s In te rp e rs o n a l P e rc e p tio n In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n The P o te n tia l E ffe c ts of A ttr a c tio n Suggested H ypotheses fo r F u rth e r R esearch In te rp e rs o n a l P e rc e p tio n Flows of S o cia l In fo rm atio n I n p u ts C ognitive F a c to rs of Im pression Form ation O rder E ffe c ts o f In fo rm atio n In p u ts P e rc e p tio n o f P h y sic a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s A ttr ib u tio n : P e rc e p tio n of B eh av io r In te rp e rs o n a l A t t r a c t i o n P erceiv ed S im ila r ity of th e I n t e r a c t a n t s Congruency o f F e e lin g s A ttr ib u tio n of I n t e n t i o n s l i t y A ttr a c tio n E ffe c ts on the Buyer B ehavioral E f f e c ts o f A ttr a c tio n C o g n itiv e E ffe c ts of A ttr a c tio n Proposed M ethodologies fo r S elected H ypotheses

10 Vi Chapter Page The B u y er's E x p e c ta tio n s o f F u tu re I n te r a c tio n and the Flow of In fo rm atio n I n p u ts The Buyer's Impression Formation Process and the Prim acy E f f e c t P e rs o n a lity In fe re n c e s as a F un ctio n of the S e l l e r 's F a c ia l F e a tu re s A ttr ib u tio n of A ttitu d e s and the S e l l e r 's E xpression of P erso n al Involvem ent w ith the P ro d u c t P e rs o n a lity S im ila r ity and S e lle r A ttra c tiv e n e s s The E ffe c ts of an I n g r a ti a ti o n T a c tic on A ttr a c tio n A ttr a c tio n Toward the S e lle r and the B uyer's Com pliance A ttr a c tio n Toward the S e lle r and th e B uyer's A ttr ib u tio n of A tti tu d e s CONCLUSIONS SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 220

11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2-1. The A ction Scheme in the K o rn h au ser-l azarfeld Model The P urchasing P rocess in th e K o rnhauser-l azarfeld M o d e l The Buying P ro cess Conceived as a System of In p u ts and O utputs in the K o tle r M o d e l The Comprehensive Flow C hart o f th e Howard-Sheth Model The Framework of the Berry and Kunkel B ehavioral Model of M a n Comprehensive Framework o f th e A ndreasen M o d e l D e fin itio n of P r e d is p o s itio n s, A ttitu d e s, and M otivatio n s in the N ico sia M o d e l The Comprehensive Framework of the N ico sia Model The Comprehensive Scheme of the E ngel, K o lla t, and B lackw ell M odel Summary M atrix of th e Buyer B ehavior M odels P o te n tia l Outcomes fo r th e B u y er's T o tal T ra n sa c tio n a l P a y o f f The S tr u c tu r a l Framework of th e I n te r a c tio n Model of Buyer B e h a v i o r The I n te r a c tio n Model of Buyer B ehavior: Focus Upon the V a ria b le s of In te rp e rs o n a l P e rc e p tio n Grouping A ccording to Rows o r C o l u m n s Grouping by Rows o r Columns The I n te r a c tio n Model of Buyer B ehavior: Focus Upon the V a ria b le s of In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n The I n te r a c tio n Model of Buyer B ehavior: Focus Upon P o te n tia l E ffe c ts of A ttr a c tio n vii

12 viii Figure Page 6-2. The I n te r a c tio n Model o f Buyer B ehavior: Focus Upon I n te rp e rs o n a l Techniques The I n te r a c tio n Model of Buyer B eh av io r

13 ABSTRACT The consumer behavior models which have been developed do not ad eq u ately co n sid er the case o f fa c e -to -fa c e b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n in which v a ria b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s unique to on-going in te r a c tio n a f f e c t the b u y e r's b eh av io r. The purpose of th is re s e a rc h was to develop an in te r a c tio n model of buyer behavior which focuses upon the v a ria b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s th a t in flu e n c e a b u y e r's d e te rm in a tio n of a b e h a v io ra l payoff acq u ired through in te r a c tio n w ith the s e l l e r. The methodology fo r the developm ent o f the in te r a c tio n model was e x p lo ra to ry w ith the focus upon the a n a ly s is of e x is tin g em p iric a l re se a rc h fin d in g s. The interaction model of buyer behavior was based upon the proposition that the buyer, as he interacts with the seller, acquires a behavioral payoff. Depending upon th*? direction of the valence, the behavioral payoff may increase or decrease the total transactional payoff. For purposes of c l a r i f i c a t i o n s e v e ra l exogenous v a ria b le s were s e t fo r th. The v a ria b le s which were tr e a te d as exogenous are (1) c u l tu r a l ly induced norms and r o le s, ( 2 ) environm ental fo rces such as economic f a c to r s, te c h n o lo g ic a l fo rc e s, and government and le g a l v a r i a b le s, and (3) needs, m otives, and goals of the in t e r a c t a n ts. These v a ria b le s were considered to be exogenous because th e ir e f f e c ts may be m an ifested b e fo re, d u rin g, and a f t e r in te r a c tio n. The endogenous v a r i a b le s were con sid ered to be ones which are unique to on-going b u y e r-s e lle r in te r a c tio n. The m ajor s e ts o f v a ria b le s included in the model are (1) in te r - ix

14 p erso n al p e rc e p tio n, (2) In te rp e rso n a l a t t r a c t i o n, (3) p o te n tia l e f f e c ts o f the b u y e r ' 8 a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r, and (4) In te rp e rso n a l X tech n iq u es. Due to the e x p lo ra to ry n a tu re o f th is study the v a ria b le s were s e le c te d on the b a sis o f the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f e x is tin g e m p irica l re se a rc h. The main a re a s of In te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n which were analyzed include ( 1 ) the b a sic process of p e rc e p tio n, ( 2 ) s e le c te d c o g n itiv e fa c to rs which are d eterm in an ts of im pression form ation, (3) the o rder e f f e c ts of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, (4) the p e rc e p tio n of human p h y sical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, and (5) the a t t r i b u t i o n p ro c e ss. A lthough the a n a ly s is of the in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tu a l v a r ia b le s, to some degree, ex p lain ed the manner by which the buyer p laces a valence upon the presence and behavior o f the s e l l e r, in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n v a ria b le s were a ls o co n sid ere d. The in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n v a ria b le s which were analyzed in the in te r a c tio n model o f buyer behavior w ere, fo r purposes o f a n a ly s is, d iv id ed in to th re e c a te g o rie s in c lu d in g ( 1 ) p e r ceived s im ila r ity of the in t e r a c t a n ts, ( 2 ) congruency o f f e e lin g s, and (3) a t t r i b u t i o n of in t e n ti o n a lit y. A fter fo cu sin g upon the v a ria b le s o f in te rp e rs o n a l p erce p tio n and in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n, the p o te n tia l e f f e c ts on the buyer due to h is a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r were analy zed. Two m ajor c a te g o rie s of p o te n tia l a t t r a c t i o n e f f e c ts on the buyer were con sid ered in c lu d in g ( 1 ) e f f e c ts on the b u y e r's o v e rt b eh av io r, and ( 2 ) e f f e c t s on the b u y e r's c o g n itiv e a c t i v i t i e s. Five in te rp e rs o n a l techniques were d escrib e d as a p a rt of the in te r a c tio n model. The fiv e in te rp e rs o n a l techniques included as a n c i l la ry v a ria b le s are ( 1 ) proxemic com munication, ( 2 ) k in e sic communication,

15 xi (3) t a c t i l e com munication, (4) language, and (5) p a r a lin g u is tic communica tio n. Based upon the relationships set forth in the interaction model forty-one hypotheses were presented as suggestions for further research. In addition, methodologies for selected hypotheses were proposed. The r e s u lt s o f th is study dem onstrated th a t (1) the e x is tin g models o f buyer beh av io r do not ad eq u a tely focus upon the v a ria b le s which are unique to on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n ; ( 2 ) the e m p iric a l fin d in g s in the a re a s o f psychology, s o c ia l psychology, so cio lo g y, and anthropology are s ig n if i c a n t enough, in term s o f q u a n tity and q u a lity, to provide te n ta tiv e su p p o rt fo r the in te r a c tio n model; (3) the i n t e r a c tio n model of buyer b eh a v io r, by is o la tin g and i n t e r r e l a t i n g the v a r i a b le s which are d eterm in a n ts o f the b u y e r's b e h a v io ra l p a y o ff, provides a th e o r e tic a l base from which a number of hypotheses may be d eriv e d for f u r th e r re se a rc h.

16 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY For more than a c en tu ry the econom ists have d e a lt w ith the consumer as being the "economic r a ti o n a l man." However, th e m u ltitu d e of fo rc e s th a t cause consumers to be n o t t o t a l l y r a ti o n a l have become of s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t to m ark eters in the l a s t f i f t e e n y e a rs. In o rd er to gain a b e t t e r u n d erstan d in g of consumer b e h a v io r, m ark eters have had to draw h e a v ily upon re s e a rc h in o th e r d is c ip lin e s such as psychology, so c io lo g y, s o c ia l psychology, p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e, and an th ro p o lo g y. In an attem p t to g ain in s ig h t in to consumer b eh av io r se v e ra l models have been developed. The v a r ia b le s th a t a re em phasized in th ese models d i f f e r from one model to a n o th e r. Some of the models emphasize only one or two m ajor v a r ia b le s such as p e rc e p tio n, le a rn in g, or s o c ia l c la s s. O ther consumer beh av io r models take a mere m icroscopic approach and focus upon m u ltip le s o c ia l in flu e n c e v a r ia b le s and numerous psycholo g ic a l p ro cesses which a re a p a r t of the consum er's d e c isio n p ro c e ss. A m ajor shortcom ing of a l l consumer b eh av io r models is th a t l i t t l e a tte n tio n has been focused upon the b eh av io r of the buyer th a t r e s u lt s s p e c if i c a l ly from the beh av io r of a p erso n al salesm an. The consumer behavior models th a t have been developed thus f a r d eal w ith the v a r ia b le s or in p u ts th a t the buyer c a r r i e s w ith him in to the in te r a c tio n a re n a, b u t they do not d eal w ith s e le c te d fo rc e s p re s e n t d u rin g i n t e r a c tio n. Buyer b eh av io r models th a t c u r r e n tly e x i s t do not c o n c e n tra te

17 2 on buyer b eh av io r a t the tim e of b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. Statem ent o f Purpose and Scope The purpose of th is re se a rc h study is to develop a buyer behavior model th a t focuses upon the s e le c te d v a r ia b le s which in flu e n c e a b u y e r's d e te rm in a tio n of a b e h a v io ra l p ayoff acq u ired through in te r a c tio n w ith the s e l l e r. S p e c ific a lly, th is model d e a ls w ith fa c e -to -fa c e buyer- s e l l e r in te r a c tio n and not w ith the in te r a c tio n of a buyer and a vending machine or s e lf - s e r v ic e r e t a i l e s ta b lis h m e n t. The b a s ic u n d erly in g assum ption of the re se a rc h is th a t the buyer, in te r a c tin g w ith a p e rso n al salesm an, re c e iv e s a tra n s a c tio n a l p ay o ff, a p o rtio n of which being d eriv e d from the beh av io r of the s e l l e r. Based upon th i s assum ption the model d e sc rib e s and e x p la in s the m ajor v a ria b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s which a f f e c t the b u y e r's e v a lu a tio n of the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r. Even though b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n does n o t occur in i s o l a tio n, the model em phasizes th e fo rc e s a t work d u ring on-going in te r a c tio n and d e a ls w ith exogenous v a r ia b le s only in term s of th e i r c o n trib u tio n to the in te r a c tio n. The model is not inten d ed to re p la c e o r d is c r e d i t c u rre n tly e x is tin g buyer beh av io r m odels. I t i s, in s te a d, a model th a t complements or extends o th e r buyer beh av io r m odels. R ath er than a ttem p tin g to exp la in a l l of the fo rces th a t in flu e n c e consumer b eh a v io r, the model conc e n tr a te s s p e c i f i c a l l y upon b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. Thus, the model is a m icroscopic model r a th e r than a com prehensive model of buyer b eh av io r. M ethodology The developm ent of the in te r a c tio n model of buyer behavior is based upon e x p lo ra to ry re s e a rc h. E x p lo ra to ry re s e a rc h, r a th e r than

18 a ttem p tin g to e s ta b lis h p r e d ic tiv e r e l a t i o n s, is u t i l i z e d in try in g to 3 e x p la in "what is."* The purposes of e x p lo ra to ry re se a rc h a re (1) to d isc o v e r s ig n if i c a n t v a r ia b le s, ( 2 ) to d isc o v e r r e la tio n s h ip s among v a ria b le s and (3) to b u ild a framework o r s tr u c tu r e fo r more sy stem a tic 2 and rig o ro u s te s t in g of hypotheses in the f u tu r e. 3 p lo ra to ry re se a rc h Green and T u ll s t a t e : In d e sc rib in g ex- E x p lo rato ry s tu d ie s have as t h e i r m ajor purposes the i d e n t i f i c a tio n of problem s, th e more p re c is e fo rm u latio n of problem s, in c lu d ing the id e n t i f i c a t i o n of re le v a n t v a r ia b le s and th e fo rm u latio n of new a l te r n a tiv e co u rses of a c tio n (fo rm u la tio n of new h y p o th e ses). An e x p lo ra to ry study i s o fte n the f i r s t in a s e r ie s of p ro je c ts which culm inate in one concerned w ith th e drawing of in fe re n c e s which are used as the b a s is o f management a c tio n. In developing the in te r a c tio n model o f buyer b eh a v io r, the i n i t i a l phase of the re se a rc h s e ts f o r th the bou n d aries and assum ptions. The second phase i d e n t i f i e s the m ajor v a r ia b le s which are a t work during ongoing in te r a c tio n between the buyer and th e s e l l e r. The th ir d phase focuses upon e s ta b lis h in g the in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s among the m ajor v a r ia b le s. E m p irical fin d in g s in ex p erim en tal psychology and s o c ia l psychology are used to id e n tif y and su p p o rt the r e la tio n s h ip s in the m odel. From the in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s d eriv ed in th e model, se v e ra l hypotheses are p resen ted fo r t e s t in g in subsequent re s e a rc h. D aniel K atz, " F ie ld S tu d ie s," R esearch Methods in The B ehavorial S cie n c e s, ed. Leon F e stin g e r and D aniel K atz (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, 1953), p Fred N. K e rlin g e r, F oundations of B eh av io ral R esearch (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, 1964), p P aul E. Green and Ronald S. T u ll, Research fo r M arketing D ecisio n s (Englewood C l i f f s, New J e rs e y : P r e n tic e -H a ll, I n c., 1970), p. 73.

19 4 J u s t i f i c a t i o n of the Research C u rre n tly e x is tin g models do n o t ad eq u ately e x p la in buyer beh a v io r. This inadequacy a r is e s n o t because the r e la tio n s h ip s d efin ed in th e se models are in a c c u ra te, but because th ese models do n o t e x p la in c e r ta in a sp e c ts of buyer b eh av io r th a t a r is e from the a c tu a l in te r a c tio n of buyer and s e l l e r on a p e rso n -to -p e rso n b a s is. Consumer behavior models th a t have been s e t fo rth thus f a r have n o t included an a n a ly sis of how the p erso n al salesm an 's beh av io r in flu e n c e s th e b u y e r's e v a lu a tio n of the s e l l e r which in tu rn a f f e c ts the b u y e r's b e h a v io ra l o u tp u t. The m ajor j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r the development of a f a c e -to -fa c e in te r a c tio n model of buyer beh av io r is th a t c u rre n tly e x is tin g buyer beh av io r models do not ad eq u ately d eal w ith in te r a c tio n r e la tio n s h ip s, and y e t such a model could provide m arketers w ith a b e t t e r u n d erstan d in g of buyer b eh av io r in a p e rso n a l s e llin g s i t u a tio n. In d is c u s s in g the c u rre n t s t a t e of development as w ell as the fu tu re v alu e of b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n m odels, E ngel, K o lla t, and B lackw ell s ta te : The custom er-salesm an in te r a c tio n model has emerged only re c e n tly and has not as y e t been e x te n siv e ly re se a rc h e d. C onsequently, a t th i s ju n c tu re, g e n e ra liz a tio n s about m arketing s tr a te g y a re prem ature. However, th e re is reason to b e lie v e th a t I n te r a c tio n models w i l l, in the f u tu re, g en erate u s e fu l in s ig h ts fo r m arketing management p u r p o ses. Indeed, in te r a c tio n models may become the most e x c itin g and u s e fu l approach to consumer beh av io r d u rin g the n ex t decade. This re se a rc h may be j u s t i f i e d on the b a s is th a t a la rg e amount of dyadic in te r a c tio n d ata r e s u ltin g from re se a rc h in psychology and s o c ia l psychology is a v a ila b le but has not been placed in a sy stem a tic framework fo r use by m a rk e te rs. I f persons in the f i e l d o f m arketing ^James F. E ngel, David T. K o lla t, and Roger D. B lack w ell, Consumer Behavior (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, I n c., 1968), p. 468.

20 5 become aware of the b a sic v a r ia b le s and in te r r e la tio n s h ip s a f f e c tin g dyadic in te r a c tio n as ap p lied to consumer b eh a v io r, they may then fin d o th e r a p p lic a tio n s of such concepts in o th e r a rea s of m arketing. A nother j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r the deve]opment of an in te r a c tio n buyer b eh av io r model is th a t such a model may provide a framework and a stim u lu s fo r more e x te n siv e e m p iric a l re se a rc h in an area th a t has been long n e g le c te d by m arketing re s e a rc h e rs. L im ita tio n s of the Research As in d ic a te d e a r l i e r, the focus of th i s study is to p re s e n t a model th a t p e r ta in s to buyer beh av io r th a t occurs d u rin g th e in te r a c tio n of buyer and s e l l e r in a p e rso n a l s e llin g s i t u a tio n. To the e x te n t p o s s ib le, the re se a rc h is lim ite d to m ajor v a r ia b le s th a t in flu e n c e the b u y e r's d e te rm in a tio n of a b e h a v io ra l payoff acq u ired through i n t e r a c tio n w ith the s e l l e r. A number of v a r ia b le s th a t are m ajor components of c u r r e n tly e x is tin g models a re con sid ered to be exogenous v a ria b le s in the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r. Thus, th e scope o f th e model i s, to some e x te n t, a lim ita tio n of th e re s e a rc h. The r e la tio n s h ip s p re se n te d in the model a re analyzed by examining the r e s u l t s of experim ents in psychology and s o c ia l psychology. Many of th e se experim ents have been conducted in la b o ra to ry environm ents r a th e r than in r e a l l i f e s itu a tio n s such as s a le s tra n s a c tio n s. In o rd er to u t i l i z e the r e s u lt s of la b o ra to ry ex p erim en ts, one must accep t the assum ption th a t, even though th e re may be b e h a v io ra l v a r ia tio n s between a la b o ra to ry s itu a tio n and a r e a l l i f e s i t u a tio n, the experim ental r e s u l t s tend to support c e r t a in b e h a v io ra l r e la tio n s h ip s. Since the evidence p e rta in in g to the r e la tio n s h ip s in the model

21 6 d e riv e s g e n e ra lly from ex p erim ental re se a rc h in psychology and s o c ia l psychology, the degree to which the r e la tio n s h ip s are supported v a rie s among the r e la tio n s h ip s fo r two re a so n s. F i r s t, th e re is a v a r ia tio n in the amount of exp erim en tal work aimed a t proving or d isp ro v in g c e r ta in r e la tio n s h ip s. Second, the amount of c o n f lic tin g ex p erim ental r e s u lt s v a r ie s among r e la tio n s h ip s. In developing and c o n s tru c tin g a model such f a c to r s as the s e le c tio n of m ajor v a r ia b le s, the developm ent of in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s among th e se v a r ia b le s, and the in t e r p r e ta tio n of a v a ila b le e m p iric a l fin d in g s a re, to a la rg e d eg ree, a fu n c tio n of the a v a i l a b i l i t y of e m p irica l re s e a rc h. D e fin itio n of Terms To make the a n a ly s is more p r e c is e, i t is n e ce ssary to c l a r i f y the manner in which s e v e ra l words and p h rases are u sed. Thus, a b r i e f e x p la n a tio n of s e v e ra l term s is s e t f o r th. Consumer B ehavior and Buyer Behavior In our s o c ie ty the buyer and th e consumer may o r may n o t be the same p erso n. In d iv id u a ls a c t as p u rch asin g ag en ts fo r both them selves and fo r o th e r consumers in th e a g e n t's s o c ia l system such as fam ily, c lu b, or o rg a n iz a tio n. Even though buyer b eh av io r may be viewed as being a su b se t o f consumer b eh av io r, the terma consumer b eh av io r, buyer b e h a v io r, and p u rch aser beh av io r are used synonymously and b ro ad ly d efin e d as an in d iv id u a l's o v e rt beh av io r a n d /o r d e c is io n making a c t i v i t y expended in a c q u irin g and u sin g goods and s e rv ic e s.

22 7 T ra n sa c tio n A tra n s a c tio n is th e n e g o tia tio n a n d /o r the exchange of goods, s e r v ic e s, an d /o r money. For purposes o f t h i s re s e a rc h, the tr a n s a c tio n occurs between two persons r a th e r than between a perso n and a non-person such as a vending m achine. Human I n te r a c tio n Human in t e r a c t io n a r is e s when a t le a s t two persons are in each o t h e r 's presen ce e i th e r s p a t i a l l y o r s o c ia lly and a t l e a s t one of the in t e r a c t a n ts is aware of the o t h e r 's p re se n c e. When the term in te r a c tio n appears in the a n a ly s is, u n le ss o th erw ise s ta t e d, th i s d e f in i ti o n of human in te r a c tio n is in ten d ed. B eh av io ral P ayoff In a b u y e r - s e lle r tr a n s a c tio n behavior is exchanged re g a rd le s s of w hether or n o t goods, s e r v ic e s, a n d /o r money a re exchanged. The v a lu e which an in d iv id u a l p la c e s upon the b eh av io r of the o th e r ( r e l a tiv e to the v alu e he p la c e s on the beh av io r he sends to th e o th e r) is o n e 's b e h a v io ra l p a y o ff. A b e h a v io ra l payoff may be e i t h e r p o s itiv e or n e g a tiv e fo r an in d iv id u a l. Preview of th e P re s e n ta tio n % C hapter I I c o n s is ts of an a n a ly s is of the l i t e r a t u r e th a t p e rta in s to consumer b eh av io r models and b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n s tu d ie s. S pecif i c a l l y, th e survey of th e l i t e r a t u r e o u tlin e s and summarizes s e v e ra l of the m ajor consumer behavior models th a t are s tr u c tu re d upon b e h a v io ra l co n ce p ts. S et fo r th in the review of each model are the m ajor v a ria b le s and the p r in c ip a l r e la tio n s h ip s among th e se v a r ia b le s. In a d d itio n,

23 8 s e v e ra l re se a rc h e f f o r t s which d eal w ith custom er-salesm an in te r a c tio n are d isc u sse d. C ontained in C hapter I I I is a d is c u s s io n o f the b a sic assum ption th a t a b u y e r's e v a lu a tio n o f a p erso n al salesm an 's b eh av io r becomes a component of the b u y e r's t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p a y o ff. In a d d itio n, the m ajor components of the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r are p re s e n te d. The v a r ia b le s and th e i r r e la tio n s h ip s are analyzed in C hapters IV, V, and VI. In C hapter IV the d eterm in an ts of in te rp e rs o n a l p erce p tio n are analyzed in term s o f the e m p iric a l fin d in g s o f re s e a rc h e rs in ex p erim en tal psychology and s o c ia l psychology. The a n a ly s is of C hapter V focuses on th e fo rc e s which in flu e n c e th e b u y e r's assignm ent of a valen ce to h is im pression o f th e s e l l e r. C hapter VI d eals w ith the p o te n tia l e f f e c t s of the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r and b r i e f d e s c rip tio n s of the in te rp e rs o n a l tech n iq u es which the buyer and s e l l e r use to send in fo rm atio n in p u ts to each o th e r. C hapter V II, the f in a l c h a p te r, c o n s is ts o f a summary of the in te r a c tio n m odel, a s e t of p o te n tia l hypotheses fo r f u r th e r re s e a rc h, s e v e ra l proposed m ethodologies fo r s e le c te d h y p o th e ses, and co n c lu sio n s.

24 CHAPTER II SELECTED MODELS OF BUYER BEHAVIOR AND EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF BUYER-SELLER INTERACTION: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A w ealth of l i t e r a t u r e e x is ts in the f i e l d of consumer beh av io r and, as a r e s u l t of in c re a se d i n t e r e s t in the lc.st few y e a rs, th is l i t e r a t u r e base is expanding r a p id ly.* The purpose of t h i s l i t e r a t u r e review is f o u r-fo ld in c lu d in g ( 1 ) to i l l u s t r a t e th e c u rre n t s t a t e of developm ent of consumer b e h a v io r m odels, ( 2 ) to show th a t e x is tin g models o f buyer b eh av io r do n o t focus upon the fo rc e s unique to on-going, face - to -fa c e b u y e r - s e lle r in t e r a c t io n, (3) to dem onstrate in what way a m icroscopic in te r a c tio n model of buyer beh av io r may be in te rfa c e d w ith each o f s e v e ra l e x is tin g m odels, and (4) to summarize se v e ra l re se a rc h s tu d ie s th a t d eal s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. In o rder to p la ce boundaries upon the l i t e r a t u r e to be review ed, the re s e a rc h e r has s e le c te d l i t e r a t u r e in term s of the fo u r components o f the purpose s e t fo rth above. Thus, the l i t e r a t u r e review ed in th is c h ap ter d eals For s e v e ra l com prehensive review s of the l i t e r a t u r e p e rta in in g to consumer b eh av io r see: S te u a rt Henderson B r i t t, Consumer Behavior in Theory and in A ction (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1970): S te u a rt Henderson B r i t t, Consumer B ehavior and the B ehavioral S c ie n ces- T heories and A p p lic a tio n s (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1966); James F. E ngel, David T. K o lla t, and Roger D. B lackw ell, Consumer Behavior (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, I n c., 1968); James F. E ngel, David T. K o lla t, and Roger D. B lackw ell, Research in Consumer B ehavior (H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, I n c., 1970); Francesco M. N ic o sia, Consumer D ecision P ro cesses (Englewood C l i f f s, New J e rs e y : P re n tic e -H a ll, I n c., 1966), C hapters 2, 3, and 4. H arold H. K a s s a rjia n and Thomas S. R obertson, P e rsp e c tiv e s in Consumer B ehavior (Glenview, I l l i n o i s : S c o tt, Foresman and Company, 1968). 9

25 s p e c if i c a l ly w ith buyer beh av io r models and em p iric a l re se a rc h p e r ta in 10 ing to on-going b u y e r - s e lle r I n te r a c tio n s. The models review ed in th is c h a p te r arc not intended to re p re s e n t an ex h au stiv e enum eration of buyer behavior m odels. The models o u tlin e d in th is c h a p te r have been s e le c te d based upon the o b je c tiv e of i l l u s t r a t i n g the types of v a ria b le s and r e l a tio n s h ip s c u rre n tly included in b e h a v io ra l models o f consumer a c tio n. The models of consumer beh av io r which are summarized in th is c h ap ter are c l a s s i f i e d in to two m ajor c a te g o r ie s m icroscopic models and com prehensive m odels. M icroscopic models are those th a t have been developed to e x p la in ( 1 ) only a lim ite d number of v a ria b le s which e x e rt fo rc e s upon buyer d e c isio n making a n d /o r ( 2 ) th e p ro cess of buyer b eh av io r fo r a ra th e r s p e c if ic tr a n s a c tio n a l s it u a t i o n. Comprehensive models of buyer b eh av io r are n o t lim ite d to a sm all number of v a ria b le s but in s te a d are models th a t in clu d e a la rg e number of both in tr a in d iv id u a l fa c to r s and s o c ia l in flu e n c e v a r ia b le s. M icroscopic Models of Buyer Behavior F ive m icroscopic buyer beh av io r models are summarized in c lu d in g (1) the K ornhauser and L a z a rsfe ld model, (2) K o tle r 's buyer behavior m odels, (3) the buyer b eh av io r model by Howard and S heth, (4) the Berry and Kunkel b e h a v io ra l model of man, and (5) the Andreasen model of a t t i t u d e s and custom er b e h a v io r. These models are p re sen te d to i l l u s t r a t e the types of v a r ia b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s included in c u rre n tly e x is tin g m icroscopic models and to in d ic a te th a t th e se models do not d e a l w ith the s p e c if ic v a r ia b le s a t work durin g on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n.

26 11 The K ornhauser and L a z a rsfe ld A n aly sis of Consumer A ctions One of the e a r l i e s t consumer b eh av io r models to appear is the K o rn h au ser-l azarsfeld model which was s e t fo rth in Tfcese authors p re se n te d th i s model w ith the in te n tio n of b rin g in g to m arket research a more sy stem a tic view of the manner in which an in d iv id u a l's market b eh av io r is m otivated and how the consumer d e c isio n p ro cess o p e ra te s. The K o rn h au ser-l azarsfeld model is based on a s tr u c tu r e c o n s is t ing of two m ajor elem en ts. F i r s t, human a c tio n is a fu n c tio n of the t o t a l make-up of an in d iv id u a l a t a p a r t i c u l a r p o in t in tim e. Second, o n e 's behavior is a d e riv a tiv e of s i tu a tio n a l f a c to r s. D epicted in F ig u res 2-1 and 2-2 are the two p r in c ip a l components from which human a c tio n a r is e s. In d is c u s s in g F igure 2-1, the a u th o rs d e fin e m otives as conscious or unconscious p ro cesses th a t move people toward g o a ls. A lso they p o in t out th a t s p e c if ic a t t i t u d e s are d eterm in an ts of a b u y e r's b eh av io r. The "mechanisms" mentioned by th e au th o rs a re sensory and memory c a p a b ilit i e s which a f f e c t o n e 's a c tio n. The K o rn h au ser-l azarsfeld model p la c e s as much im portance on the s itu a tio n a l or e x te rn a l fa c to rs as i t does on the in te r n a l elem ents. The s itu a tio n a l fa c to r s are p erceiv ed to be cen tered in the a t tr ib u t e s of the product w ith o th e r in te r n a l fo rc e s a r is in g from s e llin g methods, a d v e rtis in g, and p e rso n al acq u a in ta n ces. K ornhauser and L a z a rsfe ld d eal n o t only w ith in tr a in d iv id u a l and 2 A rthur K ornhauser and Paul L a z a rs fe ld, "The A n aly sis of Consumer A c tio n s," M arketing M odels: B ehavioral Science A p p lic a tio n s, ed. by Ralph L. Day and Thomas E. Ness (S cran to n, P en n sy lv an ia: In te r n a tio n a l Textbook Company, 1971), pp

27 12 The In d iv id u a l: M otives Mechanisms The A ction The S itu a tio n : The P roduct S ales In flu e n c e s O ther In flu e n c e s F ig u re 2-1 The A ction Scheme in the K o rn h au ser-l azarsfeld Model S ource: A rth u r K ornhauser and Paul F. L a z a rs fe ld, "The A n aly sis of Consumer A c tio n s," M arketing M odels: B eh av io ral Science A p p licat i o n s. ed. Ralph L. Day and Thomas E. Ness (S cran to n, P ennsylvania: I n te r n a tio n a l Textbook Company, 1971), p. 495.

28 A ttitu d e of Readiness to Purchase A dvertisem ent Purchase Friend Influence Precipitating Purchase Leisure Time Line Figure 2-2 The P urchasing Process in the K ornhauser-l azarsfeld Model Source: A rthur Kornhauser and Paul F. L a z a rsfe ld, "The A nalysis of Consumer A c tio n s," M arketing M odels: B ehavioral Science A p p lic a tio n s, ed. Ralph L. Day and Thomas E. Ness (S cranton, P ennsylvania: In te rn a tio n a l Textbook Company, 1971), p. 499.

29 14 s itu a tio n a l f a c to r s, b u t they a ls o analyze th e e f f e c t s of time upon consumer a c tio n. The a u th o rs b e lie v e th a t o n e 's p re s e n t a c tio n can be b e t te r u nderstood i f p rev io u s b eh av io r is known. Buyer a c tio n is a fu n c tio n of a s e r ie s of ev en ts along a " tim e -lin e " as shown in F igure 2-2. N otice th a t in d iv id u a l 1^ in s i t u a t i o n is a d if f e r e n t person in s itu a tio n s S2 and S3. Each s i t u a t i o n causes the consumer to make a response such as A j, A, A3 to the given s i t u a tio n. The resp o n se, such as A^ is p erce iv ed to be determ ined by both 1 3 and Sj_. The in d iv id u a l 1 2 is a changed perso n from 1^. Over a p erio d of time i f the s itu a tio n a l and in tr a in d iv id u a l f a c to r s are in the r ig h t com bination, a purchase w ill o ccur. The Kornhauser-Lazarsfeld model, developed over thirty-five years ago, is a forerunner of several models which have been presented in the last ten years. Many of the components such as motives, sensory mechanisms, the situation, social influence, and the effects of time that are found in the Kornhauser-Lazarsfeld model, are also major variables in present-day models. Kornhauser and Lazarsfeld present a very general analysis of their model and do not go into detail. In discussing the situation they suggest that sales influences interact with the intraindividual factors, but they do not consider in any detail the variables that are active during on-going buyer-seller interaction.

30 3 R o ll e r 's Buyer B ehavior Models 15 P h ilip K o tle r, r a th e r than try in g to b u ild a s in g le com prehensive model of buyer b e h a v io r, has suggested th a t buyer b eh a v io r, due to the c u rre n t s t a t e of the a r t, may be b e t t e r understood through a s e r ie s of se v e ra l p a r t i a l m odels. K o tle r b e lie v e s th a t a consum er's behavior is la rg e ly determ ined by the s t a t e of the "p sy c h e." Because the s t a t e of the psyche v a r i e s, K o tle r in d ic a te s th a t one of fiv e p a r t i a l models p e rta in in g to th e "psyche" may be b e n e f ic ia l in d e s c rib in g buyer b eh av io r. A g e n era l framework in to which K o tle r f i t s fiv e p a r t i a l models is shown in F igure 2-3. On the l e f t is a s e t of in p u t f a c to r s and chann e ls of in flu e n c e. The o u tp u ts are in term s of p u rch asin g resp o n ses. In the m iddle is the b u y e r's psyche or "b lack b o x." The "black box" is the area in which the consum er's problem so lv in g p ro cesses occur and is the component in to which K o tle r b e lie v e s can be placed fiv e p a r t i a l models fo r e x p la in in g buyer b e h a v io r. These p a r t i a l models are (1) the M a rsh a llia n m odel, (2) th e P av lo v ian model, (3) the F reudian model, (4) th e V eblenian model, and (5) th e Hobbesian model. The M a rsh a llia n economic model is based upon th e prem ise th a t buying d e c isio n s are th e r e s u l t o f r a ti o n a l and conscious economic c a l c u la tio n s. M arshall used th e "m easuring rod of money" to determ ine the m agnitude of p sy c h o lo g ic a l d e s ir e s. Under th e M a rsh a llia n economic model the buyer through a r a th e r d e lib e r a tiv e p ro cess attem p ts to maximize s a t i s f a c t i o n p er d o lla r s w orth of e x p e n d itu re s. K o tle r p o in ts out th a t th is p a r t i a l model can be c r i t i c i z e d 3 Summarized from P h ilip K o tle r, "B ehavioral Models fo r A nalyzing Consum ers," Jo u rn a l of M ark etin g. XXIX (O ctober, 1965),

31 (Buying Influences) Processor Outputs (Purchasing responses) Price A dvertising Bedis Product choice Salesmen Brand choice Service Acquaintances Buyer's psyche Dealer choice Q u an tities Personal observation frequency Figure 2-3 The Buying Process Conceived as a System of In p u ts and Outputs in the K o tle r Model. Source: P h ilip K o tle r, "B ehavioral Models fo r A nalyzing Consumers," Jo u rn al of M arketing, XXIX (O ctober, 1965), 38.

32 17 because i t Is norm ative r a th e r th an d e s c r ip tiv e. In a d d itio n the model does n o t d eal w ith th e f a c to rs th a t e x p la in the form ation of pro d u cts and brand p re fe re n c e s. On the o th e r hand, K o tle r In d ic a te s th a t economic beh av io r cannot be overlooked in b u ild in g a com prehensive model of consumer b eh a v io r. The P avlovian le a rn in g model is founded upon fo u r p r in c ip a l conc ep ts in c lu d in g d riv e, cue, resp o n se, and rein fo rc em en t. The d riv e, which i s an in te r n a l fo rce th a t im pels a c tio n, is stim u la te d in to a c tio n by a cue. A b u y e r's response is a fu n c tio n of the s e t of cues in the b u y e r's environm ent. I f th e b u y e r's response is rew arding, r e in f o r c e ment occurs and thus stre n g th e n s the tendency fo r the buyer to respond in a s im ila r manner when co n fro n ted w ith a s im ila r s e t of cu es. When the response is no longer re in fo rc e d, the buyer may change resp o n ses. The F reu d ian p sy c h o a n a ly tic model is b u i l t on the prem ise th a t the human being t r i e s to s a t i s f y h is needs through r a th e r b la te n t means and, due to f r u s t r a t i o n, becomes more dependent upon more m oderate methods fo r need s a t i s f a c t i o n. An in d iv id u a l's psyche, according to Freud, is d iv id ed in to th re e components. The id is the r e s e r v o ir of stro n g d r iv e s, and the ego is a mechanism th a t seeks o u tle ts fo r th ese d riv e s. A th i r d p a r t of the psyche is the super-ego which transform s i n s ti n c ti v e u rg es in to s o c ia lly approved b e h a v io r. Thus, F re u d 's model d e sc rib e s b eh av io r as being p a r t i a l l y determ ined by fo rc e s o p e ra tin g a t a v ery deep le v e l of o n e 's psyche. A ccording to the V eblenian s o c ill-p s y c h o lo g ic a l model the consumer i s p e rce iv ed to be a s o c ia l anim al. O ne's buying behavior is n o t so much a fu n c tio n of in t e r n a l psycho-dynamic p ro cesses b u t is in ste a d a d e riv a tiv e of s o c ia l f a c to r s such as s o c ia l c la s s, s u b c u ltu re, fa c e -to - f a c e

33 18 groups, and re fe re n c e groups. In u sin g th is p a r t i a l model in a m arketing c o n tex t the m arketing manager needs to determ ine which le v e l of s o c ia l in flu e n c e has g r e a te s t a f f e c t upon h is p o te n tia l cu sto m er's b e havior toward the p ro d u ct. The Hobbesian model p e r ta in s to the buying beh av io r of o rg a n iz a tio n a l buyers r a th e r than th a t of in d iv id u a l b u y ers. Thomas Hobbes b eliev ed th a t a person is h ig h ly o rie n te d toward s e l f - i n t e r e s t. But in o rd er to p re serv e o n e 's w e ll-b e in g, Hobbes in d ic a te d th a t man has to jo in fo rc e s w ith o th e r people so th a t he has the power to achieve h is own p erso n al g o a ls. In applying Hobbes' id eas to o rg a n iz a tio n a l purchasing b eh a v io r, K o tle r p o in ts out th a t the b u y e r's b eh av io r is a fu n c tio n of both h is p erso n al goals and the g o als of the o rg a n iz a tio n. A lthough K o tle r does not p re s e n t any new o r unique concepts of a consum er's p sy ch o lo g ical p ro cesses th a t have n o t been used in o th e r m odels, h is method of u sin g p a r t i a l models to e x p la in d if f e r i n g p ro cesses of the consumer psyche is a c o n trib u tio n to the a n a ly s is o f consumer b eh av io r. K o tle r 's m ajor o b je c tiv e in p re s e n tin g th is type of scheme is to dem onstrate how the use of one out of fiv e p o s sib le p a r t i a l m odels, which (depending upon the s p e c if ic s itu a tio n ) p e r ta in to the b u y e r's psyche, may be more a c c u ra te than the use of a s in g le model of man. As shown in F igure 2-3, the in p u ts, channels w ith one channel being salesm en, and the o u tp u ts a re viewed as g iv en. attem p t to e x p la in buyer-salesm an in te r a c tio n. The re s e a rc h e r does not The pro cess and e f f e c ts of dyadic b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n could b e s t be in te rfa c e d in to an expanded e x p la n a tio n of the V eblenian s o c ia l-p sy c h o lo g ic a l model.

34 19 4 Buyer Behavior Model by Howard and Sheth The Howard-Sheth th eo ry of buyer b eh av io r focuses upon brand ch o ice, b u t because r e la te d a c t i v i t i e s a re in c lu d ed, the term buyer beh a v io r is used. The au th o rs b e lie v e th a t a t a v ery g e n era l le v e l th e ir re se a rc h d e a ls w ith both in d u s tr i a l buying and consumer buying. At the o u ts e t the au th o rs attem p t to e x p la in th e p ro cess by which a buyer c re a te s h a b itu a l p re fe re n c e s fo r b ra n d s. In a d d itio n, the th eo ry focuses upon how p sy c h o lo g ical d is e q u ilib riu m causes the buyer to search fo r new a l te r n a t iv e s. Two g en era l a rea s w ith which th e th eo ry d eals are (1) the f a c to r s th a t make up th e b u y e r's given p sy c h o lo g ical s t a t e and ( 2 ) the p ro cesses which a l t e r th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e and thus change the b u y e r's b eh av io r. In F ig u re 2-4 is shown a com prehensive flow c h a rt which co n tain s the m ajor s e ts of v a ria b le s and the g en era l r e la tio n s h ip s among th ese v a r ia b le s. The i n t e r n a l - s t a t e v a r ia b le s and p ro cesses th a t in d ic a te the p sy c h o lo g ical s t a t e of the consumer d e c isio n maker are s e t f o rth in the c e n tr a l r e c ta n g le. Howard and Sheth c a l l th e se v a r ia b le s h y p o th e tic a l c o n s tr u c ts. The h y p o th e tic a l c o n s tru c ts are d iv id ed in to two c la s s e s. One c la s s of th e se c o n s tru c ts is the p e rc e p tu a l c o n s tr u c ts. P e rc e p tu a l v a r ia b le s a c t to p ro cess in fo rm a tio n. The p e rc e p tu a l p ro cess may r e s u lt in ig n o rin g c e r ta in components of an e v e n t, se e in g th e event a t te n ti v e ly, or c re a tin g what is n o t a p a r t o f r e a l i t y. The p e rc e p tu a l c o n s tru c ts include ^ O u tlin e d from John A. Howard and Ja g d ish Sheth, The Theory of Buyer B ehavior (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1969), pp ^John A. Howard and Jag d ish Sheth, The Theory of Buyer B ehavior. (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1969) pp

35 Inputs Perceptual constructs Learning constructs O utputs Stim ulus Display Significative a. Quality b. Price c. Distmctiveness d. Service e. Availability Symbolic a. Quality b. Price c. Distinctiveness d. Service e. Availability Overt Search Stimulus Ambiguity Confidence T A ttitude Intention Z Purchase J 1 I Intention1 J I I I I I A ttitude' LP-Sl Brand Comprehension' Social a. Family b. Reference groups c. Social Class Motives Choice Criteria Brand Comprehension T J. A ttention' J A ttention Perceptual Bias Satisfaction Solid lines indicate flow of information; dashed lines, feedback effects. F igure 2-4 The Comprehensive Flow C hart of the Howard-Sheth Model Source: John A. Howard and Jagdish Sheth, The Theory of Buyer Behavior (New York: John Wiley and Sons, I n c., 1969), p. 30.

36 1. A tte n tio n r e f e r s to the opening and c lo sin g of sensory re c e p to rs th a t c o n tro l th e In ta k e of in fo rm a tio n. I t sugg e sts th e e x te n t to which the buyer is s e n s itiv e to in f o r m ation. 2. Stim ulus Ambiguity r e f e r s to the p erceiv ed u n c e rta in ty and lack of m eaningful in fo rm atio n re c e iv e d from the e n v iro n ment. I t a f f e c t s a t te n ti o n and O vert Search c o n s tru c ts. 3. P e rc e p tu a l B ias is the degree to which the buyer co n scio u s ly or u n co n scio u sly d i s t o r t s th e meaning o f the in fo rm atio n r e c e iv e d. 4. O vert Search r e f e r s to a c tio n o f th e buyer when he a c tiv e ly seeks in fo rm atio n r a th e r than p a s s iv e ly re c e iv e s in fo rm atio n. The second c la s s of h y p o th e tic a l c o n s tru c ts is the le a rn in g c o n s tru c ts. These f a c to r s p lay an im portant r o le in concept form ation. L earning c o n s tru c ts in clu d ed in the Howard Sheth model a re :^ 1. M otives are the goals of the buyer im pinging upon a buying s i t u a t i o n. The sources of m otives a re b io g en ic or psychogenic n eed s, w ants, o r d e s ire s o f the buyer th a t are r e la te d to buying and consuming a p ro d u ct c l a s s. 2. Brand Comprehension r e f e r s to knowledge about the e x iste n c e and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th o se brands th a t form th e b u y e r's evoked s e t of a l t e r n a t i v e s. 3. Choice C r it e r ia fu n c tio n to o rg an ize and s tr u c tu r e the b u y e r's m otives so th a t m otives which are re le v a n t to th is p roduct c la s s a re o rd ered in term s of r e l a t i v e im portance to him. 4. A ttitu d e r e f e r s to the b u y e r's r e l a t i v e p re fe re n c e s of brands in h is evoked s e t based on h is e v a lu a tio n b e l ie f s about those brands as g o al o b je c ts. 5. I n te n tio n is the b u y e r's f o re c a s t as to when, w here, and how he is l i k e l y to buy a b rand. 6. C onfidence r e f e r s to the degree of c e r ta in ty th e buyer p e r c eiv es toward a brand. 7. S a ti s f a c tio n is the congruence betw een the a c tu a l consequence from purchase and consum ption o f a brand and what was expected from i t by the buyer a t th e tim e of p u rch ase. 21 ^ I b id., pp

37 A nother m ajor c a teg o ry o f v a ria b le s is d e fin e d by Howard and Sheth as being in te rv e n in g c o n s tru c ts. This ca te g o ry o f v a ria b le s in 22 cludes both in p u t and o u tp u t v a r ia b le s. The in p u t v a ria b le s are s p e c if ic environm ental s tim u li from the b u y e r's environm ent. More p re c is e ly th ese v a ria b le s are in fo rm atio n in p u ts th a t d eriv e from commercial sources such as the brand i t s e l f or a sym bolic r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f the brand. A nother source of in fo rm atio n a r is e s from th e b u y e r's s o c ia l environm ent. Behavior e x h ib ite d by the buyer is the outcome of th e d e c isio n p ro cess and is re f e r r e d to as an o u tp u t v a r ia b le. Howard and Sheth d eal w ith fiv e o u tp u t v a ria b le s in c lu d in g ( 1 ) a t t e n t i o n, ( 2 ) brand comprehensio n, (3) a t t i t u d e, (4) in te n tio n, and (5) p u rch ase. Most o f these v a ria b le s a re the same as the h y p o th e tic a l c o n s tru c ts w ith the ex cep tio n th a t the h y p o th e tic a l c o n s tru c ts a re more in c lu s iv e in meaning and p lay a more im portant ro le in th e t o t a l model. A th ir d m ajor categ o ry of v a ria b le s which a re d e a lt w ith in th is model is exogenous v a r ia b le s. A lthough most o f th e se v a ria b le s a re not shown in F ig u re 2-4, the a u th o rs s e t fo r th s e v e ra l exogenous v a ria b le s in o rder to d e lim it the area o f d is c o u rs e. V a ria b le s p erceiv ed to be exogenous by Howard and Sheth a re (1) im portance o f purch ase, (2) p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s, (3) time p re s s u re, (4) f in a n c ia l s t a t u s, (5) s o c ia l and o rg a n iz a tio n a l s e t t i n g, ( 6 ) s o c ia l c l a s s, and (7) c u ltu r e. Even though the a u th o rs d e a l w ith th ese v a ria b le s w ith g re a t expediency, they do attem p t to d e fin e each one, in d ic a te the e f f e c t o f each on the endogenous v a r ia b le s, and s e t fo r th a sm all amount o f a v a ila b le em p iric a l evid en ce. The c e n tr a l c o n s tru c t o f th e Howard-Sheth th e o ry o f buyer behavior

38 23 is a t t i t u d e.^ Buyer problem so lv in g is d iv id ed in to th re e se p a ra te c a te g o rie s depending upon the in t e n s ity of th e b u y e r's a t t i t u d e toward brands. When o n e 's a t t i t u d e toward brands o f a p roduct c la s s a re low o r alm ost n e g lig ib le, " e x te n siv e problem so lv in g " on the p a r t of the buyer is n e ce ssary. I f a b u y e r's a t t i t u d e toward brands is m oderate, w ith some brand am biguity s t i l l e x i s t in g, then the a u th o rs c l a s s i f y the b u y e r's d e c isio n p rocess as " lim ite d problem s o lv in g." A buyer who has no brand am biguity ( i. e. he has a high le v e l o f a t t i t u d e toward brands in h is evoked s e t) w ill e x h ib it " ro u tin iz e d response beh av io r" as a method o f d e c isio n making. In review ing the Howard-Sheth th eo ry o f buyer behavior one may r e a liz e th a t even though the a u th o rs imply th a t the model has im p lic a tio n s fo r buyer b eh av io r beyond brand c h o ic e, the a n a ly s is of the d e c isio n is lim ite d to brand choice and only brand choice o f products fo r which brand lo y a lty tends to e x i s t. The Howard-Sheth model in c o rp o ra te s the major th r u s t o f the buyer b ehavior model developed e a r l i e r by John Howard. g However, in the e a r l i e r model Howard g e n e ra lly focused only upon d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g between th re e c a te g o rie s o f consumer d e c isio n making in c lu d in g ( 1 ) e x te n siv e problem so lv in g, (2) lim ite d problem so lv in g, and (3) autom atic response b eh av io r. In com paring the e a r l i e r model w ith the Howard-Sheth model one fin d s th a t the e a r l i e r model is v ery much dependent upon le a rn in g theory w hile the more re c e n t model focuses upon a la rg e r number o f in tr a in d i v id u a l p ro c e sse s. A more d e ta ile d a n a ly s is o f both in p u ts and o u tp u ts is ^ I b i d., pp g See C hapters 3 and 4 o f John A. Howard, M arketing Management; A naly s is and P lan n in g (Homewood, I l l i n o i s : R ichard D. Irw in, I n c., 1963), pp

39 24 s e t f o rth in the Howard-Sheth model than in the e a r l i e r Howard model. Most o f the exogenous v a ria b le s such as im portance o f p urchase, ease o f p o s t-d e c isio n e v a lu a tio n, amount o f time p re s s u re, f in a n c ia l s ta t u s, s o c ia l c la s s, and c u ltu re th a t were s e t fo r th in the Howard model are a ls o exogenous v a ria b le s in the l a t e r model. An o u tlin e o f both the Howard and Howard-Sheth models re v e a ls th a t a s ig n if i c a n t number o f v a ria b le s a re c l a s s i f i e d as being exogenous.. Even though the re s e a rc h e rs do not even m ention the case in which the s e l l e r is a p erso n, (and y e t they b e lie v e th a t th e i r model is a p p lic a b le to in d u s tr i a l buying) such b e h a v io ra l in flu e n c e o f the p erso n al salesm an on the buyer would f a l l in to a c la s s o f v a ria b le s c a lle d s o c ia l and o rg a n iz a tio n a l s e t t i n g. Howard and Sheth view t h i s categ o ry as being exogenous. A lthough the "stim u lu s d is p la y " (see F ig u re 2-4) o f the c u rre n t Howard-Sheth model is extrem ely lim ite d to g e n e ra lly a t t r i b u t e s of the p ro d u ct, the model could be expanded, beginning w ith the stim u lu s d i s p la y, to in clu d e th e e f f e c t s o f the salesm an 's beh av io r upon the buyer. 9 The Berry and Kunkel B eh av io ral Model o f Man Berry and Kunkel c r i t i c i z e consumer th eo ry along th re e d if f e r e n t dim ensions. F i r s t, the models o f man employed by most consumer a n a ly s ts a re psycho-dynamic in s tr u c t u r e, cau sin g the th e o r i s ts to have to make p re d ic tio n s, re g a rd in g the in te r n a l s t a t e o f the consumer, w ith te c h niques which a re c u r r e n tly inadequate to perform such ta s k s. Second, because the developm ent o f consumer th eo ry has been based upon se v e ra l 9 Summarized from Leonard L. Berry and John H. Kunkel, "In P u rs u it o f Consumer T heory," D ecisio n S c ie n c e s. T -(Ja n u a ry -A p ril, 1970),

40 25 b eh av io ral d is c i p lin e s, in te r d is c ip l in a r y b a r r i e r s, which a r is e from d iffe re n c e s in vocabulary and exp erim en tal m ethods, have caused a g re a t d e a l of confusion as to the e x p la n a tio n and p re d ic tio n of b eh av io r. T h ird, c u l tu r a l e f f e c t s on behavior have been co n sid ered in terms of g en eral in flu e n c e b u t the more s p e c if ic s u b c u ltu ra l e f f e c ts have been n eg lected in the developm ent o f consumer th e o ry. In o rd er to overcome th ese problem s which surround consumer th e o ry, Berry and Kunkel have proposed a b e h a v io ra l model o f man. The s t r u c t u r a l framework o f th e ir model is d e p ic te d in F ig u re 2-5. The Berry and Kunkel model, based upon th e ir b e l ie f th a t le a rn in g theory has a stro n g e m p iric a l fo u n d atio n, views m an's behavior as g e n e ra l ly being a fu n c tio n o f le a rn in g. As is shown in F ig u re 2-5 behavior i s follow ed by c o n tin g e n t s tim u li which a re e i th e r punishing or rew ardin g. The e x te n t to which the c o n tin g e n t s tim u li a re p erceiv ed by the a c to r to be rew arding or pu n ish in g is p a r t i a l l y determ ined by an in d iv id u a l 's s ta te v a ria b le s as w e ll as by s o c ie t a l and s u b c u ltu ra l norms. An in d iv id u a l's s t a t e v a ria b le s r e f e r to the consum er's p re se n t s t a t e o f s a ti a ti o n or d e p riv a tio n r e l a t i v e to a p a r ti c u la r b eh av io r. B erry and Kunkel p o in t out th a t, even though the consumer ex p erien ces prim ary or p h y sio lo g ic a l d e p riv a tio n s, most d e p riv a tio n s a re determ ined by s o c ie ta l and s u b c u ltu ra l norms. They in d ic a te th a t the le v e l of o n e 's s a t i a t i o n o r d e p riv a tio n is determ ined by the r e l a t i v e d iffe re n c e b e tween o n e 's own c o n d itio n s and the c o n d itio n s which are a p p ro p ria te in terms of c u l tu r a l and s u b c u ltu ra l norms and v a lu e s. The s e t o f s o c ie t a l and s u b c u ltu ra l norms in F igure 2-5 d e te r mine the boundaries fo r the a c c e p ta b ility of b e h a v io r. While the s o c ie ta l norms tend to s e t broad b e h a v io ra l lim its fo r a l l s o c ie t a l members, the

41 26 SOCIETAL AND SUB CULTURAL NORMS * SV or O ltcrlm lim tlv* h a v lw C ontin g en t Stim uli Stim uli Relevant Terms R = any behavior pattern C = consequences, S', S*, S S' = rewarding stimuli (eventually leading to habit ) S* = aversive stimuli (eventually leading to extinction ) S* = absence of any consequence SJ = stimuli in whose presence R has not been reinforced SD = stimuli in whose presence R has been reinforced SV = state variables (i.e. conditions of deprivation and satiation) F ig u re 2-5 The Framework of the B erry and Kunkel B ehavioral Model of Man Source: Leonard B erry and John H. K unkel, "In P u rs u it of Consumer Theory." D ecision S c ie n c e s. I (Ja n u a ry -A p ril, 1970), 34.

42 s u b c u ltu ra l norms d e lin e a te more p r e c is e ly the a c c e p ta b ility of behavior fo r persons w ith in su b se ts o f a s o c ie ty. B erry and Kunkel b e lie v e th a t the su b c u ltu re s most I n f l u e n t i a l in d eterm in in g the boundaries o f a c c e p t a b le behavior a re re fe re n c e groups, s o c ia l c la s s e s, and geographic subc u ltu re s. The Berry and Kunkel model views the in d iv id u a l consumer as the locus o f b eh av io r. A ccording to th e ir m odel, the major d eterm in a n ts of buyer behavior a re the le a rn in g pro cess and the norms o f the o n e 's s o c ie ty and s u b c u ltu re. As in d ic a te d in th e review of the model, the Berry and Kunkel b e h a v io ra l model o f man does not s p e c if i c a l ly focus upon v a ria b le s which a re unique to on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. However, th is s e t o f v a r ia b le s could be in te g ra te d in to the b e h a v io ra l model of man in term s o f both the s t a t e v a r ia b le s and co n tin g e n t s tim u li. A ndreasen's D ecisio n Model of A ttitu d e s and Customer Behavior* The A ndreasen model o f consumer choice is a buyer d e c isio n p ro cess which is p erceiv ed to be an outgrow th o f in fo rm atio n p ro c e ssin g w ith the c e n tr a l and prim ary v a r ia b le being a t t i t u d e. Andreasen p o in ts o u t th a t a t t i t u d e s e x i s t in c lu s te r s and c o n s is t o f a c o g n itiv e component, a fe e lin g component, and an a c tio n -te n d e n c y component. In a d d itio n, he b e lie v e s th a t a t t i t u d e s have valen ces which he p la ces on a fa v o ra b le -u n fa v o ra b le s c a le from +1 to -1. The m ajor form ative elem ents o f a t t i t u d e subsystem s in c lu d e ( 1 ) in fo rm atio n and ^ O u tlin e d from A lan R. A ndreasen, " A ttitu d e s and Customer Behavior A D ecision M odel," P e rs p e c tiv e s in Consumer B eh av io r, ed. by H arold H. K a ssa rjia n and Thomas S. R obertson (G lenview, I l l i n o i s : S c o tt, Foresman and Company, 1968), pp

43 28 f e e lin g g ath ered from p a s t w a n t- s a tis f a c tio n e x p e rie n c e s, ( 2 ) in fo rm atio n g ath ered in the p a s t b u t u n re la te d to immediate want s a tis f y in g e f f o r t, (3) group a f f i l i a t i o n s and e s p e c ia lly the v a lu e s of s ig n if i c a n t o th e rs, (4) a t tit u d e s toward r e la te d o b je c ts in the re le v a n t a t tit u d e c l u s t e r, and (5) the in d iv id u a l's p e r s o n a lity. Thus, a change in a t tit u d e s may occur i f one o r more o f the form ative elem ents are changed. The v a r ia b le s, and r e la tio n s h ip s of the Andreasen model are s e t fo rth in F igure 2-6. From a m icro view p o in t the o v e ra ll consumer choice p ro cess is e s s e n t i a l l y an in fo rm atio n p ro c e ssin g c y c le. In p u t in fo rm atio n reach es the custom er through fiv e d if f e r e n t ch an n els, four of which are shown a t the l e f t extrem e of F igure 2-6 and the o th e r channel being d ir e c t ex p erien ce w ith the fo c a l o b je c t. In fo rm atio n re c e iv e d from the environm ent is f i l t e r e d which reduces and d i s t o r t s the re c e iv e d in fo rm atio n. The b u y e r's c l u s t e r of a t tit u d e s is shown in the c e n te r of the diagram. A ndreasen p o s tu la te s th a t th e f i l t e r e d in fo rm atio n has some increm ental e f f e c t upon o n e 's a t tit u d e s e i th e r in a p o s itiv e o r n eg ativ e d ir e c tio n. I f the consequences of th e a t t i t u d e change causes one to make a s e le c tio n, immediate purchase may o r may n o t occur depending upon the c o n s tr a in ts on th e b u y er. When a d e c isio n is made to seek more in fo rm a tio n, the in te n s ity of the search w ill be dependent upon the s tre n g th of the w ant, the p erce iv ed q u a n tity and q u a lity o f in fo rm atio n i n i t i a l l y re c e iv e d, and the a sp e c ts of p e r s o n a lity p e rta in in g to i n t e l l i gence and need fo r c l a r i t y. A d e c is io n not to purchase may r e s u l t from in fo rm atio n p ro c e ssing. Such an outcome may a r is e due to a d ecrease in want s tre n g th or lack o f in fo rm atio n.

44 C onstraints Oirect Flows Feedbacks Attitudes Toward Sources Perceived Beliefs, Norms, Values of Significant Others Income Budget Priorities Physical Capacity Household Capacity Advocate r* Impersonal Sources Personality HOLD Information Intrinsic Attributes Extrinsic Attributes Price Availability He Advocate Personal Sources FILTRATION Disposition No Action Other Purchase Decisions Ownership t* Wants nt Strength Information Storage Figure 2-6 Comprehensive Framework of the Andreasen Model Source: Alan R. Andreasen, " A ttitu d e s and Customer B ehavior: A D ecision M odel," P e rsp e c tiv e s in Consumer B ehavior, ed. Harold H. K a ssa rjia n and Thomas S. Robertson (Glenview, I l l i n o i s : S c o tt, Foresman and Company, 1968), p. 504.

45 30 Andreasen p o in ts o u t th a t the problem so lv in g process fo r a p ro duct In a given product c la s s may re q u ire a le s s e r q u a n tity of d e c isio n making a c t i v i t y because the purchase and ow nership g e n era tes new In fo r m ation th a t a f f e c ts a t t i t u d e s. As subsequent purchases occur, the purchase d e c isio n might evolve In to a h a b itu a l resp o n se. Even though a buying cy cle may become h a b itu a l, a given purchase may re q u ire cons id e ra b le d e lib e r a tio n due to changes in w a n t-s tre n g th, changes In a t tit u d e s of complementary p ro d u c ts, or changes in the s tr u c t u r a l elem ents o f a t t i t u d e s. In d e s c rib in g the v a rio u s sources of in fo rm atio n Andreasen in d ic a te s th a t salesm en and r e t a i l c le r k s, c l a s s i f i e d as "advocate p e r sonal so u rces" in F igure 2-6, have an in flu e n c e upon consumer d e c isio n p ro c e sse s. However, he does n o t in any way analyze in d e t a i l the process and e f f e c ts of salesm an-buyer in te r a c tio n in term s of how the s e l l e r 's behavior c o n trib u te s to the t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l pay o ff of the buyer. M icroscopic Buyer B ehavior Models in P e rs p e c tiv e In summary, th e se m icroscopic models have been p resen te d to i l l u s t r a t e the types of v a r ia b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s th a t are analyzed in c u rre n tly e x is tin g buyer b eh av io r m odels. The v a r ia b le s w ith which th ese models d eal are f a c to r s which may have a p re -sh a p in g e f f e c t th a t e x e rts a fo rce upon the b u y e r's beh av io r d u rin g b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. Y et, th ese models do n o t e x p la in the fo rc e s p re s e n t only during i n t e r a c tio n between the buyer and th e s e l l e r. The v a r ia b le s included in the m icroscopic buyer b eh av io r models are f a c to r s th a t in flu e n c e behavior in g e n e ra l, th a t i s, they in flu e n c e beh av io r w hether or n o t the in d iv id u a l is in the in te r a c tio n a re n a. M icroscopic models of buyer behavior have

46 not y e t con sid ered in d e t a i l the v a ria b le s and th e ir in te r r e la tio n s h ip s which are unique to on-going b u y e r - s e lle r I n te r a c tio n. Comprehensive Models of Buyer Behavior U nlike the m icroscopic m odels, the com prehensive models of buyer behavior c o n s is t of a la rg e r number of v a r ia b le s and include both i n t r a in d iv id u a l f a c to rs and fo rc e s o f s o c ia l In flu e n c e. The com prehensive models o u tlin e d in th is s e c tio n in clu d e (1) N ic o s ia 's model of consumer d e c isio n p ro cesses and (2) the E ngel, K o lla t, and B lackw ell model of consumer m o tiv atio n and b eh av io r. N ic o s ia 's Model of Consumer D ecision Processes*^- The N ico sia model of consumer b eh av io r is a model of consumer d e c isio n p ro c e s se s. In t h i s model consumer beh av io r is d e a lt w ith as a d e c isio n p ro cess r a th e r than as the r e s u l t o f a d e c isio n p ro c e ss. N ico sia c r i t i c i z e s o th e r consumer beh av io r models by p o in tin g out th a t many d e c isio n models view the a c t of purchase as the f i n a l outcome of the d e c isio n p ro c e ss. In the N ico sia model the a c t of purchase is only one v a r ia b le in the s tr u c tu r e of consumer d e c isio n making. N ico sia views the d ir e c tio n of the consum er's d e c isio n process as moving through a funnel from a p a ssiv e to an a c tiv e s ta t e and from a g e n era l to a more p re c is e c o n d itio n. The m a trix in F ig u re 2-7 d e p ic ts the dim ensions of the concepts of p r e d is p o s itio n, a t t i t u d e, and m otivatio n. From th is m a trix one can se e, in moving from l e f t to r i g h t, th a t p re d is p o s itio n s are p a ssiv e s tr u c t u r e s, th a t a t tit u d e s are g en eral and ^Sum m arized from Francesco M. N ic o sia, Consumer D ecision P rocesses M arketing and A d v e rtisin g Im p lic a tio n s (Englewood C li f f s, New J e rs e y : P re n tic e -H a ll I n c., 1966), pp

47 DIMENSIONS CATEGORIES OF EACH DIMENSION (a) Dynamics PASSIVE DRIVING Weak Strong (b) Time P resen t Future P resen t Future P resen t Future (c) Scope General Specific [Seneral S p ecific G eneral General S pecific S p ecific (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) ( 6 ) (7) ( 8 ) PREDISPOSITIONS ATTITUDES MOTIVATIONS Figure 2-7 D e fin itio n of P re d is p o s itio n s, A ttitu d e s, and M otivations in the N icosia Model Source: Francesco M. N ico sia, Consumer D ecision P ro c e ss e s : M arketing and A d v ertisin g Im p lic a tio n s (Englewood C li f f s, New Je rs e y : P re n tic e -H a ll, I n c., 1966), p. 121 u» NJ

48 33 weak d riv in g s tr u c t u r e s, and th a t m o tiv atio n s are s p e c if ic, stro n g d r iv ing s tr u c tu r e s. An overview of N ic o s ia 's model is p re sen te d in F igure 2-8. N otice th a t the model c o n s is ts of four m ajor f i e l d s. The d e c isio n p ro cess o f the consumer i s p erceiv ed to e x i s t in a time dim ension c a lle d a b eh av io ral sp ace. Each f i e l d re p re s e n ts a c r o s s -s e c tio n o f b e h av io ral space. The fu n c tio n a l r e la tio n s between th e se f ie l d s can be d eriv ed by comparing one f ie l d w ith an o th e r. F ie ld one, c o n s is tin g of two s u b f ie ld s, p e rta in s to th e v a r i ab les and d evices th a t may o r may not c re a te an a t tit u d e based upon a message p u t fo r th by the firm. The s e le c tio n of a message to be sen t to the consumer is determ ined by the v a r ia b le in s u b fie ld one. These v a ria b le s and mechanisms are (1) the f ir m 's o rg a n iz a tio n a l a t t r i b u t e s, (2) the c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the brand and p roduct to be a d v e rtis e d, (3) environm ental f a c to rs surrounding the firm, (4) a t t r i b u t e s o f a v a ila b le mass m edia, (5) c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the consumer to be reac h ed, and ( 6 ) encoding and tra n sm issio n of the m essage. The encoding and tra n sm issio n mechanism determ ines both exposure and the e ffe c tiv e n e s s of message conte n t. S u b field two w ith in f i e l d one focuses upon the in te r a c tio n of both the c h a r a c te r i s t ic s o f the message and consumer and the outcome of t h is in te r a c tio n namely w hether or n o t th e in d iv id u a l forms an a t tit u d e about the brand. A ttitu d e form ation is dependent upon exposure. Exposure is a fu n c tio n of ( 1 ) environm ental f a c to rs o p e ra tin g a t the tim e, ( 2 ) c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the re c e iv e r th a t a f f e c t h is p ro cesses o f s e le c tiv e exposure and s e le c tiv e p e rc e p tio n, (3) c a p a b ili tie s of p h y sic a l sensory d e v ic e s, and (4) a r e s e r v o ir of e x is tin g c o g n itiv e s tr u c t u r e s. The

49 Field One: From the Source of a Message to the Consumer's Attitude S ubfield One Message Exposure F irm 's A ttrib u te s 4-4 Subfield Two Consumer' s A ttrib u te s (e sp e c ia lly p re d isp o sitio n s) A ttitu d e t Experience 1 Search E valuation F ield Two: Search fo r, and E valuation o f, Means-End(s) R e la tio n (s) (P re -a c tio n F ield) F ield Four The Feed Back Consumption J M otivation D ecision F ield T hree: The Act of Purchase (actio n ) Purchasing Behavior Figure 2-8 The Comprehensive Framework of the N icosia Model Source: Francesco M. N icosia, Consumer D ecision P ro c e ss; M arketing and A dvertising Im plications Englewood C lif f s, New Jersey : P re n tic e -H a ll, In c., 1966) p. 156.

50 35 p o te n tia l consequences of s u b fie ld two a re th a t the message may be l o s t, the message may be s to re d w ith o u t causing a change, o r the message may be re le v a n t enough to produce a re o rg a n iz a tio n th a t causes a c o g n itiv e s tr u c tu r e to change from p a ssiv e to a c tiv e. I f an a t t i t u d e does r e s u l t from s u b fie ld two as is shown in F ig u re 2-8, a la rg e number of in te rv e n in g v a r ia b le s may a r is e between a t t i t u d e form ation and purchase of the bran d. A few in te rv e n in g mechanisms make up f i e l d s two and th re e. The a t t i t u d e th a t e n te rs f i e l d two is a weak d riv in g fo rc e th a t has c re a te d a g e n era l i n t e r e s t in th e p ro d u ct categ o ry b u t has a lso c re a te d a brand ch o ice problem fo r the consum er. To solve th i s problem th e d e c is io n maker w ill search fo r more in fo rm a tio n. The consumer may search in t e r n a ll y (w ith in h is memory) and a ls o engage in a c tu a l o v e rt se a rc h. As a r e s u l t of search and e v a lu a tio n of h is p erceiv ed a l te r n a ti v e s, the d e c isio n p ro cess may be d isc o n tin u e d i f no s a ti s f a c to r y s o lu tio n s a re found. The c r i t e r i a fo r e v a lu a tin g a lte r n a t iv e s may be a lte r e d i f no s a ti s f a c to r y a l te r n a t iv e s a re found w ith search and e v alu a tio n c o n tin u in g. I f, as a r e s u l t of search and e v a lu a tio n, the d e c isio n maker fin d s an a c c e p ta b le a l te r n a t iv e (such as the o r ig i n a ll y a d v e rtis e d b ra n d ), then th e a t t i t u d e c re a te d in s u b fie ld two has been transform ed in to a m o tiv a tio n. From N ic o s ia 's d e f in i ti o n o f m o tiv a tio n (see F igure 2-7) the d e c isio n m ak er's r e la tio n s h ip to th e s e le c te d a l te r n a t iv e is s p e c if ic and a c tiv e. The m o tiv a tio n which is the o u tp u t of f i e l d two is the in p u t of f i e l d th re e, th e a c t of p u rch ase. An I n d iv id u a l's a c t of purchase is a ffe c te d by s e v e ra l in te rv e n in g v a r ia b le s. A lthough the d e c isio n maker has decided to p u rch ase, h is a c tio n in se c u rin g the s p e c if ic p roduct may

51 36 be in flu en ced by th e d iscrep a n cy in the consum er's p sy c h o lo g ic a l r e a l i t y and o b je c tiv e r e a l i t y, the choice of s to r e and in - s to r e f a c t o r s, and the d is p a r i ty between the le v e l of m o tiv atio n and th e le v e l of p a s t p u rch ases. As th e se f a c to r s I n te r a c t w ith the m o tiv atio n o f the consumer, a t l e a s t th re e p o s s ib le outcomes may a r is e in c lu d in g (1) the d e c isio n n o t to p u rch ase, (2) a re v is io n in th e c o g n itiv e s tr u c tu r e th a t lead s to f u r th e r se a rc h, o r (3) purchase of the a d v e rtis e d p ro d u ct. The p u rch ase, which is one o f th e consequences of f i e l d th re e, a c ts as an in p u t fo r f i e l d fo u r, the feedback component of the model. In fo rm atio n r e s u lt in g from th e purchase becomes both a p a r t of the consum er's in fo rm a tio n system and a p a r t of the f ir m 's in fo rm atio n system. C h a r a c te r is tic s of th e f ir m 's in fo rm atio n system as w ell as o th e r a t t r i b u t e s of th e firm determ ine the manner in which th e s e l l e r g a th e rs, in t e r n a li z e s, and e v a lu a te s s a le s in fo rm atio n. This in fo rm atio n is an in p u t fo r s u b fie ld one in f i e l d one. Through the mechanisms of sto ra g e and consum ption, th e consumer g ain s in fo rm atio n th a t becomes an in p u t in to h is s o c ia l p sy c h o lo g ic a l f i e l d in s u b fie ld two, f i e l d one. The feedback of in fo rm atio n in to s u b fie ld two in th e form o f some degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n may in flu e n c e th e d e c is io n m aker's o r ig in a l p re d is p o s itio n, h is a t t i t u d e, or h is m o tiv a tio n. Subsequent c y cles of the d e c isio n p ro cess are in tu rn a ffe c te d by such changes in th e se c o g n itiv e s t r u c tu r e s. In d e s c rib in g h is model N ico sia in d ic a te s th a t the model is o p e ra tio n a l when u sin g o th e r types of i n i t i a l in p u ts b e sid e s an a d v ert i s i n g m essage. N ic o sia, in p re s e n tin g v a rio u s components o f h is com prehensive scheme, is c a r e fu l to p o in t out the r e la tio n s h ip s fo r which v ery l i t t l e e m p iric a l evidence e x i s t s. The model developed by N ico sia

52 37 seems to be a framework o r s tr u c tu r e on which to base f u r th e r re se a rc h which p e r ta in s to s p e c if ic components of the consumer d e c isio n making p ro c e s s. A lthough N ic o s ia 's framework is v ery com prehensive, the re s e a rc h e r does not an aly ze, in any d e t a i l, the e f f e c t s of the p erso n al salesm an 's beh av io r upon the b u y e r's b e h a v io r. However, th is model is g en eral enough th a t an e x te n sio n o f the N ico sia model could in clu d e such e f f e c t s. The e x te n sio n could be developed in f i e l d th re e. In f a c t, N icosia in clu d es in - s to r e f a c to rs as one of th e in te rv e n in g v a r ia b le s in f ie l d th re e but does n o t focus upon th e c o n trib u tio n th a t the salesm an makes to the b e h a v io ra l p ayoff re c e iv e d by th e b uyer. B ehavioral c o n s id e ra tio n of th is type could s tre n g th e n th e N ico sia model and would n o t in any way c o n tra d ic t o r d e t r a c t from th e a u th o r 's d e c isio n pro cess framework. The E n g el-k o llat-b lack w ell Model o f Consumer M o tiv a tio n and Behavior* 2 The E ngel, K o lla t, and B lackw ell model of consumer m o tiv a tio n and behavior is a very com prehensive model of the fo rc e s th a t a f f e c t consumer a c tio n. Even though the model is s e t in a d e c is io n making fram e work, the a n a ly s is is n o t lim ite d to only the consumer problem so lv in g mechanism. A g re a t d eal o f em phasis is placed upon both the in p u ts and o u tp u ts of the d e c isio n p ro c e ss. Like th e N ico sia model, the E ngel- K o lla t-b la c k w e ll model of consumer m o tiv a tio n and beh av io r views the a c t of purchase as only one component of consumer behavior r a th e r th an as the f i n a l, u ltim a te a c tio n of th e consumer. 12 O u tlin ed from James F. E ngel, David T. K o lla t, and Roger D. B lackw e ll, Consumer B ehavior (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, I n c., 1968), pp

53 38 Shown in F ig u re 2-9 is th e flow c h a rt which re p re s e n ts the comp reh en siv e scheme of the E n g el-k o llat-b lack w ell model. In th e upper rig h t-h a n d co rn er is the c o n tro l c e n te r which c o n s is ts of p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, sto re d in fo rm a tio n, v alu es and a t t i t u d e s, and a c e n tr a l c o n tro l u n it th a t a c ts as a p sy c h o lo g ic a l command c e n te r. To the l e f t o f the c o n tro l c e n te r a re d e p ic te d the in p u ts from the consum er's environm ent. These in p u ts d e riv e from both p h y sic a l and s o c ia l sources and are re c e iv e d by an in d iv id u a l's sensory re c e p to rs o r sense organs. Some of the in p u ts reach aw areness and c re a te a ro u s a l. Through a p ro cess of com parison th e consumer e v a lu a te s the in p u ts which have caused a ro u sa l to determ ine i f a s ig n if i c a n t d is p a r ity e x is ts b e tween h is c u rre n t p sy c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e and th e new in fo rm a tio n. I f the consumer b e lie v e s the d is p a r i ty to be s ig n i f i c a n t, then he has reached the problem re c o g n itio n s ta g e. N otice in F igure 2-9, th a t i f the problem is reco g n ized, he may o r may n o t tak e a c tio n. The manner in which the consumer d e a ls w ith problem re c o g n itio n (such as "go" or " h a lt" ) is sto re d in the memory. I f the consumer chooses the "go" course of a c tio n, he w ill attem pt to so lv e h is problem. L ike th e Howard-Sheth model, the E n g e l-k o lla t- B lackw ell model d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between v a rio u s degrees of com plexity in consumer d e c isio n making. Extended problem so lv in g on the p a r t of the consumer w ill re q u ire th a t he search fo r a l te r n a t iv e s and e v a lu a te p o te n tia l, f e a s ib le s o lu tio n s b e fo re a purchase i s made. The search and e v a lu a tio n sta g e s would n o t be n e c e ssa ry fo r v i r t u a l l y ro u tin e d e c isio n s. From F ig u re 2-9 no te th a t both the search and e v a lu a tio n stag es of the extended d e c isio n p ro cess may r e s u l t in ( 1 ) a h a ltin g of the d e c isio n pro cess w ith in fo rm atio n being s to re d, ( 2 ) a "d elay " in the

54 39 PHYSICAL SOCIAL SENSORY RECEPTORS PERCEPTION A t te n tio n, D is to rtio n PROBLEM RECOGNITION f a r o u s a l " 1' COMPARISON PROCESS PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS T r a i t s, M o tiv e s VALUES AND ATTITUDES CENTRAL CONTROL UNIT (M em ory and Thinking) RESPONSE SETS I STOREO IN FORMATION e n d PAST EXPERIENCE YES, HALT HALT SEARCH EXTERNAL SEARCH (o r ALTERNATIVES YES HALT f TRIGGERED. FURTHER BEHAVIOR I YES HALT PURCHASE PROCESSES 'PUR> CHASE. HALT FURTHER BEHAVIOR YES F igure S o u rce: -9 The Comprehensive Scheme o f the Engel, K o lla t, and Blackw ell Model James F. E ngel, David T. K o lla t, and Roger D. B lackw ell, Consumer B ehavior (New York; H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, I n c., 1968), p. 50.

55 40 p ro cess fo r purposes of se arch in g out more in fo rm atio n, o r (3) a d ir e c t move to the next sta g e of th e d e c is io n p ro c e ss. The purchase sta g e may r e s u l t in no purchase w ith e i th e r a h a l t ing of the p ro cess and sto ra g e of in fo rm atio n, or a search fo r more in fo rm atio n. I f th e purchase sta g e does r e s u l t in a p u rch ase, two m ajor outcomes may o ccu r. F i r s t, p o stp u rch ase e v a lu a tio n may occur causing the buyer to search fo r more in fo rm atio n to su p p o rt the purchase d e c isio n which he had made. Second, th e outcome may a l t e r circum stances in such a manner th a t th e se changes a c t as new s tim u li fo r f u r th e r beh a v io r. Even though the o u tlin e s e t f o r th above d e sc rib e s the framework shown in F igure 2-9, E ngel, K o lla t, and B lackw ell use t h i s d e c isio n framework to p re s e n t a d e ta ile d a n a ly s is of the m ajor components (and in te r r e la tio n s h ip s among th e se components) which in flu e n c e a consum er's b eh av io r. The a u th o rs ' focus is not so much u^on d efense of the stru c u re b u t ra th e r is upon the v a r ia b le s, r e la tio n s h ip s, and e m p iric a l fin d in g s p e rta in in g to consumer a c tio n. The a u th o rs ' d is c u s s io n of b u y e r - s e lle r in t e r a c t io n is extrem ely lim ite d. In t h e i r a n a ly sis of buying p ro c e sse s (see F ig u re 2-9) they reco g n ize th a t the salesm an 's b eh av io r e x e rts a fo rc e upon the buyer, b u t they p o in t out th a t re s e a rc h on custom er-salesm an in te r a c tio n is r a th e r s p a rse. 13 In reg ard to such models they conclude: The custom er-salesm an in te r a c tio n model has emerged only re c e n tly and has not as y e t been e x te n siv e ly re se a rc h e d. C onsequently, a t th is ju n c tu re, g e n e ra liz a tio n s about m arketing s tr a te g y are prem ature. However, th e re is reaso n to b e lie v e th a t in t e r a c t io n models w i l l, in the fu tu re, g e n e ra te u s e fu l in s ig h ts fo r m arketing management p u r poses. Indeed, I n te r a c tio n models may become the most e x c itin g and u s e fu l approach to consumer b eh av io r durin g the n ex t decade. 13 Ibid.. p, 468.

56 41 From th is q u o ta tio n i t is ap p aren t th a t E ngel, K o lla t, and B lackw ell, due to the g e n e ra l lack of re se a rc h in the a re a, have not focused upon the e f f e c t s o r p ro cesses of b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n but do reco g n ize the need to in c lu d e th e se in flu e n c e s as a p a r t of consumer beh av io r a n a ly s is. Comprehensive Buyer B ehavior Models in P e rsp e c tiv e Like th e m icroscopic m odels, th e c u r r e n t, more com prehensive models of buyer b eh av io r w hether d e c is io n -o rie n te d, p s y c h o lo g ic a lly based, o r s o c io lo g ic a lly based do not ad eq u ately c o n sid e r the v a r ia b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s which are unique to on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. Many of the v a r ia b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s inclu d ed in the m acroscopic models p e r ta in to human b eh av io r w hether o r n o t the p erso n i s in te r a c tin g w ith an o th er in d iv id u a l. For exam ple, th e N ico sia buyer b eh av io r model is b a s ic a lly a g e n era l model of d e c isio n making. The E n g el-k o llat-b lack w ell model c o n tain s a la rg e number of g en eral human b eh av io r v a r ia b le s which could be a c tiv e e i th e r w ith in o r o u tsid e o f th e in t e r a c t io n aren a. Even though c u rre n t com prehensive buyer b eh av io r models lack in te r a c tio n v a r ia b le s, th e d is c u s s io n of th e se models in d ic a te s th a t the v a r ia b le s and th e i r in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s which a re unique to on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n could be in te g ra te d in to s e v e ra l e x is tin g models of buyer b eh av io r to c re a te an improved e x p la n a tio n of th e fo rc e s which in flu e n c e consumer b eh av io r. S tu d ie s of B u y e r-s e lle r I n te r a c tio n The p erso n al s e ll in g re se a rc h which p e r ta in s to the r e la tio n s h ip s of the custom er and salesm an has g e n e ra lly focused upon a t t r i b u t e s of the

57 salesm an and salesm an e f f e c tiv e n e s s R esearch which d e a ls w ith ongoing in te r a c tio n of the custom er and a salesm an has been n e g le c te d. A m ajor reaso n fo r th is n e g le c t is a la ck of a th e o r e tic a l framework and v a lid methodology fo r the a n a ly s is of on-going custom er-salesm an in t e r a c t io n. In th is s e c tio n is s e t fo r th the o u tlin e s of th re e d i f f e r e n t e m p iric a l s tu d ie s which d eal w ith the b u y e r - s e lle r dyad as the re s e a rc h u n i t. The f i r s t c o n c e n tra te s on the a n a ly s is of on-going in t e r a c t io n, and the second and th ir d p e r ta in to the e f f e c t s of custom er- salesm an in te r a c tio n. The W ille tt-p e n n in g to n Study of On-Going I n te r a c tio n As in d ic a te d e a r l i e r th e amount o f e m p iric a l re s e a rc h, p e r ta in ing to buyer and s e l l e r b eh av io r d u rin g on-going in te r a c tio n, is very lim ite d. Y et, a m ajor e m p iric a l c o n trib u tio n in th is a rea a r is e s from re se a rc h perform ed by Ronald P. W ille tt and A llan L. P e n n in g to n.^ For a few examples of th is type o f re se a rc h se e : David Mayer and H erb ert M. G reenberg, ''What Makes a Good Salesm an," H arvard B u siness Review. XLII (Ju ly -A u g u st, 1964), ; Wayne K. K irch n er and M arvin D unnette, "How Salesmen and T ech n ical Men D iffe r in D escrib ing T hem selves," P erso n n el J o u r n a l. XXXVII (A p ril, 1959), ; F re d e ric k E. W ebster, J r., " In te rp e rs o n a l Communication and Salesman E f f e c tiv e n e s s," Jo u rn a l of M ark etin g. XXXII ( J u ly, 1968), 7-13; C ecil French, " C o rre la te s of Success in R e ta il S e llin g," American Jo u rn al of S o cio lo g y. LXVI (Septem ber, 1960), ; James E. S ta ffo rd and Thomas V. G reer, "Consumer P re fe re n c e fo r Types of Salesmen: A Study o f Independence - Dependence C h a r a c te r is t ic s," Jo u rn a l o f R e ta ilin g. XLI (Summer, 1965), 27-33; John B. M iner, " P e rs o n a lity and A b ility F a c to rs in S ales P erform ance," Jo u rn a l o f A pplied Psychology. XLV (F eb ru ary, 1962), 6-12; W. T. H a tr e l l, "The R e la tio n of T est Scores' to S ales C r i t e r i a, " P erso n n el Psychology. X III (S p rin g, 1960), 65-9; and Wayne K irc h n e r, C a ro lin e S. McElwain, and M arvin D. D unnette, "A Note on th e R e la tio n sh ip Between Age and S ales E f f e c tiv e n e s s," Jo u rn a l o f A pplied P sychology. XLIV (A p ril, 1960), ^ S e e : Ronald P. W i lle t t and A lla n L. P ennington, "Customer and Salesm an: The Anatomy of Choice and In flu e n c e in a R e ta il S e ttin g," S c ie n c e. Technology, and M arketing, ed. by Raymond M. Haas (C hicago: American M arketing A sso c ia tio n, 1966), pp

58 43 W ille tt and Pennington hypo th esized th a t custom er-salesm an I n te r a c tio n in home ap p lian ce r e t a i l tr a n s a c tio n s tak es the form of p roblem -solving and th a t the c o n te n t o f custom er-salesm an in te r a c tio n can be used to p r e d ic t su c c e ssfu l tr a n s a c tio n s. The re s e a rc h e rs ' methodology inclu d ed both an o b se rv a tio n technique (u sin g a tape r e co rd er and a human o b serv er) and a survey of the 210 ap p lian ce custom ers. The custom er-salesm an in t e r a c t io n s, which were recorded by tape re c o rd e r and by v is u a l o b se rv a tio n, were analyzed u sin g B ales' " s o c ia l in te r a c tio n c a te g o n '. s. " ^ Each component o f in te r a c tio n observed was viewed as an " in te r a c tio n a c t" and c l a s s i f i e d in to one o f the fo llo w in g c a te g o rie s : (1) shows s o l i d a r i t y, (2) shows te n sio n r e le a s e, (3) a g re e s, (4) g iv es su g g e stio n, (5) gives o p in io n, (6) g iv es o r ie n ta tio n, (7) asks fo r o r ie n t a ti o n, (8) asks fo r o p in io n, (9) asks fo r su g g e stio n, (10) d is a g re e s, (11) shows te n sio n, and (12) shows antagonism s. In measuring and analyzing the content of customer-salesman interaction Willett and Pennington found: 1. The average a p p lian ce tr a n s a c tio n la s te d approxim ately tw e n ty -th re e m inutes w ith a range o f from one to 120 m inutes. A pproxim ately s e v e n ty -fiv e per cen t of the tra n s a c tio n s t e r m inated in le s s than t h i r t y m inutes. 2. Each custom er-salesm an encounter on the a p p lian ce s a le s flo o r on the average c o n s is te d o f 198 in te r a c tio n a c ts w ith a range from as low as seven a c ts to as high as 920 a c ts per tra n s a c tio n. 3. Over s e v e n ty -fiv e per cen t o f the t o t a l in te r a c tio n between custom er and salesm an was found to be expended on d e fin in g and e v a lu a tin g problem s and is s u e s. 4. Customers perform ed approxim ately h a l f as many in te r a c tio n a c ts as did salesm en. ^ R o b e r t F. B ales, "A S et of C ateg o ries fo r the A nalysis o f Small Group I n te r a c ti o n." American S o c io lo g ic a l Review. XV (A p ril, 1950), 258.

59 5. Salesmen tended to be re sp o n s ib le fo r te n sio n, d isagreem ent, and antagonism w hile custom ers were g e n e ra lly more re s p o n s i b le fo r p o s itiv e re a c tio n s. 6. In terms of c o n tro l over the I n te r a c tio n, the re s e a rc h e rs found th a t salesm en overwhelm ingly had the c o n tro l. 7. In com paring tra n s a c tio n s In which purchase o ccurred w hile under o b se rv a tio n and those tra n s a c tio n s in which purchase was d elay ed, the re s e a rc h e rs found th a t spontaneous purchases were made when the salesm an more in te n s iv e ly asked fo r in f o r m ation, o p in io n s, and su g g e stio n s. 8. As the tr a n s a c tio n s, which r e s u lte d in a c lo se during o b se r v a tio n, p ro g ressed, the number of p o s itiv e s o c ia l-e m o tio n a l in te r a c tio n a c ts in c re ased w ith a p a r a l l e l d e c lin e in n e g ativ e s o c ia l-e m o tio n a l in te r a c tio n. 9. T ra n sa c tio n s which were not clo sed d u rin g the o b se rv a tio n seemed to a c q u ire la rg e r amounts o f disagreem ent, te n sio n, and antagonism, as these tr a n s a c tio n s p ro g ressed. 10. T ra n sa c tio n s th a t were not clo sed co n tain ed in te r a c tio n a c ts which in d ic a te d re g re s s io n in p ro blem -solving a tte m p ts. A lthough one m ight q u e stio n W ille tt and P en n in g to n 's methodology on the b a s is th a t the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of in te r a c tio n a c ts in to s o c ia l in te r a c tio n c a te g o rie s was s u b je c tiv e, th is re se a rc h makes a c o n trib u tio n to the study of consumer behavior by q u a n tita tiv e ly a n aly zin g on-going custom er-salesm an in te r a c tio n. The f a c t th a t the W ille tt and P ennington stu d y appears to be the only e m p iric a l re s e a rc h e f f o r t which d e a ls w ith on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n su g g ests th a t a th e o r e tic a l base re g a rd in g on-going buyer- 44 s e l l e r in te r a c tio n is c u rre n tly in ad eq u ate. The in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh a v io r, which c o n s is ts o f the v a r ia b le s and th e ir i n t e r r e l a t i o n sh ip s th a t a f f e c t the b u y e r's form ation o f an im pression o f the s e l l e r, should add to the th e o r e tic a l base u n d erly in g in te rp e rs o n a l b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n.

60 45 Research Focused Upon the A fte r-e ffe c ts o f I n te r a c tio n The Evans study focuses upon th e b u y e r-s e lle r r e la tio n s h ip w ith in the l i f e in su ran ce i n d u s t r y. ^ The l i f e insurance in d u stry has perform ed s e v e ra l s tu d ie s d e a lin g w ith custom er-salesm en I n te r a c tio n and has shown g r e a te r i n t e r e s t in th is a re a than has any o th e r in d u stry. 18 F ra n k lin B. Evans, in re p o rtin g re se a rc h r e s u lt s p e rta in in g to the s e ll in g o f l i f e in su ra n c e, hypothesized th a t the s a le is the r e s u l t o f dyadic in te r a c tio n o f p ro sp e c t and salesm an ra th e r than a fu n ctio n o f in d iv id u a l q u a l i t i e s of e i th e r in d iv id u a l alo n e. U nlike the re se a rc h by W ille tt and P ennington, Evans did not focus upon on-going custom er-salesm an in te r a c tio n but in ste a d was more concerned w ith the s t a t e of th e dyadic r e la tio n s h ip a f t e r in te r a c tio n o ccu rred. A p o rtio n o f Evans' re se a rc h d e a lt w ith the d iffe re n c e s in a t t i t u d e s re g a rd in g s a le s ag en ts o f p ro sp e c ts who purchased insurance compared to those a t t i t u d e s of p ro sp e c ts who did not make a p urchase. The re s e a rc h e r measured the in t e n s ity o f s e v e ra l " in te r a c tio n in d ic a to rs " th a t g e n e ra lly p e r ta in to the degree to which the custom er lik e d the salesm an. For v a rio u s types o f " in te r a c ti o n in d ic a to rs " Evans found a g re a te r in t e n s ity fo r custom ers who purchased v e rsu s th o se who did not ^ F r a n k l in B. Evans, " S e llin g As A Dyadic R e la tio n s h ip A New A pproach," The American B eh av o rial S c i e n t i s t. VI (May, 1963), For examples o f s e v e ra l s tu d ie s perform ed by the l i f e insurance in d u stry see: S ales Methods o f Good and Poor Agents (H artfo rd, Conn e c tic u t: L ife In su ran ce Agency Management A sso ciatio n ', 1955); L ife In su ran ce in F o cu s: F a c to rs R elated to Success in the L a st Sales I n t e r view (H a rtfo rd, C o n n ecticu t: L ife In su ran ce Agency Management A sso ciatio n, 1962); The Fam ily F in a n c ia l O ffic e r (H a rtfo rd, C onnecticut: L ife Insurance agency Management A sso c ia tio n, 1966)iP ro sp e cts and A gents: A Study o f the S ales P ro cess (H a rtfo rd, C o nnecticut: L ife Insurance Agency Management A sso c ia tio n, 1967).

61 46 purchase. 19 Evans' re se a rc h a ls o focused upon the e x iste n c e of s im i l a r i t i e s between the p a r ti e s in the dyad. In comparing "so ld dyads" w ith "unsold d y ad s," he found th a t the lik e lih o o d of a sa le is g re a te r i f p h y sical c h a r a c te r i s t ic s (such as age and h e ig h t) and socioeconom ic fa c to rs (such as income, r e li g io n, ed u c a tio n, and p o l i t i c s ) are s im ila r. Even though he recognized th a t the behavior of the custom er and the salesm an is n o t s o le ly a fu n c tio n of each in d iv id u a l's c h a r a c te r is t i c s but is r a th e r determ ined by in te r a c tio n, Evans' re se a rc h did not a c tu a lly focus upon on-going in te r a c tio n. However, h is research e f f o r t s, although they c o n ce n trate d upon the a f t e r - e f f e c t s o f in te r a c tio n, emphasized the p o in t th a t buyer and salesm an beh av io r should be viewed in the co n tex t of a dyadic r e la tio n s h ip. One of the e a r l i e s t re se a rc h e f f o r ts to d eal w ith the images th a t buyers and s e l l e r s have toward each o th e r was re p o rte d by James M. 20 B lake. This re se a rc h focused upon in d u s tr ia l salesm en and purchasing a g e n ts. Salesmen were asked about th e i r p e rc e p tio n s of the purchasing a g e n ts' a u th o rity to p u rch ase, job u n d erstan d in g, and g en eral treatm en t of salesm en. P urchasing ag en ts were questioned about the salesm en 's product knowledge, te c h n ic a l tr a in in g, frequency o f s a le s c a l l s, and grooming. B la k e 's re se a rc h showed th a t the p e rc e p tio n s of the purchasing agent and those of the salesm an were incongruous in s e v e ra l a re a s. The study re p o rte d by Blake is s im ila r to Evans' re se a rc h in 19 Evans, l o c. c i t James M. B lake, "S ales and P urchasing" H e re 's How They Look a t Each O th e r," Dun's Review and Modern In d u s try. LXV (June, 1955), 45-7.

62 47 Chat both c o n c e n tra te upon the e f f e c t s of in te r a c tio n but not on the ongoing process of custom er-salesm an in t e r a c t io n. Although o th e r s tu d ie s have been perform ed which d eal w ith the a f t e r - e f f e c t s of c u sto m e r-sa le s man in te r a c tio n, B la k e 's study and E vans' re se a rc h are re p re s e n ta tiv e 21 of the type of work th a t has been done in t h i s a re a. E m pirical S tu d ie s o f B u y e r-s e lle r I n te r a c tio n in P e rsp e c tiv e E m pirical re se a rc h in the area of on-going b u y e r - s e lle r i n t e r a c tio n is extrem ely lim ite d. The W ille tt-p e n n in g to n stu d y, the major em p iric a l re se a rc h p e rta in in g to on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n, attem pted to d efin e q u a n t ita t iv e l y, through the use of B a le s' " i n t e r a c tio n a c t s," s e v e ra l m ajor c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n in ap p lian ce tr a n s a c tio n s. O ther em p iric a l re s e a rc h d e a lin g w ith b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n p e r ta in s g e n e ra lly to the a f t e r - e f f e c t s of i n t e r a c tio n. Research o f th is type is c h a ra c te riz e d by the Evans study and the Blake study. Summary As in d ic a te d in the d is c u s s io n o f th e m odels, the c u rre n tly e x is tin g models of buyer beh av io r in clu d e v a r ia b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s which help to e x p la in human b eh av io r in g e n e ra l. In the m a trix in F igure 2-10 the models d isc u sse d in th is c h ap ter are o u tlin e d and compared along ^*For r e s u l t s of o th e r s tu d ie s which focus upon th e a f t e r - e f f e c t s o f custom er-salesm an in t e r a c t io n see W illiam F. Whyte, Human R e la tio n s in th e R esta u ra n t In d u s try (New York: M cgraw-hill, I n c., 1948); George F. F. Lombard, B ehavior in a. S e llin g Group (B oston: D iv isio n of Res e a rc h, G raduate School of B usiness A d m in istra tio n, H arvard U n iv e rs ity, 1955) ; S tu a rt V. R ich, Shopping B ehavior of Departm ent S to re Custom ers. (B oston: D iv isio n of R esearch, G raduate School o f B usiness A dm inistratio n, Harvard U n iv e rs ity, 1963); M. S. G adel, "C o n cen tra tio n by S ale s men on Congenial P ro s p e c ts," Jo u rn a l o f M ark etin g. XXVIII (A p ril, 1964), 64-6.

63 s e v e ra l dim ensions. These models appear to be o rie n te d a t e i th e r p ro v id ing a s tr u c t u r a l framework o r p ro v id in g an e x p la n a tio n of consumer 48 decision-m aking and in fo rm atio n p ro c e ssin g. In a d d itio n, the c e n tra l theme or v a r ia b le,th e o u tp u ts, and the g e n era l v a r ia b le s o f each model are compared. The v a ria b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s analyzed in th e se models are fo rc e s which may a c t on human b eh av io r re g a rd le s s of w hether or n o t the person is in the in te r a c tio n a re a. Most o f the c u rre n tly e x is tin g consumer behavior models d e a l w ith buyer beh av io r in the g en eral case w ith out reg ard as to w hether the s e l l e r is a p erso n, a s e lf - s e r v ic e e s ta b lish m e n t, or a vending m achine. The consumer b eh av io r models which have been developed do n o t ad eq u ately co n sid er the s p e c ia l case of face - to -fa c e b u y e r - s e lle r in t e r a c t io n in which v a r ia b le s unique to on-going in te r a c tio n in flu e n c e the b u y e r's b eh a v io r. A model which analyzes the v a r ia b le s which are unique to on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n is needed to improve o n e 's u n d erstan d in g of the numerous fo rc e s which in flu e n c e s a b u y e r's b eh av io r. Thus in C hapter I I I f a c e -to -fa c e b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n is d iscu ssed and the b a sic components of the in te r a c tio n model of buyer beh av io r are s e t f o r th.

64 Figure 2-10 Summary Matrix of Buyer Behavior Models M icroscopic Models Comprehensive Models Engel K ornhauser Howard Berry K o lla t C h a ra c te ris tic s L az arsfe ld K o tle r Sheth Kunkel Andrea sen N icosia Blackw ell O rie n ta tio n D ecision Process Framework I n f o r m ation P ro cessing Framework Inform ation P rocessing Inform a tio n P rocessing D ecision and Purchase Process C en tral V ariab le or Theme C urrent Psycholo g ic a l S ta te V ariable Consumer "Psyche" A ttitu d e s Learning A ttitu d e s M otivation M otivation Output Purchase Product Brand D ealer Q u a n titie s Frequency Purchase In te n tio n A ttitu d e Brand A tte n tio n R ein fo rcement Punishment Ownership Purchase and Feedback Purchase P ostpurchase Feedback In tra in d iv id u a l V ariables Motives A ttitu d e s P ercep tio n Learning P e rs o n a lity X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X \o

65 Figure 2-10 Summary Matrix of Buyer Behavior Models (Continued) M icroscopic Models Comprehensive Models C h a ra c te ris tic s K ornhauser L az arsfe ld K o tle r Howard Sheth Berry Kunkel Andreasen N icosia Engel K o lla t Blackw ell In te rp e rso n a l V ariables Communications X X X Roles X Family X X X X R eference Groups X X X X X X S o cia l C lass X X X X S ubculture X X X X C ulture X X X Demographic V ariab les Age X X Sex X X Environm ental V ariables Economic F actors X X X Legal Elements X Firm A ttrib u te s X X Conmercial S tim u li X X X X X X

66 CHAPTER III INTERPERSONAL ECONOMIC TRANSACTIONS AND THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE INTERACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR The buyer b eh av io r models o u tlin e d and d iscu ssed in the previous c h a p te r re p re s e n t a wide v a r i a t i o n in th e le v e l of a n a ly s is. Some of the models are r a th e r m icroscopic and thus focus upon s p e c if ic compon en ts of buyer b eh av io r such as the c o g n itiv e p ro cesses of buyer d e c is io n making. O ther more com prehensive models have been c o n stru c te d to e x p la in the r e la tio n s h ip s among a la rg e r number o f fo rces th a t a f f e c t buyer b eh a v io r. None o f th e se m odels, re g a rd le s s of the o r ie n ta tio n, e x p la in th e e f f e c t s of the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r upon the b u y e r's beh av io r during on-going in te r a c tio n. With exception of the Willett-Pennington research, the studies which pertain to face-to-face buyer-seller interaction focus upon measuring one or more after-effects of such interaction. Research dealing with buyer-seller interaction has neglected the variables which are unique to on-going interaction. The purposes o f t h i s c h a p te r are (1) to b r i e f l y d e sc rib e human in t e r a c t io n and i t s r e la tio n s h ip s to in te rp e rs o n a l e v a lu a tio n of b eh av io r, (2) to s e t f o r th and d is c u ss the two m ajor components of th e b u y e r's t o t a l payoff in an in te rp e rs o n a l economic tr a n s a c tio n, and (3) to p re se n t th e b a s ic components of the in t e r a c t io n model o f buyer b eh av io r. 51

67 52 Human I n te r a c tio n and In te rp e rs o n a l E v a lu a tio n of B ehavior Although not s p e c if i c a l ly d e fin e d In the f i r s t c h a p te r, s o c ia l I n te r a c tio n was d e scrib e d In term s o f I t s boundaries ss a r is in g when a t le a s t two persons are in each o t h e r 's presence e i th e r s p a t i a l l y or s o c ia lly and a t le a s t one in d iv id u a l is aware of the o th e r. For the purpose of th is re s e a rc h s o c ia l in t e r a c t io n w ill be viewed in term s of tw o-person, f a c e -to -fa c e in te r a c tio n. A ccording to George H erb ert Mead, in te r a c tio n may be viewed as being e i th e r "non-sym bolic" or "sym bolic."* Non-symbolic in te r a c tio n occurs when an in d iv id u a l r e a c ts to th e beh av io r of an o th er w ith o u t attem p tin g to d e fin e o r i n t e r p r e t the a c tio n s of th a t p erson. For example, an in v o lu n ta ry r e f le x a c tio n in response to the b eh av io r of ano th e r is a component a c t of non-sym bolic in te r a c tio n. Symbolic in te r a c tio n is a p ro cess in which both in d iv id u a ls in t e r p r e t the a c t i v i t i e s of the o th e r and convey to the o th e r the manner in which he is expected to behave. Through th is process each p a r t i c i pant interm eshes h is a c ts w ith those o f th e o th e r person and in tu rn guides the o th e r in so doing. H e rb ert Blumer in d e sc rib in g s o c ia l in t e r - 2 a c tio n s t a t e s : S o cia l in te r a c tio n is a p ro cess th a t forms human conduct in ste a d o f being m erely a means o r a s e tt in g fo r the e x p ressio n or r e le a s e of human conduct. Put sim ply, human beings in in te r a c tin g w ith one an o th er have to tak e account of what each o th e r is doing o r is about to do; they are fo rced to d ir e c t th e i r own conduct or handle th e i r s itu a tio n s in term s o f what they take in to acco u n t. *George H erb ert Mead, The P hilosophy o f the Act (C hicago: U n iv e rs ity of Chicago P re s s, 1938), pp The o H erb ert Blumer, Symbolic I n te r a c tio n is m. (Englewood C l i f f s, New J e rs e y : P r e n tic e -H a ll, I n c., 1969), p. 8.

68 53 Thus, the a c t i v i t i e s of o th e rs e n te r as p o s itiv e fa c to rs in the form ation of th e ir own conduct. In face of th e a c tio n s of o th e rs one may abandon an in te n tio n o r purpose, re v is e i t, check o r s u s pend i t, in te n s if y i t, or re p la c e i t. The a c tio n s of o th e rs e n te r to s e t what one plans to do, may oppose or p revent such p la n s, may re q u ire a re v is io n of such p la n s, and may demand a very d if f e r e n t s e t of such p la n s. One has to f i t o n e 's own lin e of a c t i v i t y in some manner to the a c tio n s of o th e rs. Human in te r a c tio n is a form ation p rocess of behavior and is not ju s t an arena fo r exchanging behavior which is supposedly pre-form ed by fa c to rs in each in d iv id u a l's p sy ch o lo g ical and s o c io lo g ic a l m ilie u. As shown in C hapter I I, many of the c u rre n tly e x is tin g consumer behavior models in d ic a te th a t a b u y e r's behavior is a fu n c tio n of such p sy c h o lo g ical v a ria b le s as needs, m otives, d riv e s, a t tit u d e s and p erso n a l i t y, and such s o c io lo g ic a l v a ria b le s as s ta t u s, r o le s, norms, and re fe re n c e groups. Even though these p r e - e x is tin g fa c to rs in flu en ce o n e 's b eh av io r, i t seems probable th a t buyers and s e l l e r s do not e n te r in to s o c ia l in te r a c tio n as t o t a l l y programmed u n its and e x h ib it a c tio n s th a t are s o le ly consequences of these f a c to r s. The e x iste n c e of human in te r a c tio n, as d e scrib e d thus f a r, supp o rts the b a sic assum ption th a t an in d iv id u a l p la c e s a v alu e upon the 4 behavior of an o th er in d iv id u a l. As in d ic a te d by th is d e fin tio n, in te r a c tin g persons each a d ju s t t h e i r behavior as a fu n c tio n of the b e h a v io r of the o th e r. In o rd er to interm esh h is behavior w ith th a t of a n o th e r, an in d iv id u a l must e v a lu a te the a c tio n s o f the o th e r person. Through th is process of e v a lu a tio n p a r tic ip a n ts a s s o c ia te or a tta c h a 3I b i d., pp The term "v alu e" in re fe re n c e to behavior is used in th is chapte r to r e f e r to a w eighting or a v alen ce th a t one p la ces upon the behavior of an o th e r. The valence or w eight may be p o s itiv e, n e g a tiv e, or zero which would be t o t a l in d iffe re n c e.

69 54 v alu e to the beh av io r o f the o th e r In d iv id u a l. I f the behavior o f Person B Is p le a s u ra b le, fa v o ra b le, and rew arding to Person A, he a tta c h e s a p o s itiv e v alu e to such b eh a v io r. L ikew ise, i f Person B 's behavior is u n p le a sa n t, Person A a s s o c ia te s a n e g a tiv e v alu e to B 's b eh av io r. These v a lu e s th a t one a tta c h e s to the behavior of an o th er person are b eh av io ral pay o ffs The e v a lu a tio n s th a t Person A p la c e s upon the behavior of Person B a r e, to some e x te n t, a fu n c tio n o f the v a lu e s th a t Person A a tta c h e s to h is own beh av io r th a t is re q u ire d to interm esh w ith the behavior of P erson B. In interm esh in g o n e 's b eh av io r w ith th a t of an o th e r, i f an in d iv id u a l has to make b e h a v io ra l ad ju stm en ts which he p e rce iv es to be u n fa v o ra b le, then the v a lu e s a s s o c ia te d w ith the beh av io r receiv ed from the o th e r person are w eighted in a n eg ativ e d ir e c tio n. The r e s u ltin g b e h a v io ra l payoff fo r the in d iv id u a l may s t i l l be p o s itiv e even though to a le s s e r d eg ree. I f a p erso n, in in te r a c tin g w ith an o th e r, e x h ib its b eh av io r th a t he p e rc e iv e s as fa v o ra b le, then the r e s u lt in g b eh av io ral payoff from the o t h e r 's beh av io r is e v alu ate d in a p o s itiv e d ir e c tio n to a g re a te r e x te n t. Thus, in human in te r a c tio n the v a lu e s th a t one a tta c h e s to the beh av io r o f a n o th er person are a fu n c tio n o f both h is own beh av io r and the b eh av io r of the o th e r in d iv id u a l. I f an in d iv id u a l d u rin g in te r a c tio n a tta c h e s a v alu e to the b e h a v io r of the o th e r p erso n, one may assume th a t fo r a s p e c ia l case of human in te r a c tio n such as an in te rp e rs o n a l economic tr a n s a c tio n, the For two th e o r e tic a l frameworks which d eal w ith the s tr u c tu re of in te rp e rs o n a l in t e r a c t io n see John W. T hibaut and H arold H. K elley, The S o c ia l Psychology of Groups (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1959), pp. 9-50" and George Casper Homans, S o cia l B eh av io r: I t s Elem entary Forms (New York: H arco u rt, B race, and W orld, I n c., 1961), pp

70 s e l l e r a tta c h e s a v alu e to the b u y e r's b eh av io r and th e buyer p la c e s a v alu e upon th e beh av io r o f th e s e l l e r. 55 P ayoffs o f In te rp e rs o n a l Economic T ra n sa c tio n s An in te rp e rs o n a l economic tr a n s a c tio n occurs between two or more p ersons and is "an exchange along w ith th e a tte n d a n t b a rg a in in g or negotiations."** For purposes of a n a ly s is the goods, s e r v ic e s, and/or money involved in the tr a n s a c tio n are c a lle d th e o b je c ts o f the tr a n s a c tio n. Each in te r a c tin g p erso n a t a given p o in t in tim e p la ces an e v a lu a tio n on both the o b je c ts o f th e tr a n s a c tio n which he p o ssesses and upon th o se possessed by the o th e r p erso n. The v a lu e s which the buyer and th e s e l l e r p la c e on th e o b je c ts of th e tr a n s a c tio n may be e i t h e r p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e a t a given p o in t in tim e. I f exchange a c tu a lly o c c u rs, the d iffe re n c e between the v alu e one p la ces on the o b je c t o r o b je c ts he is re c e iv in g and th e v alu e of the o b je c t which he is g iv in g up is a n e t v a lu e which becomes a m ajor componen t of the t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p ayoff fo r th e in d i v id u a l.7 In f a c e -to - f a c e b u y e r - s e lle r i n t e r a c t io n, more is exchanged than j u s t the o b je c ts of th e tr a n s a c tio n. As buyers and s e l l e r s i n t e r a c t, they exchange b eh av io r. Each in d iv id u a l p la c e s a v alu e upon the behavio r th a t he re c e iv e s from th e o th e r. The b u y e r's e v a lu a tio n of the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r a f f e c ts th e b u y e r's b eh av io r which in tu rn in flu e n c e s the s e l l e r 's e v a lu a tio n of the b u y er. The e v a lu a tio n th a t the buyer and the s e l l e r p la c e on each o t h e r 's b eh av io r is a n o th er m ajor component ^A lfred Kuhn, The Study o f S o c ie ty : A U n ified Approach (Homewood, I l l i n o i s : R ichard D. Irw in, I n c., 1963), p I b i d.. p. 267.

71 5 6 of the tra n s a c tio n a l pay o ff and is extrem ely v i t a l In I t s e f f e c t s upon the outcomes of b u y e r - s e lle r I n te r a c tio n. Thus, in an aly zin g economic tra n s a c tio n s one may view e i t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t 's t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l payo ff as c o n s is tin g o f two components in c lu d in g (1) a payoff from the n e t v a lu e of the o b je c ts of the tra n s a c tio n and (2) a payoff a r is in g from th e beh av io r of the o th e r p erson. Since the in t e r a c t io n model of buyer b eh av io r, which w ill be in tro d u ced in th is c h a p te r, focuses upon how the s e l l e r 's beh av io r a f f e c t s the b u y e r's b e h a v io r, th e b e h a v io ra l component of the t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l payoff is analyzed subseq u en tly in term s of the b u y e r's t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p a y o ff. A s im ila r type of a n a ly s is could be perform ed from the s e l l e r 's p o in t of view because the s e l l e r 's t o t a l tra n s a c tio n a l p ay o ff a lso c o n s is ts o f a b e h a v io ra l p ayoff and an o b je c t p ay o ff. In F igure 3-1 is d e p ic te d a diagram th a t shows fo u r b a sic s e ts o f p o te n tia l t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p ayoffs th a t a buyer may acq u ire from th e o b je c ts of the tr a n s a c tio n and from the s e l l e r 's beh av io r th a t he re c e iv e s in the tr a n s a c tio n. C ontained in Q uadrant 1 are tra n s a c tio n a l p ay o ffs c o n s is tin g of p o s itiv e pay o ffs from both the o b je c t and behavior re c e iv e d. Since both the b e h a v io ra l p ay o ff and the o b je c t pay o ff are p o s itiv e, the e n t ir e s e t of p o te n tia l t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l pay o ffs are p o s i t i v e. The p o te n tia l t o t a l tra n s a c tio n a l p ay o ffs in Q uadrant 2 are a fu n c tio n of n eg ativ e or u n fav o rab le beh av io r re ce iv ed from the s e l l e r and a p o s itiv e pay o ff re c e iv e d from the o b je c ts of the tr a n s a c tio n. For exam ple, a buyer may to l e r a te the u n p le a sa n t a c tio n s o f a sn o b -lik e s e l l e r in o rd er to a c q u ire a product which he (th e buyer) p e rc e iv e s to have a la rg e p o s itiv e p ay o ff. On the o th e r hand, the presen ce and

72 57 BUYER'S PAYOFF FROM THE BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT OF THE TOTAL TRANSACTIONAL PAYOFF Negative Q uadrant 2 P o s itiv e Q uadrant 1 <u > BUYER'S TRANSACTIONAL PAYOFF ARISING FROM OBJECTS OF THE TRANSACTION H 01 O tu <u > CO z P o s itiv e or N egative T o tal T ra n sa c tio n a l P ayoffs Q uadrant 3 P o s itiv e T o tal T ra n sa c tio n a l P ayoffs.quadrant 4 N egative T o tal T ra n sa c tio n a l P ayoffs P o s itiv e or N egative T o tal T ra n sa c tio n a l Payoffs F igure 3-1 P o te n tia l Outcomes For the B u y er's T otal T ra n s a c tio n a l Payoff

73 b ehavior of such a s e l l e r may become so u n p le a sa n t, th a t the t o t a l tr a n s 58 a c tio n a l p ay o ff becomes n e g a tiv e. Thus, the p o te n tia l outcomes in Q uadrant 2 could be e i th e r p o s itiv e o r n eg ativ e t o t a l tra n s a c tio n a l payo f f s depending upon the d ir e c tio n and s tre n g th of both payoff compon en ts. Q uadrant 3 outcomes are a com bination of both n e g a tiv e o b je c t pay o ffs and n e g a tiv e behavior p a y o ffs. An example of th is type of in te r a c tio n might a r is e when the buyer, a f t e r exam ining a p a r ti c u la r p ro d u ct, fin d s the p roduct in f e r i o r and the s e l l e r 's beh av io r u n p le a s a n t. Such in te r a c tio n r e s u l t s in a n e g a tiv e t o t a l tra n s a c tio n a l payoff fo r the buyer and thus does not lead to com pleted economic tr a n s a c tio n s. The t o t a l tra n s a c tio n a l pay o ffs in Q uadrant 4 a r is e from a comb in a tio n of a p o s itiv e b e h a v io ra l payoff and a n e g a tiv e o b je c t p ay o ff. A buyer m ight p a r ti c ip a te in a tr a n s a c tio n in which th e s e l l e r 's presence and b eh av io r is v ery rew arding w h ile the payoff re c e iv e d from a c q u irin g the o b je c t h eld by the s e l l e r i s m ild ly n e g a tiv e causing the t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p ay o ff to be p o s itiv e fo r the buyer. I t is not unusual to fin d te en -ag e g i r l s s e llin g poppies r a th e r than old v e te ra n s. Conv e r s e ly, th e t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l payoff fo r the buyer could be n eg ativ e i f the o b je c t component is extrem ely u n a ttr a c tiv e and the s e l l e r 's b e h a v io r is only m ild ly rew arding. In any o f the qu ad ran ts in F igure 3-1 and e s p e c ia lly in Q uadrants 2 and 4, the case may a r is e in which pro d u cts and money are not a c tu a lly exchanged thus causing the payoff from the o b je c ts o f the tr a n s a c tio n to be z e ro. Even though the o b je c t payoff is z e ro, beh av io r is exchanged, and the buyer re c e iv e s e i th e r a p o s itiv e or a n e g a tiv e p ay o ff from the s e l l e r 's b e h a v io r. In th is case the b e h av io ral payoff becomes the t o t a l

74 tr a n s a c tio n a l payo f. The wide v a r ia tio n in the p o te n tia l tra n s a c tio n a l p ay o ffs re p re sen ted in th e q u ad ran ts in F igure 3-1 I l l u s t r a t e s, to some e x te n t, th a t th e s e l l e r 's b eh av io r may c o n trib u te e i t h e r p o s itiv e ly o r n e g a tiv e ly to the b u y e r's t o t a l tra n s a c tio n a l p ay o ff. Thus the b u y e r's e v a lu a tio n of the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r has a d e f in i te e f f e c t upon the outcome of the tr a n s a c tio n. The in te r a c tio n model of buyer beh av io r attem p ts to d e sc rib e the m ajor in t e r a c t io n v a r ia b le s and t h e i r in te r r e la tio n s h ip s which in flu e n c e the p ro cess and outcome of th e b u y e r's e v a lu a tio n of the s e l l e r 's b e h a v io r. The model focuses d ir e c tly upon the fo rc e s, unique to on-going in t e r a c t io n, from which the buyer d e riv e s a behavio r a l payoff from the beh av io r of the s e l l e r. The I n te r a c tio n Model As in d ic a te d in the f i r s t s e c tio n of th is c h a p te r, the p rocess of human in te r a c tio n re q u ire s th a t each p a r tic ip a n t e v a lu a te the behavio r of the o th e r in d iv id u a l. The b a sic u n d erly in g assum ption of the in te r a c tio n model of buyer behavior is th a t th e buyer p la ces a value upon the behavior of th e s e l l e r and th a t th is v alu e becomes a p a r t of th e t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p a y o ff. Based upon t h i s assum ption the main purpose of the in t e r a c t io n model of buyer beh av io r is to s e t fo rth the m ajor v a r ia b le s and in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s which in flu e n c e a b u y e r's d e te r m in atio n of a b e h a v io ra l payoff acq u ired durin g on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. In th is s e c tio n the b a s ic components o f the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r are p re se n te d. S p e c ific a lly, the b o undaries as w ell as the m ajor v a r ia b le s are s e t f o r th.

75 60 Boundaries of the Model Since th is model is m icroscopic in i t s focus upon buyer b eh av io r, i t is n ece ssary to c l a r i f y s e v e ra l b o u n d arie s. F i r s t, the s e l l e r in the model is a perso n ai.d n o t a m achine, a company, o r a group of p e r sonal salesm en. Second, th e buyer in th i s model i s n o t the economic r a tio n a l man. The buyer is n o t an economic r a ti o n a l man in the c l a s s i c a l sense because (1) he does n o t p o ssess p e r f e c t in fo rm atio n about th e m arket, (2) he is n o t aware of a l l of the a l te r n a t iv e s th a t m ight solve h is p urchasing problem s a t a p a r t i c u l a r p o in t in tim e, (3) he does not posse ss knowledge of th e p o s s ib le consequences of the a l te r n a t iv e s th a t do reach aw areness, and (4) he is n o t a b le to in d ic a te h is p re fe re n c e s in term s of a c a rd in a l m easure of u t i l i t y. Q T h ird, th e buyer and s e l l e r in the in t e r a c t io n arena do not e x is t in s o c ia l is o la tio n b e fo re in te r a c tin g w ith each o th e r. Each e n te rs th e tr a n s a c tio n a l s i t u a t i o n w ith c e r t a in m o tiv es, a t t i t u d e s, and g o a ls. Both p a r tic ip a n ts have been su b jected to s o c ia l in flu e n c e such as th e fam ily, p eer groups, re fe re n c e groups, s o c ia l c la s s, and subc u ltu r a l f a c t o r s. F o u rth, b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n e x i s t s whenever the buyer or the s e l l e r is aware of the o t h e r 's p resen ce. The V a ria b le s A s tr u c t u r a l framework fo r th e I n te r a c tio n model is s e t fo rth in F ig u re 3-2. Even though th i s model focuses upon the buyer, h is Q James G. March and H erb ert A. Simon, O rg an izatio n s John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1958), p (New York:

76 Information Interpersonal A ttractio n Interpersonal Perception Interpersonal Techniques P o ten tial A ttraction E ffects Impression And Valence Of The S eller Impression And Valence Of The Buyer P o ten tial A ttractio n E ffects Interpersonal Techniques Interpersonal Perception Interpersonal A ttraction BUYER Information SELLER Figure 3-2 The S tru ctu ral Framework of the In tera ctio n Model of Buyer Behavior

77 6 2 behavior is viewed as a fu n c tio n o f the s e l l e r 's b eh a v io r. Thus both the buyer and the s e l l e r are d e p ic te d in F igure 3-2. Endogenous V ariab les Three m ajor s e ts of endogenous v a ria b le s which a re a c tiv e w ith in the in d iv id u a l and th a t p lay an im portant ro le in determ ining the b eh av io ral payoff th a t the buyer re c e iv e s through in te r a c tio n w ith the s e l l e r in clu d e (1) in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n, (2) in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n, Q and (3) p o te n tia l e f f e c t s o f a t t r a c t i o n. A fo u rth s e t of endogenous v a r ia b le s, in te rp e rs o n a l te c h n iq u e s, are included as a n c illa r y v a ria b le s which fu n c tio n to f a c i l i t a t e b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. The p ro cess of person p e rc e p tio n occurs on the p a rt of both the buyer and the s e l l e r. The b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of the s e l l e r is based upon in fo rm atio n in p u ts s e n t from (o r observed about) the s e l l e r. The s e l l e r 's p e rc e p tio n of the buyer is based upon in fo rm atio n in p u ts sen t from (o r observed about) th e b u y er. In te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n occurs when one of the in te r a c ta n ts a ssig n s a p o s itiv e v alen ce to th e Im pression which he has formed of the o t h e r. L i k e w i s e, in te rp e rs o n a l r e je c ti o n a r is e s due to the a s s ig n ment of a n e g a tiv e v alen ce to o n e 's im pression of an o th er in d iv id u a l. In the in te ra c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r one s e t of an aly ses focuses upon th e v a r ia b le s which a f f e c t th e b u y e r's assignm ent o f a valence to h is im pression of the s e l l e r. The p o te n tia l e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n upon th e buyer may in flu en ce 9 A. H a sto rf and J u d ith P o le fk a, Person P e rc e p tio n. (R eading, Massa c h u s e tts : Addison-W esley P u b lish in g Company, 1969), pp *^A. P ep ito n e and J. S herberg: "C ognitive F acto rs in In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n," Jo u rn a l o f P e r s o n a lity. XXV (June, 1957.), '757-

78 both the b u y e r's o v e rt b eh av io r and h is c o g n itiv e s tr u c tu r e. These e f 6 3 f e c ts are sen t to the s e l l e r through s o c ia l te c h n iq u e s. The re a c tio n s of th e s e l l e r to th e se types of in p u ts become in fo rm atio n in p u ts fo r the buyer which ag ain may a f f e c t the b u y e r's im pression and v alence a s s o c ia te d w ith the s e l l e r. In te rp e rs o n a l tech n iq u es a re the methods used by in te r a c tin g in d iv id u a ls to send u n it s o f in fo rm atio n to each o th e r. These techniques may be v e rb a l o r n o n -v e rb a l. Persons u t i l i z e s o c ia l tech n iq u es both co n scio u sly and u n co n scio u sly. The in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r d o n ta in s an a n a ly sis o f fiv e c a te g o rie s of in te rp e rs o n a l tech n iq u es in c lu d in g (1) proxemic com m unication, (2) k in e s ic com m unication, (3) t a c t i l e communication, (4) language, and (5) p a r a l in g u is ti c com m unication.** Proxemic communic a tio n is b e h a v io ra l e x p re ssio n which occurs by changing s p a t i a l d is ta n c e between the buyer and the s e l l e r durin g in t e r a c t io n. K in esic communicatio n is tra n s m itte d through the m otion o f the body or p a r ts of the body. T a c tile communication is s o c ia l b eh av io r which is sen t to th e re c e iv e r through touch. P a r a lin g u is tic communication i s b eh av io r th a t is se n t to the re c e iv e r through n o n -v erb al speech. V erbal speech is communicativ e beh av io r s e n t to th e re c e iv e r by a s o c ia lly learn ed system of v o cal a c t i v i t i e s. A ll persons develop a r e p e r to ir e o f in te rp e rs o n a l te ch n iq u e s. An in d iv id u a l does n o t use the same s o c ia l tech n iq u es in d e a lin g w ith a l l people w ith whom he comes in c o n ta c t. Even in a s p e c if ic i n t e r p e rso n a l encounter such as a b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n th e re is wide **Mark Abrahamson, In te rp e rs o n a l Accomodation (New York: N ostrand Company, I n c., 1966), p. 36. D. Van

79 64 v a r ia tio n in the s o c ia l methods u t i l i z e d. Exogenous V ariab les Since a model, being a s im p lifie d re p re s e n ta tio n of re a l world phenomena, allow s one to focus upon two o r more major v a ria b le s and th e ir r e la tio n s h ip s, i t becomes n ece ssary to d e lim it from th e a n a ly sis a larg e number of v a ria b le s of le s s e r im portance in term s of th e ir in flu en ce upon the e x iste n c e of the phenomena. The in te r a c tio n model of buyer behavior is a m icroscopic model. G en erally, m icroscopic models focus upon a r a th e r lim ite d p o rtio n of r e a l w orld phenomena. Since models in g en eral deal w ith a lim ite d number o f v a r ia b le s and m icroscopic models are o rie n te d toward a v ery sm all number of v a r ia b le s, i t is n ecessary fo r purposes of c l a r i f i c a t i o n to p re s e n t the exogenous v a r ia b le s which in flu e n c e the m ajor v a ria b le s included in the model but y e t are not ex p lain ed by the model. The fa c t th a t the exogenous v a r ia b le s are n o t analyzed in the model is not meant to imply th a t these v a ria b le s do not have e f f e c ts upon th e o th e r v a ria b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s in the in t e r a c t io n model of buyer b eh av io r. However, to sim p lify the a n a ly s is, the exogenous v a ria b le s are tr e a te d as cons ta n ts. As s ta te d e a r l i e r in term s of a boundary, the buyer and the s e l l e r in the in te r a c tio n arena do not e x i s t in s o c ia l is o la tio n p r io r to in te r a c tio n. Each in d iv id u a l as a p a r t of s o c ie ty is a member of se v e ra l s o c ia l system s. Persons both a f f e c t and are a ffe c te d by the s o c ia l system s in which they p a r t i c i p a t e. As p a r tic ip a n ts in s o c ia l sy s tems in d iv id u a ls a re in flu e n c e d by v a rio u s components of s o c ia l s tru c tu re s such as norms and r o le s. Even though buyers and s e l l e r s b rin g w ith them

80 6 5 in to the in te r a c tio n arena p o te n tia l b e h a v io ra l responses th a t are a fu n c tio n o f t h e i r norms and r o le s, the e f f e c t s of norms and ro le s upon on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in t e r a c t io n a re co n sid ered to be exogenous v a r i a b le s. The components of s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e such as norms and ro le s are v a r ia b le s which a s s i s t in e x p la in in g the s i m i l a r i t i e s in human behavior th a t a r is e due to th e e x iste n c e of s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e. The in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r tak es as a given th e presence of s o c ia l s tr u c tu re and focuses upon a s e t of v a r ia b le s which cause v a r i a b i l i t y in behavior durin g b u y e r - s e lle r in t e r a c t io n. B u y e r-s e lle r in te r a c tio n occurs in an environm ent. From th is environm ent a m u ltitu d e of fo rc e s are e x e rte d upon the buyer and s e l l e r. M ajor c a te g o rie s of environm ental elem ents in clu d e economic f a c to r s, te c h n o lo g ic a l fo rc e s, and governm ental and le g a l v a r ia b le s. Although environm ental fo rc e s are a c tiv e b e fo re, d u rin g, and a f t e r a s p e c ific b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n, th e se f a c to r s are considered to be exogenous v a r ia b le s because th e in t e r a c t io n model of buyer behavior focuses upon v a r ia b le s th a t are a c tiv e s p e c i f i c a l l y d u rin g in te r a c tio n and tend to be r a th e r in a c tiv e p r io r to and a f t e r in te r a c tio n. A th ir d s e t of -exogenous v a r ia b le s in clu d e needs, m otives, and p erso n al g o als of both the buyer and th e s e l l e r. Each p a r tic ip a n t b rin g s h is n eed s, m o tiv es, and goals w ith him to the in te r a c tio n aren a. are v a r ia b le s th a t in flu e n c e the b eh av io r of buyers and s e l l e r s. These Howe v e r, fo r purposes of the in t e r a c t io n model of buyer b eh av io r, th ese v a r ia b le s are co n sid ered to be exogenous* because they are fo rces which,

81 to a la rg e e x te n t, are g en erated p r io r to in t e r a c t io n. Needs, m otives, and p erso n al g o als are f a c to r s th a t are a p a r t of each p a r t i c i p a n t 's p sy ch o lo g ical s e t w hich, to some d egree, has a p re -sh a p in g e f f e c t upon b ehavior in in te r a c tio n. 13 These v a r ia b le s in flu e n c e o n e 's behavior w hether or n o t the person is in the in te r a c tio n a re n a. The endogenous v a r ia b le s in the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r are a c tiv e s p e c i f i c a l l y d u rin g in te r a c tio n and a re r e l a t i v e l y in a c tiv e p r io r to and a f t e r in te r a c tio n. The exogenous v a r ia b le s re p re s e n t f a c to r s which are n o t explained by the model. Y et, the f a c t th a t th e se v a r ia b le s are r e fe rre d to as being exogenous does n o t in d ic a te th a t they do n o t have an e f f e c t upon the b eh av io r o f both buyers and s e l l e r s. B u y e r-s e lle r in te r a c tio n does n ot occur in s o c ia l is o la tio n w ith each p a r ti c ip a n t u sin g a s p e c ia l p sy ch o lo g ical s e t j u s t fo r in te r a c tio n. Thus, the s e p a ra tio n of v a r i a b le s in to endogenous and exogenous c a te g o rie s is somewhat vague. Summary The pro cess of in te rp e rs o n a l in te r a c tio n re q u ire s the p a r t i c i pants to e v a lu a te each o t h e r 's b e h a v io r. O ne's b eh av io r e x h ib ite d during in te r a c tio n may be rew arding o r p u n ish in g to the re c e iv e r of the behavio r. R egardless of w hether th e b eh av io r is rew arding or p u n ish in g, i t re p re s e n ts a payoff to th e re c e iv e r. In d e a lin g w ith in te rp e rs o n a l economic tra n s a c tio n s the m ajor focus tends to be upon the v a lu e s th a t th e p a r tic ip a n ts p la ce upon the o b je c ts s u b je c t to exchange. The em phasis seems to be upon th e r e l a t i v e 12 H erb ert Blumer, Symbolic I n te r a c tio n is m. (Englewood C l i f f s, New J e rs e y : P r e n tic e -H a ll, I n c., 1969), pp Ibid.

82 67 d iffe re n c e s in th e v alu es th a t each person h o ld s fo r th e o b je c ts under h is c o n tro l and fo r the o b je c ts under c o n tro l o f the o th e r person. I f the exchange a c tu a lly occurs th e payoff to both the buyer and the s e l l e r Is g e n e ra lly a fu n c tio n of the r e l a t i v e d iffe re n c e s In v alu e th a t each person holds fo r the o b je c ts o f the tr a n s a c tio n. Although the payoff one re c e iv e s from the o b je c t he acq u ires is a m ajor component of the t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p a y o ff, th e behavior ex h ib ite d by both th e buyer and the s e l l e r durin g in te r a c tio n is of v alu e to each o th e r. The v alu e th a t the buyer p la c e s upon the s e l l e r 's behavio r is a ls o a component of the b u y e r's t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p ay o ff. The in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r p e r ta in s s p e c if ic a lly to the v a r ia b le s and th e ir in t e r r e la tio n s h ip s which s ig n if i c a n tl y a f f e c t the b u y e r'8 d e te rm in a tio n of a b e h a v io ra l payoff acq u ired through i n t e r a c tio n w ith the s e l l e r. In C hapter I I a survey of s e le c te d buyer beh av io r models in d ic a te d th a t th e v a r ia b le s, which are unique to on-going in te r a c tio n between th e buyer and th e s e l l e r, have been n e g le c te d. The i n i t i a l s e c tio n of C hapter I I I d e a lt w ith the assum ption th a t an in te r a c ta n t a ssig n s a v alu e to the beh av io r of the o th e r in d iv id u a l w ith whom he is in te r a c tin g. The l a s t s e c tio n of C hapter I I I has s e t fo rth the major components o f a model th a t focuses upon th e v a r ia b le s of on-going i n t e r a c tio n which are a c tiv e in determ in in g th e b u y e r's b e h a v io ra l payoff aqcuired through in te r a c tio n w ith the s e l l e r. C hapter IV is the f i r s t o f a s e r ie s of th re e c h a p te rs which an aly zes in d e t a i l the v a ria b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s of the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r. S p e c ific a l ly, the a n a ly s is in C hapter IV d e a ls w ith the d eterm in an ts of the b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r.

83 CHAPTER IV THE INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTUAL VARIABLES OF THE INTERACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR In the f i r s t s e c tio n of C hapter I I I the pro cess of human i n t e r a c tio n was d iscu ssed b r i e f l y. As was p o in te d out human in te r a c tio n n e c e s s ita te s each in te r a c ta n t to e v a lu a te the b eh av io r of the o th er in d iv id u a l. The m ajor assum ption o f the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b e h a v io r is th a t the buyer e v a lu a te s the b eh av io r of th e s e l l e r and, based upon th i s e v a lu a tio n, the buyer d e riv e s a b e h a v o ria l payoff by i n t e r a c tin g w ith the s e l l e r. The b e h a v io ra l pay o ff becomes a p a r t of the b u y e r's t o t a l tr a n s a c tio n a l p a y o ff. The m ajor o b je c tiv e of th i s c h a p te r is to is o la te and analyze the d eterm in an ts o f the b u y e r's im pression o f the s e l l e r which in tu rn a f f e c ts the d e te rm in a tio n of a b e h a v io ra l pay o ff a c q u ired through in te r a c tio n w ith the s e l l e r. In o rd e r to accom plish t h i s o b je c tiv e, the v a ria b le s o r fo rc e s which a f f e c t the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n, and thus h is im pression, of the s e l l e r are c o n sid e re d. S p e c if ic a lly, the an aly se s focus upon (1) the b a sic p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s, (2) the c o g n itiv e f a c to r s of im pressio n form ation, (3) the o rd er e f f e c t s of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, (4) the p e rc e p tio n of human p h y sic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, and (5) the p ro cess of a t t r i b u t i o n. As in d ic a te d in th e lim ita tio n s s e c tio n o f the f i r s t c h a p te r, the v a ria b le s s e le c te d fo r in c lu s io n in th e model a re, to a la rg e degree, 6 8

84 6 9 determined by the extent to which the variables have been researched empirically. Thus, the ive major variables discussed in thl-s chapter have been included in the model because they have been the main focus of empirical research in the area of interpersonal perception and impression formation. There may be other major variables, which influence the buyer's perception and impression of the seller, that have not been ascertained through empirical research. Set fo rth in F ig u re 4-1 is the s tr u c t u r a l framework of the i n t e r a c tio n model of buyer b eh a v io r. The m ajor components which are analyzed in th is c h a p te r are o u tlin e d in a d ark er li n e. Even though the emphasis is upon the buyer, one should keep in mind th a t the s e l l e r a lso d eriv e s a b e h a v io ra l payoff from in te r a c tin g w ith the buyer. Many o f the v a r i a b les which are analyzed in term s of u ltim a te ly in flu e n c in g the b u y e r's d e riv a tio n of a b e h a v io ra l payoff are a ls o a c tiv e in in flu e n c in g the s e l l e r 's d e riv a tio n of b e h a v io ra l p a y o ff. A buyer, in o rd e r to i n i t i a t e an d /o r continue in te r a c tio n w ith the s e l l e r, must p e rce iv e c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the s e l l e r. The b u y e r's concept or im pression of the s e l l e r i s, to a la rg e d eg ree, a fu n c tio n o f b u y e r*8 pro cess of person p e rc e p tio n. Since the b a s ic process of p e rc e p tio n i s o p e ra tin g when the buyer in t e r a c t s w ith the s e l l e r, a des c r ip tio n of a b a s ic p e rc e p tu a l p ro cess is n ec e ssa ry. The Perceptual Process The process of perception allows the human being to create some degree of meaning from the information inputs which he receives through

85 Interpersonal Perception Perceptual Process Interpersonal Cognitive A ttractio n H Factors Order E ffects Perception Of Physical C h aracteristics A ttrib u tio n Information Techniques P otential A ttraction Effects Impression And Valence Of The S eller I Impression I And Valence \ Of The Buyer P o ten tial A ttractio n E ffects Interpersonal Techniques Information Interpersonal Perception Perceptual Process Cognitive Factors Order E ffects Perception of Physical C h aracteristics A ttribution A ttraction BUYER SELLER Figure 4-1 The In tera ctio n Model of Buyer Behavior: Focus Upon The V ariables of Interpersonal Perception

86 71 h is sense o rg an s. The meaning th a t one develops may d i f e r from one p o in t in time to a n o th e r. At a given p o in t in tim e, two p ersons may p ro duce d if f e r e n t meanings in re c e iv in g s im ila r in fo rm atio n in p u ts. A p e rs o n 's behavior is v ery much a fu n c tio n o f h is p e rc e p tio n of th e environm ent. The s e l l e r can p la ce v a rio u s cues in the environm ent of the buyer w ith th e hope th a t the cues w ill be p erce iv ed in a manner which is fa v o ra b le to the p roduct a n d /o r th e company. Because th e v a r i a tio n among p e rso n s' p e rc e p tio n s is la rg e, th e m ark eter has no r e a l assurance th a t the cues w ill evoke the intended r e s u l t.* For purposes o f a n a ly s is, p e rc e p tio n is d e fin e d as th e complex p ro cess by which an in d iv id u a l s e l e c t s, o rg a n iz e s, and in t e r p r e ts in fo r- m ation in p u ts in to a m eaningful and coh eren t p ic tu r e of th e w orld. 2 The key term s in the d e f in i ti o n of p e rc e p tio n a re s e l e c t, o rg an iz e, and i n t e r p r e t. In o rd er to g ain a b e t t e r u n d erstan d in g of p e rc e p tio n, a c lo s e r look a t p e rc e p tu a l s e le c tio n, p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n, and p e r c e p tu a l I n te r p r e ta tio n is n e c e ssa ry. P e rc e p tu a l S e le c tio n As in d ic a te d e a r l i e r n o t a l l of th e in p u ts re c e iv e d by an in d iv id u a l are used in c re a tin g a m eaningful p i c tu r e.o f the environm ent. Of a l l the in fo rm atio n in p u ts re c e iv e d only a sm all p o rtio n become a p a r t of the p e rc e iv e d ex p erie n c e. For any moment in time the human being is not capable of being aware of a l l s tim u li in h is environm ent. Due to th is ^James G. March and H erb ert A. Simon, John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1958), p. 35. O rg a n iz a tio n s. (New York: 2 Bernard B erelson and Gary A. S te in e r, Human B eh av io r: An Invento ry of S c ie n tif i c F in d in g s. (New York: H arco u rt, Brace and World, I n c., 1964), p. 8 8.

87 72 i n a b i l i t y, the in d iv id u a l " s e le c ts " some in p u ts and ig n o res o th e rs. That i s, some sensory in p u ts reach aw areness w hile o th e rs do n o t. For example, i f one is read in g t h i s paragraph and is c o n c e n tra tin g on i t s c o n te n t, he may n o t be co n sc io u sly aware th a t the li g h t is on, th a t a i r is ru sh ing through the a i r c o n d itio n in g d u c ts, th a t h is f a v o r ite music from the ra d io is reach in g h is e a r s, th a t h is co ffe e is g e ttin g c o ld, or th a t h is b eer is g e ttin g h o t. Now, sin c e some of th e se s tim u li have been mentio n e d, one o r two of th e se may reach h is aw areness. B efore th ese s tim u li were brought to aw areness h is sense organs were s t i l l re c e iv in g th e se sensory in p u ts. Some sensory in p u ts reach aw areness w hile o th e rs do n o t. 3 f a c to r s h elp to e x p la in t h i s phenomenon. S everal F i r s t, in d iv id u a ls are lik e ly to a tte n d to those environm ental a sp e c ts which they a n t ic ip a te. For exam ple, i f one is c ro ssin g a one-way s t r e e t he may check f o r t r a f f i c in only one d ir e c tio n because he a n tic ip a te s t r a f f i c from only one d ir e c tio n. Second, a person s e le c ts sensory in p u ts which he b e lie v e s w ill lead to s a t i s f a c t i o n of a c u rre n t, pow erful need. As th e need i n t e n s i f i e s, th e re is a tendency to ignore ir r e le v a n t s tim u li. When a person has been w ith o u t w ater fo r a long tim e, he w ill become more obsessed w ith fin d in g w ater as time p a ss e s, and h is aw areness of i r r e l e v a n t sensory in p u ts d e c re a se s. T h ird, a change in th e in t e n s ity of a stim u lu s may cause the sensory in p u t to be s e le c te d. In d iv id u a ls tend to adapt to c o n sta n t in t e n s i t i e s of s tim u li. They tend to "g et used to " a p a r ti c u la r in t e n s ity. 3 Ibid.. pp

88 The pro cess of becoming accustomed to a sensory in p u t is c a lle d "adapta- 4 t i o n." When one has "adapted" to a s p e c if ic in te n s ity of a stim u lu s, 73 the stim u lu s w ill no longer reach aw areness. However, i f th e in te n s ity changes, the sensory in p u t may again reach aw areness because a d a p ta tio n means th a t an in d iv id u a l ad ap ts to a s p e c if ic in te n s ity of the stim u lu s. I f a person is stu d y in g and the li g h t above him f l i c k e r s, the p e r son is li k e ly to become aware of th e l i g h t. P e rc e p tu a l s e le c tio n is only one elem ent in the pro cess of p e rc e p tio n. Because s e le c te d sensory in p u ts must be o rg an ized, p e rc e p t u a l o rg a n iz a tio n is a v ery c r i t i c a l elem ent of the p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e ss. Perceputal Organization People tend to respond to r e la tio n s h ip s c re a te d among s e v e ra l sensory in p u ts. Even though only a few s tim u li reach aw areness a t a p a r ti c u la r p o in t in tim e, they must be s tru c tu re d in such a way th a t meaning is produced. The s tr u c tu r in g o f sensory in p u ts is c a lle d p e r c e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n. In d iv id u a ls o rg an ize s e le c te d in p u ts by se v e ra l m ethods. B erelso n and S te in e r d isc u ss numerous o rg a n iz in g m ethods, th re e of which are fig u re -g ro u n d, grouping, and c lo s u re.^ These th re e methods of p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n are ex p lain ed fo r purposes of i l l u s t r a t i o n. When one o rg an izes u sin g th e p r in c ip le of fig u re -g ro u n d, a p a rt 4 James F. E ngel, David T. K o lla t, and Roger D. B lackw ell, Consumer B ehavior. (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, I n c., 1968), p. 81. ^Berelson and Steiner, loc. cit.. pp

89 o the p a tte r n stan d s o u t as the fig u re w hile a l l o th e r elem ents appear 74 to be more vague and rem ain In th e background. A lthough fig u re-g ro u n d Is o fte n I l l u s t r a t e d v is u a l ly, th e p r in c ip le can be a p p lie d to o th er se n se s. For exam ple, a buyer w h ile l i s t e n in g and c o n c e n tra tin g on the p re s e n ta tio n of a salesm an may p e rc e iv e th e words as th e f ig u r e, w hile most of th e o th e r a u d ib le n o ise s in the environm ent become the ground.** G rouping, a second means of o rg a n iz in g s e le c te d in p u ts, occurs when elem ents in an ex p erien ce o r p a tte r n are c lu s te re d according to t h e i r c o n tin u ity, s i m i l a r i t y, a n d /o r p ro x im ity. In F ig u re 4-2 one may see h o riz o n ta l rows of numbers o r v e r t i c a l columns of num bers. I f he groups in to columns, then he is grouping acco rd in g to p ro x im ity, the 1, 4, and 7 being c lo se r to g e th e r th an th e 1, 2, and 3. On the o th e r hand, i f he groups according to row s, then he is grouping due to c o n tin u ity, the s e r ie s 1, 2, and 3 being more continuous than the s e r ie s 1, 4, and 7. The elem ents in F igure 4-3 la ck s i m i l a r i t y, c o n tin u ity, and proxim ity and a re n o t so e a s ily grouped. An in d iv id u a l m ight group th e se in to a s e t o r an ag g reg ate of nine elem en ts. To i l l u s t r a t e, a buyer may p re fe r shopping a t a p a r ti c u la r r e t a i l o u t l e t because th e arrangem ent of the m erchandise more e a s ily allow s him to c a te g o riz e th e lay o u t of the s to re and thus perm it him to more q u ic k ly lo c a te th e p ro d u cts fo r which he is lo o k in g. A th ir d method th a t one u ses to o rg an iz e in fo rm atio n in p u ts is c a lle d c lo s u re. C losure occurs when an In d iv id u a l is ab le to c re a te meaning from an incom plete p a tte r n by m e n ta lly f i l l i n g in the m issing **James H. Myers and W illiam H. R eynolds, Consumer Behavior and M arketing Management. (B oston: H oughton-m ifflin Company, 1967), p. 25.

90 F igure 4-2 Grouping A ccording to Rows or Columns

91 76 IV - <? B 2 X + a 9 F ig u re 4-3 Grouping by Rows o r Columns

92 77 elem en ts. For exam ple, when Ford Motor Company s p e lls "Ford" as "F- LIGHT BULB-R-D," they expect an in d iv id u a l to m e n tally f i l l in an "0" in p la c e of the li g h t bulb in o rd er to produce a com plete word. C lo su re, lik e fig u re-g ro u n d and grouping, h e lp s an in d iv id u a l to b rin g o rd e r to in fo rm atio n in p u ts re c e iv e d through sense o rg an s. Although p e rc e p tu a l s e le c tio n and p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n are im p o rtan t elem ents in th e p ro cess of p e rc e p tio n, p e rc e p tu a l in t e r p r e t a tio n is a ls o needed to e s ta b l is h a m eaningful p ic tu re of th e w o rld. Perceptual Interpretation In fo rm atio n in p u ts a re sometimes in c o n s is te n t and ambiguous to the r e c e iv e r. The s e le c te d in p u ts may be organized in to s e v e ra l incon- g ru en t s e ts of r e la tio n s h ip s. An in d iv id u a l under th e se c o n d itio n s must i n t e r p r e t the in p u ts in a manner which is most m eaningful and c o n s is te n t w ith what he b e lie v e s to be r e a l i t y. A m biguity among In fo rm atio n in p u ts may a r is e fo r s e v e ra l reaso n s.^ F ir s t, a s in g le elem ent in the environm ent can c re a te s e v e ra l sensory in p u ts. Second, se v e ra l environm ental o b je c ts can produce r a th e r s im ila r sensory in p u ts. For exam ple, th e howl o f a c a t and th e cry of a baby produce r a th e r s im ila r in fo rm a tio n in p u ts. T h ird, sen so ry in p u ts may be ambiguous because they are weak. This weakness may a r is e because the s ig n a l is weak or because our d e te c to rs such as sense organs a re d e fe c tiv e o r lack the c a p a c ity to re c e iv e th e s ig n a ls. When re c e iv in g ambiguous in p u ts, an in d iv id u a l tends to in t e r p r e t ^Berelson and Steiner, loc. cit.. pp

93 78 In a manner which Is congruent w ith h is e x p e c ta tio n s. People see and h ear what they want to see and h e a r. The most fa m ilia r r e la tio n s h ip among the ambiguous in p u ts is g e n e ra lly the one which becomes a p a rt of the i n t e r p r e ta tio n. Humans tend to in t e r p r e t in term s of the f a m ilia r. Research by Bruner and Postman' su p p o rts the h y p o th e sis th a t people tend to in t e r p r e t according to th e i r e x p e c ta tio n s and in the Q d ir e c tio n of the f a m ilia r. S u b jects were asked to id e n tif y by c o lo r and by s u i t ra p id ly exposed p la y in g c a rd s. The cards had been a lte r e d by re v e rs in g the c o lo rs and s u its so th a t h e a r ts and diamonds were b la ck, and spades and clu b s were re d. As the cards were ra p id ly exposed to the s u b je c ts they e i t h e r id e n tif ie d the cards in term s of the normal c o lo r to s u i t r e la tio n s h ip s, o r they id e n tif ie d th e c o lo r as being p u rp le fo r a l l s u i t s. The p e rc e p tu a l p ro cess allow s an in d iv id u a l to b rin g s tr u c tu r e, 9 s t a b i l i t y, and meaning to h is w orld. P e rc e p tu a l s e le c tio n perm its one to c re a te s tr u c tu r e in h is w orld in th a t the in d iv id u a l must d eal w ith a r e l a t i v e l y sm all number of in fo rm atio n in p u ts a t a given p o in t in tim e. I f a perso n did not p o sse ss such a s e le c tiv e mechanism, h is p e rc e p tio n of th e w orld would be extrem ely c h a o tic and random. Through p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n the in d iv id u a l is a b le to e s ta b l is h o rd er among the in f o r m ation in p u ts th a t do reach aw areness thus p ro v id in g a c e r t a in degree of s t a b i l i t y to the p e r c e iv e r 's w orld. The s tr u c tu r e and s t a b i l i t y a r is in g from p e rc e p tu a l s e le c tio n and p e rc e p tu a l o rg a n iz a tio n along w ith the O Jerome S. B runer and Leo J. Postman, "On the P e rc e p tio n of In c o n g ru ity : A Paradigm," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XVIII (Decentoer, 1949), 206. Q A lb e rt H. H a s to rf, David J. S ch n eid er, and J u d ith P o le fk a, P e r son P e rc e p tio n (Reading, M assa ch u setts: Addison-W esley P u b lish in g Company, I9 6 0 ), pp. 4-9.

94 79 p ro cess of p e rc e p tu a l I n te r p r e ta tio n makes the human b ein g capable of c re a tin g v a ry in g degrees of meaning as he ex p erien ces h is w orld. Since the b a s ic p ro cess of p e rc e p tio n has been s e t f o r th, a tte n - tio n may now be more p r e c is e ly focused upon the s p e c ific v a ria b le s of in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n. An e x p la n a tio n w ill be p re se n te d reg ard in g the unique elem ents of in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n as w e ll as an a n a ly sis o f the r o le th a t in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n p la y s in th e d ete rm in a tio n of th e b u y e r's b e h a v io ra l payoff re c e iv e d from the s e l l e r. Flows of S o cia l In fo rm atio n In p u ts In fo rm atio n in p u ts have been d e a lt w ith as homogeneous u n its w ith o u t any c o n s id e ra tio n being given to the source o f th e se in p u ts. The sources of in fo rm atio n in p u ts may be e i t h e r s o c ia l or n o n -so c ia l in s tr u c t u r e. S o cia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts are d eriv ed through o n e 's sen sin g a p erso n, j,roup, or i n s t i t u t i o n. 1 The sen sin g of in fo rm atio n p e r ta in ing to u n its o th e r than people r e s u l t s in th e r e c e ip t o f n o n -so c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts. For purposes of a n a ly s is in the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r the focus is upon s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts. Thus, the in fo rm atio n flow s in F ig u re 4-1 are s o c ia l in fo rm atio n u n its p e rta in in g to in d iv id u a l p erso n s, i. e., the buyer a n d /o r the s e l l e r being the in fo rm atio n so u rce. A lthough the b a s ic p e rc e p tu a l p ro cess of s e le c tio n, o rg a n iz a tio n, and in t e r p r e ta tio n is o p e ra tiv e when p ro c e ssin g both s o c ia l and nons o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts, th e re is one m ajor fa c to r which d i f f e r e n t i a te s s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n from the p e rc e p tio n of n o n -so c ia l o b je c ts. 1 John W. MeDavid and Herbert Harari, Social Psychology: Individuals. Groups. and Societies (New York: Harper arid Row Publishers, 1968), p. 173.

95 80 U nlike the p e rc e p tio n of n o n -so c ia l o b je c ts, o n e 's s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n may be In flu en c ed by h is own presence and behavior in the p e rc e p tu a l s itu a tio n because such presen ce and behavior may a f f e c t the s o c ia l o b je c t being p e r c e i v e d. F o r exam ple, i f a buyer p e rc e iv e s an autom obile, the autom obile, being a n o n -so c ia l o b je c t, does not p e rc e iv e him back. The s t a t e of th e autom obile does n o t change due to the b u y e r's a c t of p e r c e iv in g. However, i f the buyer p e rc e iv e s the s e l l e r and the s e l l e r is aware th a t the buyer is p e rc e iv in g him, the s e l l e r may a l t e r h is own b e h a v io r. T h ere fo re, in F igure 4-1, the s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts flow ing toward the buyer and th o se flow ing toward the s e l l e r a r e, to some d eg ree, a fu n c tio n of th e i r own re s p e c tiv e p resence and a c tio n s. As the buyer and s e l l e r in t e r a c t the in fo rm atio n in the two m ajor flow s between the in te r a c ta n ts may be i n i t i a t e d by e i t h e r in d iv id u a l fo r e i t h e r one of the in fo rm atio n flo w s. For exam ple, the inform a tio n in p u ts acq u ired by the buyer may be se n t to th e buyer by the s e l l e r through a d i r e c t b e h a v io ra l resp o n se, or the buyer may be th e fo rce which i n i t i a t e s th e in p u t by o b serv in g th e p h y s ic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the s e l l e r. In the l a t t e r s i t u a t i o n th e in p u t is not a fu n c tio n of th e s e l l e r 's b eh av io r b u t is a fu n c tio n o f h is p re se n c e. The in fo rm atio n flow s and thus the in fo rm atio n in p u ts are a ffe c te d by the c o n te x t of th e b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. I f th e buyer and the s e l l e r a re in te r a c tin g fo r th e f i r s t tim e, th e re is reaso n to b e lie v e th a t b e h a v io ra l em issions a re somewhat r e s tr a in e d. In th re e se p a ra te s tu d ie s, each perform ed by d if f e r e n t r e s e a rc h e rs, Wiehe, J e r s i l d, and 11 Ibid., p. 174.

96 81 Hyman, a l l reach s im ila r co n clu sio n s which in d ic a te th a t stra n g e n e ss in term s of no p rev io u s h is to r y o f in te r a c tio n causes r e s t r a i n t and 1 2 fo rm a lity in f a c e -to -fa c e exchanges. Thus, i t is p ro b ab le th a t when a buyer and a s e l l e r are in te r a c tin g fo r the f i r s t tim e, the s o c ia l in form ation in p u ts acq u ired by both the buyer and th e s e l l e r are more lim ite d than fo r b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n in which th e re has been p r io r d e a lin g s. There is some te n ta tiv e evidence provided by a study p e r formed by Maccoby and Maccoby which su p p o rts the h y p o th esis th a t in h ib itin g e f f e c ts found in i n i t i a l in te r a c tio n s may be reduced when one 13 a n tic ip a te s no f u r th e r in t e r a c t io n. Based upon the fin d in g s of Maccoby and Maccoby i t appears th a t in fo rm atio n flows between a buyer and a s e l l e r in te r a c tin g fo r th e f i r s t time may not be as lim ite d i f e ith e r th e b uyer o r the s e l l e r is tr a n s i e n t. McDavid and H a ra ri in d ic a te th a t i n i t i a l in te r a c tio n s tend to be c h a ra c te riz e d by s te re o ty p in g, p e rc e p tu a l in te g r a tio n, and h a lo e f f e c t s. 1 S te re o ty p in g r e f e r s to o v e rg e n e ra liz a tio n and o v e rs im p lific a tio n of conc e p tu a l c a te g o rie s in th e p e rc e p tio n o f s o c ia l o b je c ts. P e rc e p tu a l ^ S e e F. Wiehe, "The Behavior of th e C hild in S trange F ie l d s," A Dynamic Theory o f P e r s o n a lity, ed. by K urt Lewin (New York: McGraw- H ill Book Company, 1936); A. T. J e r s i l d, "Em otional D evelopm ent," Manual o f C hild Psychology, ed. by L. Carm ichael (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1954); H. H. Hyman, "Psychology o f S ta tu s," A rchives o f Psychology. No (June, 1942), E leanor Maccoby and N. Maccoby, "The In te rv ie w : A Tool o f S o c ia l S cie n c e," Handbook of S o c ia l Psychology, ed. by Gardner Lindzey (Cambridge, M assach u setts: A ddison-w esley P u b lish in g Company, 1954), p MeDavid and Harari, loc. clt.. pp ,

97 8 2 in te g r a tio n occurs when an In d iv id u a l attem p ts to l t is o la te d ex p erien ces w ith an I n te r a c ta n t in to a more com prehensive c o g n itiv e framework. The h a lo e f f e c t is a c tiv e '/hen one observed a t t r i b u t e of a person in flu e n c e s th e p e r c e iv e r 's s p e c u la tio n about o th e r a t t r i b u t e s of the p erceiv ed p erso n. The h a lo e f f e c t in i n i t i a l p e rc e p tio n of a n o th er in d iv id u a l is most dominant when the p e rc e iv e r has v e ry l i t t l e in fo rm atio n about the p erce iv ed person and th e judgment concerns m oral e v a l u a t i o n.^ I f the buyer and th e s e l l e r have had p r io r d e a lin g s, the buyer w ill e n te r th e in t e r a c t io n arena w ith an im pression of the s e l l e r and by p ro c e ssin g more in fo rm atio n in p u ts th e buyer may m a in tain the same im pression of th e s e l l e r o r he may change h is im pression of th e s e l l e r. A buyer who has n o t had p r io r d e a lin g s w ith a p a r t i c u l a r s e l l e r w ill form an i n i t i a l im pression of th a t s e l l e r. R eg ard less of w hether o r n o t the buyer has in te r a c te d w ith th e given s e l l e r, the b uyer, by p ro c e ssin g s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts re g a rd in g the s e l l e r, forms and m a in tain s an im pression of the s e l l e r. From th is im p ressio n th e buyer d e riv e s e i t h e r a n e g a tiv e o r p o s itiv e b e h a v io ra l p a y o ff. Since the buyer d e riv e s a b e h a v o ria l p ay o ff based upon h is im pression o f th e s e l l e r, i t is n ece s sary to an aly ze the m ajor c o g n itiv e v a r ia b le s which in flu e n c e im pression form ation and change. C o g n itiv e F a c to rs of Im p ressio n Form ation As one in t e r a c t s w ith a n o th er in d iv id u a l, he forms a concept of the o th e r p erso n. For purposes of a n a ly s is, th e term im pression r e f e r s to the concept one in t e r a c t a n t h o ld s about th e o th e r i n t e r a c t a n t. ^ P. M. Symonds, "Notes on R a tin g," Jo u rn a 1 of A pplied P sychology. IX (Ju n e, 1925),

98 83 Concept is viewed in t h i s model as being a s e t of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which stan d in c e r ta in r e l a t i o n to each o th e r w ith in th e c o g n itiv e framework of th e c o n c e p t u a l i z e r. O n e 's concept or im pression held about an o th er in d iv id u a l may in c lu d e a sp e c ts of p e r s o n a lity, d is p o s itio n s, an d /o r a t t i t u d e s. The c o g n itiv e f a c to rs which a f f e c t im pression f o r m ation and change a re numerous. For a n a ly tic purposes th e se fa c to rs are grouped in to th re e m ajor c a te g o rie s in c lu d in g ( 1 ) c o g n itiv e o rg a n iz a tio n, (2) c o g n itiv e com plexity, and (3) degree of c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y. Cognitive Organization Cognitive organization refers to the process by which the information inputs are placed into more comprehensive relationships. Two quantitatively based models have been used to explain the process by which well organized impressions have been created from a series of discrete information inputs. These models are the summation model and the averaging model. The summation model o f im pression fo rm atio n is based upon the a d d itio n of the v a lu e s of each t r a i t to a c q u ire an im p ressio n. I f a m oderately fa v o ra b le t r a i t is added to s e v e ra l o th e r fa v o rab le t r a i t s, the im pression becomes even more fa v o ra b le. T ria n d is and F ish b ein determ ined th a t the summation model is the most p re d ic tiv e model in analy z in g im p ressio n f o r m a t i o n. I n v o k i n g t h i s type o f model the buyer in F igure 4-1 forms an im pression o f the s e l l e r based upon an accum ulation ^ A l f r e d Kuhn, The Study of Society; A Unified Approach (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., and The Dorsey Press, Inc., 1963), p H. C. T ria n d is and M. F ish b e in, " C o g n itiv e I n te r a c tio n in Person P e r c e p tio n." Jo u rn a l o f Abnormal and S o cia1 Psychology. LXVII (Novemb e r, 1963), 452.

99 84 of in fo rm atio n in p u ts p e rta in in g to the s e l l e r. The b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r would be I g- H]+H2 +H3...+Hn where I s re p re s e n ts th e b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r, and H re p re s e n ts an in fo rm atio n in p u t about the s e l l e r. An averaging model is one in which the im pression is a fu n c tio n of the average v alu e of the in fo rm atio n in p u ts re c e iv e d. I f one uses an averaging model in o rg an iz in g h is im pression, then a modera te ly p o s itiv e t r a i t coupled w ith extrem ely p o s itiv e t r a i t s would tend to reduce the p o s itiv e n e s s of the t o t a l im pression. In o rder to e x p la in c e r ta in types of c o g n itiv e o rg a n iz a tio n, a w eighted-average model is u t i l i z e d in which one o r more of th e in fo rm atio n in p u ts has a h e a v ie r w eight and thus more in flu e n c e on the t o t a l im pression. A nderson's r e search e f f o r t s found evidence which su p p o rts th e av erag in g model. Howe v e r, he had to develop a w eighted average model to e x p la in se v e ra l r e la tio n s h ip s which did not f i t the sim ple average model. 18 I f the buyer uses a sim ple averaging p ro cess in d e riv in g an imp re s s io n based upon the in fo rm atio n in p u ts r e l a t i n g to the s e l l e r, then the im pression form ation p ro cess tak es the form of I S H]+H2 +H3...+Hn where N I s is th e b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r, H is an in fo rm atio n input about the s e l l e r, and N re p re s e n ts the number of in fo rm atio n in p u ts r e ceived by the buyer p e rta in in g to the s e l l e r. Using the same n o ta tio n, a w eigh ted -av erag e model would take the form of I s *k(h ^)+l(h 2 )+m(h3 ).. +p(hn ) - where k, 1, m, and p re p re s e n t v a rio u s w eig h tin g f a c to r s. A nother type of model (which is more q u a l ita t iv e in s tr u c tu re ) 18 N. H. Anderson, "Adding Versus Averaging as a Stimulus Combination Rule in Impression Formation," Journal of Experimental Psychology. LXX (O ctober, 1965),

100 85 has as I t s m ajor th r u s t s G e s ta lt approach. The c e n tr a l theme Is th a t the whole Is equal to more than th e sum o f I t s p a r ts, o r more s p e c if i c a l ly th a t th e im pression is much more com prehensive than th e t o t a l of th e in fo rm atio n in p u ts. Asch was one of the f i r s t re s e a rc h e rs to be concerned about the c o g n itiv e o rg a n iz a tio n p ro cess involved in form ing and changing an imp re s s io n of another in d iv id u a l. His re se a rc h in 1946 was based upon i n te r a c tio n w ith a h y p o th e tic a l p erso n. Asch found th a t a s u b je c t a f t e r re c e iv in g s e v e ra l d is c r e te in fo rm atio n in p u ts re g a rd in g a n o th er in d iv id - 19 u a l is capable of form ing a u n ifie d im p ressio n. The elem ents in the im pression p o sse ss c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which reach o u t beyond th e d is c r e te on t r a i t s given in th e d e s c r ip tio n. Through th is study Asch a ls o d i s covered th a t o n e 's im pression of an o th er is organized by allo w in g c e r ta in 21 q u a l i t i e s to become c e n tr a l t r a i t s. The c e n tr a l t r a i t s become the s tr u c tu r e on which o th e r in fo rm atio n in p u ts are o rg an iz ed. Each c e n tr a l t r a i t does n o t n e c e s s a r ily have equal w e ig h tin g. He p o in ted out th a t an in t e r a c t a n t does not view human q u a l i t i e s as is o la te d t r a i t s but in s te a d, c o g n itiv e ly o rg an iz es in fo rm atio n in p u ts in to a s tr u c tu re based l^f o r o th e r re se a rc h w ith s im ila r r e s u l t s see: H. H. K elley, "The Warm-Cold V a ria b le in F i r s t Im pressions o f P e r s o n s lity," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XVIII (Ju n e, 1950), 431-9; Mason H aire and W illa Grunes, "P e rc e p tu a l D efenses: P ro cesses P ro te c tin g an Organized P erc e p tio n of A nother P e r s o n a lity," Human R e la tio n s. I I (November, 1950), ; E. S. G o llin, "Forming Im pressions o f P e r s o n a lity," Jo u rn a l o f P e r s o n a lity. XXIII (Septem ber, 1954), 65-76; A. P ep ito n e and R. G. Hayden, "Some Evidence fo r C o n flic t R e so lu tio n in Im pression F o rm atio n," Jo u rn al o f Abnormal and S o c ia l P sychology. LI (Septem ber, 1955), 302-7; M. G. C lin e, "The In flu e n c e o f S o cia l C ontext on th e P e rc e p tio n o f F a c e s," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity. XXV (December, 1956), S. E. Asch, "Forming Im pressions o f P e r s o n a lity," Jo u rn al o f Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. XLI (J u ly, 1946), Ibid., 284.

101 8 6 upon the c e n tr a l t r a i t s. A sch 's r e s u l t s su g g est th a t th e buyer Is e s p e c ia lly a t te n ti v e to c e r ta in types o f In fo rm atio n In p u ts about the s e l l e r. The buyer, u sin g th e se p a r t i c u l a r types of in fo rm atio n in p u ts as c e n tr a l t r a i t s o r c h a r a c te r i s t ic s as a prim ary framework, o rg an izes o th e r in fo rm atio n in p u ts in to a u n ifie d com prehensive im pression of the s e l l e r r a th e r than an im pression c o n s is tin g of d is c r e te and is o la te d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. A lthough Asch c a r e f u lly d isc u sse d the lim ita tio n s of the meth- 22 odology th a t he u t i l i z e d, he was s e v e re ly c r i t i c i z e d by Luchins. The m ajor th r u s t of L u ch in s' c r it ic i s m was t h a t in te r a c tio n w ith a h y p o th e tic a l person i s q u ite d if f e r e n t from in te r a c tio n w ith a r e a l p erson. Luchins r e p lic a te d A sch 's re s e a rc h, w ith th e ex ce p tio n th a t h is methodology included in te r a c tio n w ith r e a l p eo p le, and found th a t s u b je c ts do n o t form u n ifie d im pressions from d is c r e te in fo rm atio n in p u ts to the 23 e x te n t th a t Asch b e lie v e d th a t th ey d id. In a th i r d study which te s te d th e t r a i t c e n t r a l i t y e f f e c t, K elle y, u sin g r e a l persons as the stim u lu s persons in the in te r a c tio n s, found su p p o rt fo r A sch's t r a i t - c e n t r a l i t y h y p o th e sis. K elley a s c e rta in e d th a t c e r ta in la b e ls cause s u b je c ts to tra n sfo rm t h e i r e n tir e im pression of a p e r s o n.^ In a d d itio n K e lle y 's r e s u l t s suggested th a t (1) th e re are marked d iffe re n c e s in the degree to which v a r ia tio n in one t r a i t w ill A. S. L uchins, "Forming Im pression of P e rs o n a lity : A C r itiq u e." Jo u rn a l o f Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. XLIII (J u ly, 1948), 318* I b i d H. H. K elle y, "The Warm-Cold V ariab le in F i r s t Im pressions of P e rs o n s," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XVIII (Ju n e, 1950), 436.

102 87 produce changes in im p ressio n s, and ( 2 ) s u b je c ts w ith an u n fav o rab le im pression of th e stim u lu s person tend e i th e r to n o t in t e r a c t w ith th e 25 stim u lu s person o r to a t le a s t lim it in te r a c tio n. The r e la tio n s h ip b e tween u n fav o rab len ess of im pression and u n w illin g n ess to in t e r a c t has a tendency to make more r ig i d the u n fav o rab le im pression because subsequent in fo rm atio n in p u ts are r e s tr a in e d o r n o n -e x is te n t. K e lle y 's d a ta, in su p p o rtin g A sch 's re s e a rc h, suggest th a t the b u y e r's im pression o f th e s e l l e r may be a lte r e d i f the buyer re c e iv e s s p e c if ic in p u ts w hich happen to be c e n tr a l o rg a n iz in g q u a l i t i e s fo r th e b u y er. However, th e p r o b a b ility is somewhat lim ite d th a t the b u y e r's n e g a tiv e im pression of a s e l l e r w i l l be changed in a p o s itiv e d ir e c tio n by the b u y e r's a c q u is itio n of a c e n tr a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic because, as in d ic a te d by th e K elley stu d y, an u n fav o rab le im pression h eld by one in t e r a c t a n t tends to li m it h is w illin g n e s s to i n t e r a c t. Thus, a buyer who h o ld s an u n fav o rab le im pression of th e s e l l e r may, through h is own u n w illin g n e ss to i n t e r a c t, n o t a c q u ire subsequent in fo rm atio n in p u ts which would change h is im p ressio n. Even though the models which e x p la in im pression form ation v ary as to s tr u c t u r e, a common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c among a l l th e se models is th a t the im pression which th e buyer forms re g a rd in g the s e l l e r is a fu n c tio n of p ro c e ssin g s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts. The r e s u l t s of e m p iric a l r e search which focuses upon t r a i t c e n t r a l i t y v a ry as to the degree to which one forms a u n ifie d im pression based upon th e in p u t of s e v e ra l c e n tr a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. A lthough th e se r e s u l t s d i f f e r as to degree, they g e n e ra lly su p p o rt th e h y p o th e sis th a t s e v e ra l in fo rm atio n in p u ts about 25 Ibid.. p. 437.

103 8 8 the s e l l e r become b a sic s t r u c t u r a l u n its of th e b u y e r's Im pression of the s e l l e r, and from th e se b a sic s t r u c t u r a l u n its a buyer forms a more com prehensive im pression of th e s e l l e r. In re g a rd to a l t e r i n g the b u y e r's im p ressio n, u n fav o rab le imp re ssio n s tend to be re in fo rc e d because the b u y er, who holds an u n fav o r ab le im pression, is more li k e ly to avoid o r r e s t r i c t in te r a c tio n w ith a s e l l e r fo r which he h o ld s the u n fav o rab le im p ressio n. The way th a t a buyer o rg an izes the s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which he a c q u ire s p e r ta in in g to th e s e l l e r is a m ajor d eterm in an t in h is im pression fo rm atio n p ro c e s s. A nother d eterm in an t of h is im pression is the number o f s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which he in c lu d es in h is im pression of th e s e l l e r. C o g n itiv e Com plexity The degree o f c o g n itiv e com plexity in r e l a t i o n to im pression form ation and change has been of concern to s e v e ra l r e s e a r c h e rs. Cognitiv e com plexity as used h e re r e f e r s to the degree to which the buyer p ro cesses a la rg e number of in fo rm atio n in p u ts and a tte m p ts to in clu d e a la rg e number o f in p u ts in h is im pression o f the s e l l e r. In an ex p erim en tal framework in which s u b je c ts viewed a s e r ie s of m otion p ic tu r e s scenes of a woman e x h ib itin g ambiguous b eh av io r, G o llin determ ined th a t s u b je c ts, presumed to p o sse ss c o n sid e ra b le co g n i tiv e com plexity tend to go beyond th a t p e rc e p tu a lly given to form a 26 r e la te d im p ressio n, th u s ach iev in g u n ity of im p ressio n. Some of th e 26 E. S. G o llin, "Forming Im pressions of P e r s o n a lity," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XXIII (Septem ber, 1954), 75.

104 8 9 s u b je c ts judged to be le s s c o g n itiv e ly complex develop u n ity In th e ir im pressions by e lim in a tin g a s e t of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a c c e p tin g one group of c o n s is te n t in fo rm atio n in p u ts. O ther le s s c o g n itiv e ly complex s u b je c ts tend to c re a te im pressions c o n s is tin g of an a g g re g a tio n of in c o n s is te n t components in d ic a tin g th a t they do n o t attem p t to r e l a t e 27 th e d is c re p a n t in fo rm a tio n in p u ts. Since G o lli n 's assum ptions concerning h is s u b je c ts ' degree of c o g n itiv e com plexity w ere r a th e r q u e s tio n a b le, in a l a t e r study he used as a measure of c o g n itiv e com plexity an a b i l i t y t e s t o f concept formatio n to determ ine an in d iv id u a l's d egree of c o g n itiv e com plexity. He found th a t s u b je c ts who are more li k e ly to form h ie r a r c h ic concepts tend to be more s k i l l e d in r e l a t i n g numerous c h a r a c te r i s t ic s in to an 28 im pression th an p ersons r e f e r r e d to as non-concept fo rm ers. A buyer who i s le s s c o g n itiv e ly complex may, in form ing an im pression of the s e l l e r, attem p t to e lim in a te enough in fo rm atio n to pro duce a u n ifie d im pression from the rem aining c o n s is te n t inform ation# The c o g n itiv e ly sim ple buyer has to d isc o u n t d is c re p a n t in fo rm atio n when i t e x i s t s. T his type o f b u y e r's d isc o u n tin g problem is reduced to the e x te n t th a t the in fo rm a tio n in p u ts re c e iv e d about the s e l l e r a re more co n g ru en t. Buyers which a re more c o g n itiv e ly com plex, as suggested by G o llin 's d a ta, a re cap ab le o f r e l a t i n g in c o n s is te n t in fo rm atio n in p u ts in to a u n ifie d im p ressio n by in f e r r in g more than is given by the in p u ts. Based upon G o lli n 's re s e a rc h one m ight p r e d ic t th a t an 2 7 I b i d., E. S. G o llin, and S. R osenberg, "Concept Form ation and Im press io n s of P e r s o n a lity," J o u rn a l of Abnorma1 and S o c ia l P sychology. L II (Jan u ary, 1956), 41.

105 in t e r a c t a n t, such as a c o g n itiv e ly sim ple bu y er, would hold a le s s d i f f e r e n tia te d im p ressio n of the o th e r in d iv id u a l than would a c o g n itiv e ly complex i n t e r a c t a n t. L eventhal and S in g er attem pted to determ ine in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s in im pression fo rm atio n and change between persons who 29 a re "sim ple" judges and those who are "complex" ju d g e s. Simple judges are in d iv id u a ls who have few in te rp e rs o n a l c o n s tru c ts w h ile complex judges are people who p o sse ss a r e l a t i v e l y la rg e s e t of in te rp e rs o n a l 9 0 c o n s tr u c ts. These re s e a rc h e rs found only a sm all amount of evidence which su p p o rts t h e i r h y p o th e sis th a t sim ple judges have le s s d if f e r e n t i a te d im p ressio n s than complex ju d g e s. In term s o f s t a t i s t i c a l i n f e r ence, L eventhal and S in g er concluded th a t c o g n itiv e com plexity does n o t s ig n if i c a n tl y a f f e c t i n i t i a l im pression fo rm atio n. They d id fin d th a t the more u n d e s ira b le th e in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g the stim u lu s p erso n, the more c e r t a in judges are of the c l a r i t y of t h e i r im pressions and the 30 adequacy of the in fo rm a tio n. However, complex judges p o sse ss more un- 31 c e r t a in t y in re g a rd to t h e i r im pressions than do sim ple ju d g e s. Assum- OO ing th a t u n c e rta in ty o fte n produces search fo r more in fo rm a tio n, the c o g n itiv e complex buyer w i l l tend to be more open to re c e iv in g la rg e r amounts o f in fo rm a tio n in p u ts p e r ta in in g to the s e l l e r th an w ill the 29 H. L eventhal and D. L. S in g er, "C ognitive C om plexity, Im pression Form ation, and Im pression Change," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XXXII (Ju n e, 1964), I b i d I b i d., James G. March and H erb ert A. Simon, O rg an iza tio n s (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1958), p. 115.

106 91 c o g n itiv e ly sim ple b u y er. In an attem p t to fin d a r e la tio n s h ip between sex and le v e ls of c o g n itiv e com plexity in fo rm atio n of im pressions about o th e rs, Shapiro and T a g iu ri compared t r a i t in fe re n c e s of men to th o se o f women. They determ ined th a t both sexes are q u ite s im ila r in the t r a i t s which they in f e r from a given t r a i t. 33 However, they found th a t women a re more ready to reach co n clu sio n s about o n e 's p e r s o n a lity from a v a ila b le in f o r m ation than are men. Men tend to have more u n c e r ta in ty in th e i r im- 34 p re s sio n s of o th e rs. I f one compares the l a t t e r fin d in g to the re se a rc h r e s u l t s of L eventhal and S in g e r, women may n o t have as much c o g n itiv e com plexity as men p o sse ss when form ing im pressions of o th e r in d iv id u a ls. S hapiro and T a g iu r i's fin d in g s su g g est th a t i f th e buyer is a woman, the im pression o f th e s e l l e r may be form ulated more q u ic k ly and based upon le s s in fo rm atio n th an i f the buyer i s a man. Since the male buyer tends to be more u n c e rta in o f h is im p ressio n o f a n o th e r, he may be more w illin g than a fem ale buyer to a c q u ire and p ro cess la rg e r amounts of in fo rm atio n in p u ts. In c o n sid e rin g the degree of c o g n itiv e com plexity in r e l a t i o n to im pression fo rm atio n, re s e a rc h fin d in g s in d ic a te th a t the le v e l of co g n i tiv e com plexity v a r ie s s i g n i f i c a n t l y among p e rso n s. A c o g n itiv e ly sim ple buyer compared to a c o g n itiv e ly complex buyer ( 1 ) is more li k e ly to e lim in a te in fo rm atio n in p u ts which cause in c o n siste n c y in o rd er to c re a te a u n if ie d im p ressio n, ( 2 ) i s g e n e ra lly more c e r t a in of h is 3 3 D. S hapiro and R. T a g iu ri, "Sex D iffe re n c e s in I n f e r r in g P erso n a l i t y T r a i t s," Jo u rn a l o f Psychology, XLVII (Jan u ary, 1959), Ibid., 136..

107 9 2 im pression of the s e l l e r, and (3) is le s s l i k e ly to seek more inform a tio n to c l a r i f y h is im p ressio n. B uyers, re g a rd le s s of th e le v e l of c o g n itiv e com plexity, tend to be more c e r t a in of t h e ir im pression as th e fav o ra b le n e ss of in fo rm atio n p e rta in in g to the s e l l e r d e c re a se s. There is te n ta tiv e e m p iric a l su p p o rt fo r th e h y p o th e sis th a t women buyers dem onstrate le s s c o g n itiv e com plexity than do men in form ing im pressions of s e l l e r s. Even though both c o g n itiv e o rg a n iz a tio n and c o g n itiv e com plexity are m ajor f a c to r s which in flu e n c e the b u y e r's p ro cess of im pression f o r m ation and change, the b u y e r's p ro p e n s ity to a cc ep t new s o c ia l inform a ti o n in p u ts a t a given p o in t in time is a n o th er m ajor determ in an t of the b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r. C ognitive R ig id ity C o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y is a term th a t r e f e r s to th e degree to which an in d iv id u a l's c o g n itiv e s tr u c tu r e is s u b je c t to a l t e r a t i o n a t a given p o in t in tim e. There is re s e a rc h evidence su g g estin g th a t an in d iv id u a l's degree of c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y appears to be a d e term in a n t of im pression form ation and change. In re s e a rc h perform ed by Cohen i t was found th a t persons w ith a h ig h ly r i g i d c o g n itiv e s t a t e want le s s a d d itio n a l in fo rm atio n and th e in fo rm atio n which they do d e s ir e is g e n e ra lly narrow and o n e-sid e d. L ikew ise, a s u b je c t w ith a le s s r i g i d c o g n itiv e s t a t e i s more w illin g to accep t c o n tra d ic to ry in fo rm atio n i n p u t s. ^ A more h ig h ly r ig id cogn it iv e s t a t e le ad s to a more h ig h ly p o la riz e d im p ressio n. "^A. R. Cohen, "C ognitive Tuning As A F a c to r A ffe c tin g Im pression F o rm atio n," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XXIX (June, 1961), 243.

108 93 A buyer w ith a h ig h ly r i g i d c o g n itiv e s t a t e may tend to r e s i s t or in h i b it the c o n tin u a tio n of on-going in te r a c tio n w ith a s e l l e r because, as C ohen's data in d ic a te, th e c o g n itiv e ly r ig i d I n te r a c ta n t w ants le s s a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n than does the c o g n itiv e ly f le x ib le p a r ti c ip a n t. Not only does the degree of r i g i d i t y a f f e c t the flow of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, but i t a ls o in flu e n c e s the p o la r i ty o f the b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r. A h ig h ly p o la riz e d im pression of the s e l l e r may be the r e s u lt of th e b u y e r's h ig h ly r i g i d c o g n itiv e s tr u c tu r e. The p e r c e iv e r 's p e r s o n a lity has been con sid ered by s e v e ra l r e se a rc h e rs to have an e f f e c t upon h is c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y thus in flu e n c in g h is im pression form ation p ro c e ss. K elley and S ta h e ls k i developed a study in v o lv in g the in t e r a c t io n o f two p erso n s, one having a co o p era tiv e p e r s o n a lity and the o th e r having a co m p etitiv e p e r s o n a lity. T heir data suggested th a t c o o p e ra to rs b e lie v e th a t o th e r p e rs o n s ' p ro p e n s itie s to be e i th e r c o o p e ra tiv e o r co m p etitiv e are q u ite h etero g en eo u s, w hile com petitors tend to view a l l o th e r p ersons as being u niform ly com petit i v e. 3 6 The r e s u l t s o f the K elley and S ta h e ls k i re se a rc h su p p o rts the h y p o th e sis th a t th e p e r c e iv e r 's p e r s o n a lity is a d eterm in an t o f the degree of c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y. A buyer w ith a h ig h ly co m p etitiv e p e rs o n a lity may tend to view a l l s e l l e r s as h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e. I f the buyer behaves toward the s e l l e r as i f the s e l l e r is h ig h ly c o m p e titiv e, the s e l l e r may 37 be induced to behave in a more co m p etitiv e manner. A buyer w ith a 36 H. K elley and D. S ta h e ls k i, "S o cial I n te r a c tio n B asis of Coopera t o r s ' and C o m p e tito rs' B e lie fs About O th e rs," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity and S o cial P sychology. XVI (Septem ber, 1970), ibid.

109 c o o p era tiv e p e rs o n a lity may not view a l l s e l l e r s w ith which he in te r a c ts 94 as being c o m p e titiv e. Buyers w ith th is type of p e rs o n a lity tend to see g re a te r v a r i a b i l i t y in the degree o f c o m p e titiv e n e ss. Thus, a buyer w ith a c o o p era tiv e p e rs o n a lity who p e rc e iv e s the s e l l e r as being cooperativ e w ill not n e c e s s a r ily fo rce the s e l l e r to behave in a more com petitiv e manner. A secondary p a r t of the K elley and S ta h e ls k i study d e a lt w ith the p e rs o n a lity v a r ia b le of a u th o rita ria n is m of the p e rc e iv e r. They determ ined th a t low a u th o r ita r ia n s tend to b e lie v e th a t th e re is a wide v a r ia tio n among in d iv id u a ls as to th e degree of c o m p e titiv e n e ss. High 38 a u th o r ita r ia n s tend to view a l l in te r a c ta n ts as being h ig h ly co m p e titiv e. These fin d in g s su g g est th a t a buyer w ith a h ig h ly a u th o r ita r ia n perso n a l i t y is more li k e ly to view the s e l l e r as p o sse ssin g a high degree of co m p etitiv en ess than is a buyer whose p e rs o n a lity is low in a u t h o r i ta r ianism. I f a buyer has a h ig h ly a u t h o r ita r ia n p e r s o n a lity, and such a c o n d itio n makes him p erce iv e o th e rs as b ein g com p etitiv e, th en h is behavio r toward the s e l l e r may in flu e n c e the s e l l e r to become more co m p etitiv e. Jones in perform ing re se a rc h p e rta in in g to a u th o rita ria n is m determ ined th a t a u th o r ita r ia n s seem to be more in s e n s itiv e than non- 39 a u th o rita r ia n s to p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of o th e rs. Jo n es' data support the r e s u l t s of K elley and S ta h e ls k i's re se a rc h in term s of a more b ro ad ly d efin ed r e la tio n s h ip. A lack of s e n s i t i v i t y toward p e rs o n a lity 39 E. E. Jo n es, "A u th o rita ria n ism as a D eterm inant o f F irs t-im p re s s io n F o rm atio n," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XXIII (Septem ber, 1954), 126.

110 c h a r a c te r i s t ic s in d ic a te s th a t the a u th o r ita r ia n p o sse sse s a high degree 95 of c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y. Due to a hig h degree of c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y, an a u t h o r ita r ia n buyer may tend to in h i b it the flow of in fo rm atio n in p u ts from th e s e l l e r, o r he may, through h is pro cess of p e rc e p tu a l s e le c tio n, choose not to allow v e ry many in fo rm atio n in p u ts to reach aw areness. In atte m p tin g to make some g e n e ra l in fe re n c e s reg ard in g the in flu e n c e o f c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y upon the b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r, e m p iric a l fin d in g s su p p o rt th e b e l i e f th a t g r e a te r c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y leads to g r e a te r p o la r i ty o f im p ressio n s. A la rg e p ro p o rtio n o f the s tu d ie s d e a lin g w ith c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y focus upon a s p e c ts o f p erso n a l i t y of the p e rc e iv e r. In g e n e ra l, the more co m p etitiv e an d /o r the more a u th o r ita r ia n the b u y er, the more li k e ly he is to p e rc e iv e a l l s e l le r s as being c o m p e titiv e. L ikew ise, buyers who are more c o o p era tiv e a n d /o r le s s a u th o r ita r ia n tend to p e rc e iv e g r e a te r h e te ro g e n e ity in the degree of co m p etitiv en e ss possessed by s e l l e r s. The f a c t th a t b u y e r's who a re h ig h ly c o m p etitiv e an d /o r h ig h ly a u t h o r ita r ia n tend to view a l l s e l l e r s as being h ig h ly c o m p etitiv e in d ic a te s th a t such buyers p o ssess a high degree of c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y. This type of buyer tends to seek le s s in fo rm atio n about a s e l l e r w ith which he is in te r a c tin g, and th e in fo rm atio n th a t he does seek is g e n e ra lly o n e -sid e d. C o g n itiv e F a c to rs of Im pression Form ation: A Summary Because th e buyer d u rin g in te r a c tio n d e riv e s a b e h a v io ra l payoff from the s e l l e r based upon h is im pression of th e s e l l e r, the c o g n itiv e fo rc e s which in flu e n c e the b u y e r's p ro cess of im pression form ation and change are s ig n if i c a n t v a r ia b le s in the in te r a c tio n model of buyer behavi o r. Three m ajor c o g n itiv e fo rc e s which appear to a f f e c t a b u y e r's

111 9 6 p ro cess of im pression fo rm atio n and change are c o g n itiv e o rg a n iz a tio n, c o g n itiv e com plexity, and th e degree of c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y. A buyer o rg a n iz e s, m a in ta in s, and changes h is im pression of the s e l l e r by p ro c e ssin g s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts acq u ired from the s e l l e r. Depending upon what way th e buyer c o g n itiv e ly o rg a n iz e s, the b u y e r's im pression may be ( 1 ) a fu n c tio n of the summation of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, (2) a fu n c tio n of the average of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, or (3) a c o g n itiv e s tr u c tu r e which is more com prehensive than the sum of i t s p a r ts. The degree of c o g n itiv e com plexity v a r ie s among b u y ers. A buyer who is more c o g n itiv e ly complex in form ing an im pression o f the s e l l e r, seeks and p ro c e sse s more in fo rm a tio n, is le s s c e r t a in of the accuracy of h is im p ressio n, and is more capable of c re a tin g a u n ifie d im pression from incongruent in fo rm a tio n in p u ts. R esearch r e s u l t s in d ic a te th a t o n e 's degree o f c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y is p a r t i a l l y determ ined by h is p e r s o n a lity. To the e x te n t th a t th e b u y e r's p e r s o n a lity is h ig h ly co m p e titiv e a n d /o r h ig h ly a u th o r ita r ia n, he tends to be more c o g n itiv e ly r ig i d in h is im pression of th e s e l l e r. The e x iste n c e of c o g n itiv e r i g i d i t y in c re a s e s the p o la r i ty of the b u y e r's im p ressio n, thus le sse n in g h is p ro p e n s ity to seek and pro cess new in f o r m ation. The im pression fo rm atio n p ro c e s s, by which a buyer gains an im pression of the s e l l e r, has been analyzed th u s f a r in term s of the b u y e r's c o g n itiv e p ro c e sse s d e a lin g w ith in fo rm atio n in p u ts p e rta in in g to th e s e l l e r. The o rd e r o r sequence in which the buyer a c q u ire s in f o r m ation in p u ts may a ls o a f f e c t th e b u y e r's im pression form ation p ro c e ss.

112 97 Order o f In fo rm atio n In p u ts in R e la tio n to Im pression Form ation As in d ic a te d e a r l i e r the i n i t i a l in te r a c tio n between buyer and s e l l e r may be c h a ra c te riz e d as in h ib ite d and r e s tr a in e d. However, one should n o t p e rc e iv e th e se i n i t i a l in fo rm atio n flow s to be in s ig n i f ic a n t. The o rd e r in which s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts are rece iv ed may in flu e n c e o n e 's im pression of the o th e r i n t e r a c t a n t. When the f i r s t s o c ia l in f o r m ation in p u ts dom inate an in d iv id u a l's im pression of a n o th e r, the prim acy e f f e c t is o p e ra tin g. I f th e most re c e n t s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts become s tro n g fo rc e s in d eterm in in g o n e 's im pression of a n o th e r, 40 then the recency e f f e c t is fu n c tio n in g. The re se a rc h which has attem pted to determ ine the o rd er e f f e c ts of in fo rm atio n in p u ts upon im pressions may g e n e ra lly be c h a ra c te riz e d as d e a lin g w ith o n e 's im pression of a h y p o th e tic a l p erso n. This methodology can be c r i t i c i z e d on the b a s is t h a t the co n tex t of tru e fa c e -to - face in te r a c tio n is a b s e n t.' However, t h i s type of m ethodology may be j u s t i f i e d on the c r i t e r i a of c o n siste n c y, c o n tro l, and ease of r e p e t i tio n. S everal s tu d ie s have been perform ed which su g g est th a t the prim acy e f f e c t, th a t i s, th e f i r s t in fo rm atio n in p u ts re c e iv e d, seems to have the g r e a te s t in flu e n c e upon o n e 's t o t a l im p ressio n. Luchins r e p o rted th a t th e f i r s t in fo rm atio n in p u ts re c e iv e d have the more powerf u l im pact on o n e 's im pression of a n o th e r in d iv id u a l. ^ He in d ic a te d ^ A l b e r t H. H a s to rf, David J. S ch n eid er, and J u d ith P o lefk a, P e r son P e rc e p tio n. (Residing, M assa ch u setts: Addison-W esley P u b lish in g Company, 1970),- p. 50. ^*A. S. L uchins, "E xperim ental A ttem pts to M inimize the Impace of F i r s t Im p re ssio n s " The O rder of P re s e n ta tio n in P e rs u a s io n. Ed. by C. I. Hovland, e t. a l. (New Haven, C o n n ecticu t: Yale U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1957), pp

113 98 th a t one e x p la n a tio n Is th a t the l r a t In fo rm atio n to reach aw areness evokes a c o g n itiv e s e t which determ ines the manner in which subsequent Ao in fo rm atio n is I n te r p r e te d. * S im ila r prim acy e f f e c ts were found in two o th e r re s e a rc h s tu d ie s, one perform ed by Anderson and B a rrio s 4^ and a second conducted by Asch and Jacobson D ailey4"* as e a r ly as 1952 and Anderson and in 1965 p re se n te d evidence th a t s u b je c ts who have formed im p ressio n s of a n o th e r do n o t d e a l e f f e c t iv e l y w ith subsequent inform a tio n in p u ts but tend to d isc o u n t th e w eight o r im portance of subsequent, in c o n s is te n t in fo rm a tio n. H endrick and C o n s ta n tin i found th a t th e prim acy e f f e c t dom inates o n e 's im p ressio n because a t te n ti o n to subsequent in fo rm atio n in p u ts is d ecreased as more in fo rm a tio n is re c e iv e d by the p e rc e iv e r. In a d d itio n they found, as did Anderson and H u b ert, ^ th a t i f a p e rc e iv e r is fo rced a 2 A. S. L u ch in s, "Prim acy-recency in Im pression F o rm atio n," The O rder of P re s e n ta tio n in P e rs u a s io n. Ed. by C. I. Hovland e t. a l.. (New Haven, C o n n e c tic u t: Y ale U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1957), pp / O N. H. Anderson and A. A. B a rrio s, "Primacy E ffe c ts in P e rs o n a l i t y Im pression F o rm atio n," J o u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. LX III (Septem ber, 1961), S. E. A sch, "Forming Im pressions of P e r s o n a lity," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l P sychology. XLI (J u ly, 1946), ^D. A. D aile y, "The E f f e c ts of Prem ature C onclusion upon the Acq u is it io n o f U nderstanding of a P e rs o n," Jo u rn a l of Psychology. XXXIII (Jan u ary, 1952), N. H. Anderson and Ann Jacobson, " E ffe c t of Stim ulus In c o n siste n c y and D iscounting I n s tr u c tio n s in P e rs o n a lity Im pression F o rm atio n," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l Psychology. I I (O ctober, 1965), N. H. Anderson and S. H u b ert, " E ffe c ts of Concom itant V erbal R eca ll on O rder E ffe c ts in P e r s o n a lity Im pression F o rm atio n," Jo u rn a l of V erbal L earning and V erbal B eh av io r. I I (December, 1963), 381.

114 9 9 to a tte n d to subsequent in fo rm atio n in p u ts, the prim acy e f f e c t is weakened R osenkrantz and C ro c k e tt, based upon th e i r re se a rc h r e s u l t s, suggested th a t th e prim acy e f f e c t is le ssen ed when th e l a t t e r inform a tio n in p u ts are extrem ely fo rc e fu l in p u ts. T heir e x p la n a tio n fo r the reduced prim acy e f f e c t i s s im ila r to th a t of H endrick and C o n s ta n tin i1s e x p la n a tio n in th a t they b e lie v e th a t the fo rc e fu ln e s s makes th e re c e iv e r of the in p u ts more a t te n ti v e to the l a t t e r in p u ts than i f such in p u ts 49 are r a th e r bland or weak. I f a perso n re c e iv e s a forew arning which in d ic a te s th a t h is im p ressio n, based upon i n i t i a l in fo rm atio n in p u ts, may be in a c c u ra te, the recency e f f e c t becomes somewhat s tro n g e r. L uchins, in 1957, found su p p o rt fo r t h i s type of r e la tio n s h ip between the forew arning v a ria b le and th e recency e f f e c t. In f u r th e r re se a rc h in 1958, Luchins a s c e r ta in e d th a t th e recency e f f e c t becomes more dominant when u n re la te d in fo rm atio n in p u ts are re c e iv e d between the two blocks of in c o n s is te n t in fo rm atio n p e r ta in in g to a given p e r s o n.^ One re c e n t re se a rc h e f f o r t, u n lik e th e p rev io u s work c ite d, d e a lt 48 Clyde H endrick and A rthur F. C o n s ta n tin i, ''E ffe c ts of V arying T r a it In c o n siste n c y and Response R equirem ents on the Prim acy E ffe c t In Im pression F o rm atio n," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l Psychology. XV (Ju n e, 1970), 158. ^ P. S. R osenkrantz and W. C ro c k e tt, "Some F a c to rs In flu e n c in g the A ssim ila tio n of D isp arate In fo rm a tio n," Jo u rn al of P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l P sychology. I I (Septem ber, 1965), ^ A. S. L uchins, "Prim acy-recency in Im pression F o rm atio n." The O rder of P re s e n ta tio n in P e rs u a s io n. Ed. by C. I. Hovland, e t. a l. (New Haven, C o n n ecticu t: Yale U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1957), pp ^A. S. L uchins, "D e fin ite n e ss of Im pression and Prim acy-recency in C om m unications," Jo u rn a l of S o c ia l P sychology. XLVIII (November, 1958), 290.

115 e s p e c ia lly w ith o rd er e f f e c t s and im pression form ation of personb a c tu a l ly involved in f a c e -to -fa c e in te r a c tio n. W ilson and In s k o 's r e s u lt s in d ic a te d th a t th e recency e f f e c t is dominant in th e form ation of im press io n s, thus c o n tra d ic tin g much of the r e s u lt s of e a rly s tu d ie s in which im pressions were form ulated about h y p o th e tic a l p erso n s. These re s e a rc h e rs were c a re fu l to p o in t out th a t the m ajor c o n tra d ic tio n between th e ir r e s u l t s and the r e s u l t s o f e a rly s tu d ie s m ight a r is e from fa c to rs o th e r than the d iffe re n c e between h y p o th e tic a l in te r a c tio n and r e a l in t e r a c t i o n. ^ The evidence provided by the s tu d ie s review ed above is r a th e r in co n g ru en t. Based upon fin d in g s of those s tu d ie s the o rd er e f f e c ts of in fo rm atio n in p u ts upon o n e 's fo rm u la tio n of an im pression of another a re q u ite d iv e rse depending upon o n e 's a t te n ti o n span, the degree to which o n e 's i n i t i a l im pression is s o l i d i f i e d, the presence of in te rv e n ing in p u ts, and th e e x iste n c e of a forew arning a g a in st the in accuracy of i n i t i a l im p ressio n s. A lthough v a rio u s f a c to r s which le ss e n the prim acy e f f e c t have been d isco v ered through e m p iric a l re s e a rc h, two o f these fa c to r s g e n e ra l ly are n o t p re s e n t d u rin g ongoing b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. F i r s t, the f a c t th a t prim acy e f f e c t s a re le ssen ed when one is forew arned re g ard in g the in accu racy of o n e 's f i r s t im p ressio n, g e n e ra lly is not operable in b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n in th a t th e re is seldom such a forew arning given by a th ir d p erso n. Second, in o rd e r to reduce the prim acy e f f e c ts 52 Warner W ilson and C hester Insko., "Recency E ffe c ts in F ace-to - Face I n te r a c ti o n," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l Psychology. IX <May, 1968), Ibid., 23.

116 101 by in tro d u c in g in te rv e n in g in fo rm a tio n, ag ain a th ird p a rty would be n e c e ssa ry. Due to the s tr u c tu r e of tw o-person, b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n, th e se fa c to rs which e x p erim en tally tend to le ss e n the prim acy e f f e c t are ab sen t in a c tu a l b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. T h ere fo re, although r e search r e s u lt s a re am biguous, one can re aso n ab ly p r e d ic t th a t th e order in which s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts flow between buyer and s e l l e r in F igure 4-1 has an e f f e c t upon th e i n t e r a c t a n t s 1 im pressions of each o th e r w ith th e i n i t i a l in fo rm atio n in p u ts having a dominant in flu e n c e. The r e s u lt s of the em p iric a l s tu d ie s above suggest th a t the i n i t i a l s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts re c e iv e d by the buyer may be q u ite domin a n t in h is im pression of the s e l l e r because the buyer may be more a t te n ti v e to the i n i t i a l in p u ts th an he is to the l a t t e r in p u ts. To l e s sen such a prim acy e f f e c t, th e s e l l e r may p re s e n t the buyer w ith l a t t e r in fo rm atio n in p u ts in a v ery fo rc e fu l manner. Thus f a r, in an aly zin g the e f f e c t s of o rd er or sequence of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts, as w ell as in the a n a ly s is of im pression form ation and change, s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts have been d e a lt w ith as homogeneous u n it s. However, s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts may a r is e from se v e ra l so u rc e s, and thus are n o t com pletely homogeneous. Some of the s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts a r is e from p h y s ic a l a t t r i b u t e s such as an in d iv id u a l's s iz e, c o lo r, and sex, w h ile o th e r s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts d e riv e from a c tio n o r beh av io r of the o th e r i n t e r a c t a n t. A s shown in F ig u re 4-1, th e flow s of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts may c o n s is t o f p h y sic a l a n d /o r b e h a v io ra l in p u ts. For ease in f u r th e r e x p la in in g in te rp e rs o n a l 54 John W. McDavid and H erb ert H a ra ri, S o c ia l P sychology: In d i v id u a ls. G roups. and S o c ie tie s. (New York: H arper and Row P u b lis h e rs, 1968), p. 175.

117 102 p e rc e p tio n, the a n a ly s is which follow s w ill i n i t i a l l y be co n ce n trate d upon the p h y sc ia l dim ensions of in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n and subsequently w ill focus upon an a n a ly sis of the b e h a v io ra l dim ensions of in te r p e r sonal p e rc e p tio n. P e rc e p tio n of P h y sic a l A ttr ib u te s of People Even though one m ight reaso n ab ly b e lie v e th a t the p e rc e p tio n of p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of human b eings might be s im ila r to o n e 's p e rc e p tu a l p ro cesses of n o n -s o c ia l o b je c ts, th e re is evidence which in d i c a te s th a t in te r a c ta n ts a t t r i b u t e v a rio u s types of p e r s o n a litie s to persons based upon p h y sic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. Much of the i n i t i a l em piric a l re se a rc h d e a lin g w ith in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n focused upon the p e rc e p tio n o f p h y sic a l a t t r i b u t e s and th e i r r e la tio n s h ip to p e rs o n a lity im p r e s s io n s.^ The p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s which appear to be a s s o c ia te d most w ith a p e r s o n a lity im pression in clu d e f a c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, sk in c o lo r, and a t t r i b u t e s of p h y sic a l d ev ian ce. In an attem pt to develop a r e la tio n s h ip between p e rc e p tio n of f a c ia l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s and p e rs o n a lity im pression, s e v e ra l s tu d ie s have been perform ed. For purposes of c o n tro l in th i s type of re s e a rc h, the ex p erim ental procedures in th e se s tu d ie s c a lle d fo r th e su b je c ts to form p e rs o n a lity im pressions by view ing photographs r a th e r than through a c tu a l fa c e -to -fa c e in te r a c tio n. This is a common lim ita tio n o f most of th e se re se a rc h e f f o r t s in th a t a c tu a l in te r a c tio n does n o t o ccu r. In two 55 Ibid.

118 103 se p a ra te s tu d ie s, one by Secord, Dukes, and B ev a n ^ and the second by Secord and M u th a rd,^ re s e a rc h e rs determ ined th a t in g en eral th e re is marked agreem ent among persons th a t c e r t a in f a c ia l c h a r a c te r is tic s c re a te s p e c if ic p e rs o n a lity im p ressio n s. Secord, Dukes, and Bevan found th a t th e person w ith d e v ia n t o r e c c e n tric f a c ia l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s i s, to a s ig n if i c a n t d eg ree, judged to have p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s t ic s e i t h e r above o r below the average w hile th e in d iv id u a l w ith average f a c i a l fe a tu re s is judged to have an average p e r s o n a lity. The f a c ia l a t t r i b u t e s which have the g r e a te s t in flu e n c e in the d ete rm in a tio n of p e rs o n a lity im pressions in c lu d e age, sk in te x tu r e, f u lln e s s of l i p s, and f a c i a l te n s io n s. The f e a tu r e s which have the le a s t relev an ce fo r p e r s o n a lity im pression are h e ig h t of eyebrow s, e y e lid v i s i b i l i t y, and w idth of fa c e. CQ R ather than fin d in g r e la tio n s h ip s between s in g le physiognomic t r a i t s and s in g le p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s, Secord, Dukes, and Bevan determ ined th a t c lu s te r s of f a c i a l fe a tu re s a re c o rre la te d w ith c lu s te r s of p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s. For exam ple, they found th a t o ld e r fa c e s, th in l i p s, le v e l gaze, w rin k les a t eye c o rn e rs, medium eye depth, and average eye b r ig h tn e s s, are a s s o c ia te d w ith p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s such as d is tin g u is h e d look, i n t e l l i g e n t look, a i r of r e s p o n s ib il ity, a i r of refin e m en t, and determ ined look and as being u n c o rre la te d w ith such ^ P. F. S ecord, W. F. Dukes, and W. Bevan, " P e r s o n a litie s in F aces: I. An Experim ent in S o c ia l P e rc e iv in g," G enetic Psychology Monographs. XLIX (May, 1954), ^ P. F. Secord, and J. E. M uthard, " P e r s o n a litie s in F aces: I I. In d iv id u a l D iffe re n c e s in the P e rc e p tio n of Women's F a c e s," Jo u rn al of Abnormal and S o c ia l P sychology. L (Mardh, 1955), Secord, Dukes, and Bevan, loc. cit

119 104 t r a i t s as c a re fre e ex p re ssio n, easy going, sense of humor, p a tie n t ex- 59 p re s s io n, and in d if f e r e n t look. Secord and Bevan in a d i f f e r e n t study made a c r o s s - c u ltu r a l comp a riso n of U.S. and Norwegians s tu d e n ts ' p e rc e p tu a l b eh av io rs in a s s o c i a tin g f a c i a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s and p e rs o n a lity im p ressio n s. U sing the same photographs, th e re s e a rc h e rs found th a t both U.S. s u b je c ts and Norwegian s u b je c ts acq u ired s im ila r p e r s o n a lity im pressions from th e same photographs There is evidence from re se a rc h perform ed by Secord and Muthard th a t m en's p e rs o n a lity im pressions of women developed by looking a t fem ale fa c e s tend to v ary according to the age of th e man. O lder men, i t was found, tend to form a le s s fa v o ra b le p e rs o n a lity im p r e s s io n.^ The s tu d ie s c ite d above su g g est th a t a buyer during in te r a c tio n ac q u ire s s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts by ob serv in g the f a c i a l fe a tu re s of s e l l e r and from th e se in p u ts c re a te s an im pression o f the s e l l e r 's p e r s o n a li ty. Based upon the b u y e r's im pression of th e s e l l e r 's p e rs o n a lity, the buyer may make c e r ta in assum ptions or develop c e r ta in e x p e c ta tio n s about the s e l l e r 's b e h a v io r. Thus, the buyer in F ig u re 4-1 may hold s p e c if ic b e h a v io ra l e x p e c ta tio n s re g a rd in g the s e l l e r b efo re the buyer has a c tu a lly acq u ired b e h a v io ra l in p u ts p e r ta in in g to the s e l l e r. Skin c o lo r is an o th er p h y s ic a l a t t r i b u t e which people use to 5 9 I b i d G. Secord and W. Bevan, " P e r s o n a litie s in F aces: I I I. A C ro ss-c u ltu ra l Comparison o f Im pressions of Physiognomy and P e rs o n a lity in F a c e s," Jo u rn a l of S o c ia l P sychology. XXXII ( J u ly, 1956), 282. ^ S e c o rd and M uthard, l o c. c i t.,

120 105 form ulate an im pression of o n e 's p e r s o n a lity. Secord, Bevan, and Katz attem pted to develop a r e la tio n s h ip between degrees of N egroidness and ste re o ty p e d p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of N egroes. These re s e a rc h e rs determ ined th a t re g a rd le s s of the degree of physiognomic N egroidness, s u b je c ts g e n e ra lly in clu d e a l l of the Negroid ste re o ty p e d c h a r a c te r i s t ic s in th e i r p e r s o n a lity im p ressio n s. A second h y p o th e sis supported by the r e s u l t s of th i s re se a rc h is th a t an ti-n eg ro p e rc e iv e rs tend to exaggerate th e Negro p e r s o n a lity s te re o ty p e w hereas pro-n egro p e rc e iv e rs tend to de-em phasize such a s te re o ty p e. 62 I n t e r r a c i a l b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n w ith in our own c u ltu re and p o s sib ly m u lti-n a tio n a l b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n may be in flu en ced by d iffe re n c e s in sk in c o lo r. S p e c if ic a lly, th e buyer an d /o r s e l l e r may be p erceiv ed to be N egroid, even i f sk in c o lo r is r a th e r lig h t w ith the p e rc e iv e r a tta c h in g the N egroid p e r s o n a lity. One may sp e c u la te th a t a s im ila r e f f e c t could occur when persons from o th e r r a c i a l or e th n ic groups are involved. A th ir d categ o ry of human c h a r a c te r i s t ic s which have receiv ed the a tte n tio n o f re s e a rc h e rs is p h y sic a l d e v ia tio n o r m ental d e v ia tio n. The p e rc e p tio n of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, which may be d e scrib e d as stigm a tiz e d, has s e v e ra l e f f e c ts upon s o c ia l in te r a c tio n. The term s stigm a o r stig m ata are used here to r e f e r to human a t t r i b u t e s which d e v ia te c o n sid e ra b ly from the norm such as p h y sic a l o r m ental d i s a b i l i t y. 60 F. Secord, W. Bevan, and Brenda K atz, "P ercep tu a l A ccentua tio n and th e Negro S te re o ty p e," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o cial Psych o lo g y. L I I I (J u ly, 1956), R. K leck, H. Ono, and A. H. H a s to rf, "The E ffe c ts of P h y sical Deviance Upon F ace-to -F a ce I n te r a c ti o n," Human R e la tio n s. XIX (November, 1966), 425.

121 106 Although one might minim ize the Im portance of s o c ia l in te r a c tio n s in which a t le a s t one person is s tig m a tiz e d, the e f f e c ts of stig m ata may be r a th e r p re v a le n t in th a t i t is probable th a t a s ig n if ic a n t number of persons p e rce iv e them selves as being viewed by o th e rs as being blem ished in some manner. Thus, th e in flu e n c e of stig m ata may appear in q u ite 64 o rd in a ry s o c ia l in te r a c tio n s. The p erceiv ed stra n g e n e ss which accompanies th e i n i t i a l stag es of f a c e -to -fa c e in te r a c tio n appears to be accented when one of the in d i v id u a ls is stig m a tiz e d w ith a p h y sic a l d i s a b i l i t y. R ichardson, H a sto rf, Goodman, and Dornbush in a study d e a lin g w ith in te r a c tio n between the handicapped and non-handicapped determ ined th a t non-handicapped in d iv id u a ls re p o rt g r e a te r amounts of u n c e rta in ty and uncom fortableness in such s i t u a t i o n s. ^ S im ila r r e s u l t s were re p o rte d by D avis. ^ Under th is type of in te r a c tio n c o n d itio n one could expect th e presence of stigm a to a f f e c t the p e rc e p tio n and thus th e in te rp e rs o n a l beh av io r of both in d i v id u a ls. R esearchers have co n c e n tra te d upon the b eh av io r of both the s t i g m atized and n o n -stig m atized i n t e r a c t a n ts. In a study which compared the in te r a c tio n o f n o n -stig m atized persons to in te r a c tio n in which one in d iv id u a l was stig m a tiz e d, K leck, Ono, and H a sto rf determ ined th a t the 64 A. F a rin a, J. G. A lle n, and B. B. S a u l, "The Role of the S tig m atized Person in A ffe c tin g S o c ia l R e la tio n s h ip s," Jo u rn a l of P erso n a l i t y. XXXVI (June, 1968), 169. *^S. A. R ichardson, A. H. H a s to rf, N. Goodman, and S. M. Dornbush, " C u ltu ra l U nfirm ity in R eactio n to P h y sical D i s a b i l i t i e s," American S o c io lo g ic a l Review. XXVI, (A p ril, 1961), 247. **^F. D avis, "Deviance D isavow al: The Management of S tra in e d I n te r a c tio n by the V is ib ily H andicapped," S o c ia l Problem s. IX, ( F a ll, 1961), 131.

122 107 presence of the stig m a tiz e d I n te r a c ta n t le ad s to h ig h ly c o n tro lle d beh a v lo ra l output on the p a r t of th e n o n -stlg m a tlz e d person. S p e c ific a lly, they found th a t the n o n -stlg m a tlz e d in t e r a c t a n t tends to e x h ib it le ss v a r i a b i l i t y in h is b eh a v io r, attem p ts to te rm in a te the in te r a c tio n so o n er, and ex p resses o p in io n s which a re le s s re p re s e n ta tiv e of h is a c tu a l b e l i e f s. ^ The r e s u l t s of a stu d y by F a rin a, A llen, and Saul in d ic a te th a t the ro le o f the stig m a tiz e d person is to tr y to d is p e l the un fav o rab le im pression which he b e lie v e s h im self to have c re a te d. In doing so, h is b e h a v io ra l o u tp u t causes the n o n -stig m atieed person to r e j e c t him. Assuming th a t a s ig n if ic a n t number of in d iv id u a ls p erceiv ed themse lv e s to be stig m a tiz e d, as in d ic a te d by F a rin a, A llen, and Saul, ^ numerous b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n s may occur in an environm ent in which th e buyer and/or s e l l e r r e s t r i c t s th e flow of in te rp e rs o n a l in fo rm atio n and changes h is b eh av io r in o th e r ways in response to the stigm a which one o r both of the in te r a c ta n ts p o sse ss e s. Because an in d iv id u a l g e n e ra lly has an o p p o rtu n ity to re c e iv e s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts p e rta in in g to p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s p r io r to re c e iv in g in p u ts re g a rd in g th e b eh av io r of the o th e r in te r a c ta n t, a s u b s ta n tia l p ro p o rtio n o f the i n i t i a l s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts acquired by the buyer p e r ta in to the p h y sic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s e l l e r. In ^Kleck, Ono, and H a sto rf, lo c. c i t Farina, A lle n, and S aul, loc c i t., I b i d., 169.

123 108 the e a r l i e r d isc u s sio n of the o rd er e f f e c t s, the re se a rc h r e s u l t s when con sid ered in the co n tex t of the b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n support the h y p o th e sis th a t the in fo rm atio n In p u ts which the buyer i n i t i a l l y a c q u ire s about the s e l l e r tend to dominate the b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r 's p e r s o n a lity. As the fo rc e s of th e prim acy e f f e c t o p e ra te on a s e t of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts w ith a high d is tr i b u tio n o f in p u ts p e rta in in g to p h y sical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, the p e rc e p tio n of p h y s ic a l a t t r i b u t e s b e comes q u ite s ig n if ic a n t in forming the b u y e r's im pression o f th e s e l l e r. A b u y e r's im pression of th e s e l l e r may be, to some degree, determ ined by the b u y e r's a c q u is itio n of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which d eal w ith the p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the s e l l e r. At a more g e n era l le v e l e m p irica l re s e a rc h e rs have focused upon the e f f e c t s of p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s upon an im pression which the p e rc e iv e r holds reg ard in g the p erceiv ed p erson. The p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s which have been found to have s ig n if i c a n t e f f e c t s upon o n e 's im pression of an o th er p e r son are f a c ia l f e a tu r e s, sk in c o lo r, and p h y sic a l d e v ia tio n s. R esearch r e s u l t s suggest th a t a buyer as he p e rc e iv e s the f a c ia l fe a tu re s of a s e l l e r may a s s o c ia te such f a c i a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s w ith a c e r ta in type of p e r s o n a lity. F a c ia l fe a tu re s which appear to have the most re le v an ce fo r form ing an im pression o f the s e l l e r in c lu d e age, sk in te x tu r e, f u lln e s s of l i p s, and f a c i a l te n sio n. There is a ls o r e search evidence in d ic a tin g th a t c lu s t e r s of f a c i a l fe a tu re s a re a s s o c i a te d w ith c l u s t e r s of p e rs o n a lity t r a i t s. Depending upon the degree to which the buyer is r a c i a l l y p r e ju d ic e d, sk in c o lo r may be an o th er p h y sic a l a t t r i b u t e in flu e n c in g the b u y e r's im pression o f th e s e l l e r. Research evidence In d ic a te s th a t re g a rd le s s of the shade of sk in c o lo r, a buyer tends to p e rc e iv e a Negro

124 109 s e l l e r as p o sse ssin g th e ste re o ty p e d p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of N egroes. In a d d itio n, a h ig h ly p re ju d ic e d buyer is more li k e ly to exagg e ra te the Negro p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s t ic s in h is im pression of the Negro s e l l e r than is th e low o r n o n -p reju d iced buyer. The e x iste n c e of stig m ata or p h y s ic a l d e v ia tio n in flu e n c e s buyer- s e l l e r in te r a c tio n and the b u y e r's im pression o f th e s e l l e r. Since the e x iste n c e of a p h y s ic a l deviance causes the normal in t e r a c t a n t to become uncom fortable and in h ib ite d, he tends to ( 1 ) c o n tro l h is b eh av io ral o u tp u t, ( 2 ) ex p ress o p inions which a re le s s congruent w ith h is a c tu a l b e l i e f s, and (3) te rm in a te the in te r a c tio n more q u ic k ly. The stig m a tiz e d person t r i e s to behave in such a manner as to minim ize the stig m a. Because of th e p resen ce of the stigm a, both the stig m a tiz e d and the nonstig m a tiz e d in t e r a c t a n ts a l t e r t h e i r b e h a v io ra l o u tp u ts which in tu rn a f f e c t s th e im pressions which each forms re g a rd in g th e o th e r. Even though th e b u y e r's im pression is s i g n i f i c a n t l y in flu en ced by s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which have as sources the p h y s ic a l a t t r i b u t e s of the s e l l e r, the b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r is a ls o a ffe c te d by the s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which p e r ta in to th e s e l l e r 's b e h a v io r. In the follow ing s e c tio n the e f f e c t s of the s e l l e r 's beh av io r upon the b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r are analy zed. A ttr ib u tio n : The P e rc e p tio n of Behavior As one p e rc e iv e s th e b eh av io r o f an o th er in d iv id u a l, he does n o t j u s t m erely sense th e p h y sic a l a c t i v i t y o r m otions o f the o th e r p erso n. From a s e r ie s of in fo rm a tio n in p u ts about o n e 's b e h a v io r, a p e rc e iv e r makes in fe re n c e s about an o th er in d iv id u a l's d is p o s itio n s, a t t i t u d e s, and c h a ra c te r. A m ajor d eterm in an t o f o n e 's im pression o f an o th er is the

125 110 degree to which a perso n p e rc e iv e s th e o th e r In d iv id u a l as b ein g the cau sal agent of ev en ts in th e in te rp e rs o n a l l i f e space.the v a r i a b le s and r e la tio n s h ip s which determ ine the e x te n t to which one a t t r i b u t e s cause to a n o th e r a re im portant components in the pro cess o f in te r a c tio n. The buyer in F ig u re 4-1, upon re c e iv in g b e h a v io ra l in fo rm atio n in p u ts from the s e l l e r, a t t r i b u t e s a c e r t a in degree of c a u s a lity to him, thus allow ing the buyer to i n f e r c e r t a in c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, d is p o s itio n s, and a t t i t u d e s about th e s e l l e r. From th e se and o th e r in fe re n c e s the buyer forms im pressions about th e s e l l e r. In an aly zin g the v a r ia b le s which in flu e n c e the manner in which the buyer p e rc e iv e s the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r two a t t r i b u t i o n m odels, as w ell as r e s u l t s of s e v e ra l e m p iric a l s tu d ie s, are d isc u s s e d. Subsequently th re e m ajor types of a t t r i b u t i o n a re an aly zed. Models of A ttr ib u tio n E s s e n tia l to the a n a ly s is of th e a t t r i b u t i o n p ro cess is the b a sic assum ption th a t man g e n e ra lly p e rc e iv e s b eh av io r to be caused. H eider in d ic a te s th a t the lo c a tio n of c a u s a lity can be in e i th e r the p erceiv ed person or the e n v iro n m e n t.^ A p e rso n may be p erceiv ed as behaving in a c e r ta in manner because he has to perform th a t way. That i s, the e x te rn a l o r environm ental fo rc e s are s tro n g. I f the perso n is perceived to behave in a p a r t i c u l a r way because he so d e s ir e s, then h is behavior i s a fu n c tio n o f in t e r n a l c a u s a l ity. T hibaut and Riecken found th a t an E. Shaw and J. L. S u lz e r, "An E m p irical T est of H e id e r's L evels in A ttr ib u tio n o f R e s p o n s ib ility," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o cial P sychology. LXIX (J u ly, 1964)., 39. ^ F. H eid er, "S o c ia l P e rc e p tio n and Phenominal C a u s a lity," P sy c h o lo g ic a l Review. LI (November, 1944),

126 Ill In d iv id u a l p e rc e iv e s com pliant b eh av io r of a h ig h e r s ta tu s person to be a fu n c tio n of I n te r n a l c a u s a lity and the same type o f beh av io r on the p a rt 72 of a lower s ta tu s person to be a fu n c tio n of e x te rn a l c a u s a lity. When the buyer a c q u ire s b e h a v io ra l in fo rm atio n in p u ts from the s e l l e r, th e buyer may view the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r as being determ ined by e x te rn a l causes such as p re s s u re from management and co m p etitio n among salesm en as w ell as b ein g a fu n c tio n of in te r n a l c a u se s. The re se a ra h by T hibaut and R iecken su g g ests th a t i f a salesm an i s p erceiv ed to be a lower s ta tu s perso n (which sometimes he is ) and th e salesm an e x h ib its com pliant or accom odative b e h a v io r, which is q u ite o fte n the c a se, then the buyer is li k e ly to p e rc e iv e the sa le sm a n 's b eh av io r as being d e te r mined by e x te rn a l ca u se s. A nother v a r ia b le, th a t of o n e 's r o l e, has been analyzed to determ ine i t s e f f e c t s upon an in d iv id u a l's p e rc e p tio n of in te r n a l and e x te rn a l c a u s a lity. A group of re s e a rc h e rs have s e t f o rth the p ro p o sitio n th a t, sin c e o n e 's r o le or s e t of r o le s c o n s is ts of b e h a v io ra l e x p e c ta tio n s from o th e r p e rso n s, o n e 's b eh av io r which i s a c tu a lly cong ru en t w ith h is ro le req u irem en ts is b eh av io r a t t r i b u t e d to e x te rn a l 73 c a u s a lity. They p o in t o u t th a t when a p e rs o n 's b eh av io r d e v ia te s from r o le e x p e c ta tio n s, h is b eh av io r is judged to be a r e s u l t o f in te r n a l c a u s a lity. Using a m ethodology in which s u b je c ts lis te n e d to recorded in te rv ie w s, Jo n es, D avis, and Gergen determ ined th a t " o u t-o f-ro le " 72 J. W. T hibaut and H. W. R iecken, "Some D eterm inants and Consequences of the P e rc e p tio n o f S o c ia l C a s u a lity," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a l i t y. XXIV (December, 1955), E. E. Jo n e s, K. E. D avis, and K. J. Gergen, "Role P lay in g V a ria tio n s and t h e i r In fo rm a tio n a l Value fo r Person P e rc e p tio n," Jo u rn a l of Abnorma1 and S o c ia l P sychology. LXIII (Septem ber, 1961),

127 112 stim u lu s persons s re p erceiv ed to be e x h ib itin g t h e i r tru e a t tr ib u t e s to a g re a te r e x te n t than a re " in - r o le " stlm ulua p e r s o n s.^ Thus, a second reaso n th a t th e buyer may p e rc e iv e the s e l l e r 'a behavior to be a fu n c tio n o f e x te rn a l c a u s a lity is th a t the behavior e x h ib ite d by th e s e l l e r may be viewed as being " in - r o le " b eh a v io r. In r o le behavior p ro v id es the buyer w ith v ery l i t t l e in fo rm atio n th a t allow s him to a t t r i b u t e d is p o s itio n s and a t t i t u d e s about the s e l l e r. ^ The b u y e r's im pression fo rm atio n p ro c e ss, in d e riv in g an im pression o f the s e l l e r, is n o t f a c i l i t a t e d to a la rg e e x te n t by re c e iv in g info rm atio n in p u ts th a t a r is e from r o le b eh a v io r. As th e s e l l e r tends to d e v ia te from th e b e h a v io ra l e x p e c ta tio n s of h is ro le as a s e l l e r, the buyer may p e rc e iv e h is beh av io r as b ein g le s s a t t r i b u t a b l e to e x te rn a l c a u s a lity. As the s e l l e r d e p a rts from h is r o l e, the buyer may p e rc e iv e the s e l l e r 's beh av io r as being determ ined by in te r n a l causes thus re v e a lin g c h ara c t e r i s t i c s about h is tru e s e l f. ^ In d e a lin g w ith th e v a rio u s forms of c a u s a lity, H eider d if f e r e n t i a t e s between p e rso n a l c a u s a lity and im personal c a u s a lity. P erso n al c a u s a lity p e rta in s to those events which the p erce iv ed person intended to o ccu r. Im personal c a u s a lity r e f e r s to ev en ts e x te r n a lly produced and e v en ts which were caused by the p erceiv ed in d iv id u a l but who had no in te n tio n of such events o c c u r r i n g,^ He in d ic a te s th a t in d iv id u a ls are 74 I b i d I b i d., I b i d., F r it* H eid er, The. Psychology o f In te rp e rs o n a l R e la tio n s (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1958), p. 100.

128 h eld re sp o n sib le fo r e f f e c t s c a te g o riz e d as p e rs o n a lly caused because such e f f e c t s In d ic a te I n te n tio n s. In fo rm atio n In p u ts about o n e 's In te n tio n s allow s the p e rc e lv e r to develop In fe re n c e s about an o th er p e rs o n 's 7Q d is p o s itio n s. 0 As the buyer re c e iv e s b e h a v io ra l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which he p e rc e iv e s as in te r n a lly caused, he must s t i l l d i f f e r e n t i a t e between the in te n tio n a l and u n in te n tio n a l e f f e c t s o f the s e l l e r 's beh av io r in o rd er to make in fe re n c e s re g ard in g the s e l l e r 's d is p o s itio n s. Only a f t e r th e buyer has se p a ra te d the e x te r n a lly caused e f f e c t s from the in te r n a lly caused e f f e c t s and has determ ined in t e n ti o n a lit y of the e f f e c t s due to in te r n a l c a u s a lity, is he -in a p o s itio n to develop in fe re n c e s about the s e l l e r 's d is p o s itio n s which in tu rn w ill allow him to form an im pression based upon th e s e l l e r 's b eh a v io r. U sing H e id e r's work as a fo u n d atio n, Jones and Davis have p ro posed a th e o ry o f a t t r i b u t i o n based upon co rresp o n d en t in f e r e n c e s,7^ Jones and D avis' a n a ly sis d i f f e r s from th a t of H e id e r's in th a t they focus m ainly upon in te r n a l c a u s a lity. The m ajor th r u s t of Jones and D avis' co rresp o n d en t in fe re n c e th e o ry is th a t an in fe re n c e about a human c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is corresponde n t to the e x te n t th a t the a t t r i b u t e and the observed behavior are s im ila r ly ex p lain ed by the in fe re n c e. In a d d itio n, the concept of correspondence should in d ic a te the p erce iv ed p e rs o n 's uniqueness on the 7 8 I b i d.. pp ^Edward E. Jones and K eith E. D avis, "From A cts to D isp o sitio n s The A ttr ib u tio n Process In Person P e rc e p tio n," Advances In E xperim ental S o c ia l P sychology. V ol. 2. E d ited by Leonard Berkow itz (New York: Academic P re s s, 1965), pp

129 114 dim ension in q u e s tio n. Correspondence is high when the a c t t e l l s the p e rc e iv e r som ething about the p erceiv ed in d iv id u a l which th e p e rc e iv e r 80 d id not know p r io r to th a t tim e. Ai. in fe re n c e th a t r e l a t e s an a t t r i bute to an a c t in c re a s e s in correspondence to the e x te n t th a t the judged v alu e of the a t t r i b u t e d i f f e r s from the p e r c e iv e r 's co nception of the 81 manner in which an average person would behave. W ithin th e framework o f co rresp o n d en t in fe re n c e th eo ry maximum 82 b e n e f ic ia l in fo rm atio n about th e p erceiv ed is gained when the perceived p e rs o n 's choice of a c tio n is h ig h, th a t i s, he is not c o n stra in e d by 83 e x te rn a l fo rc e s, and th e p r io r p r o b a b ility o f th e a c t o c cu rrin g is low. L ikew ise, l i t t l e b e n e f ic ia l in fo rm atio n is gained from th e p e rc e p tio n of beh av io r when the stim u lu s person has no choice o r l i t t l e choice as to h is beh av io r and th e p r io r p r o b a b ility of the a c t o c c u rrin g is h ig h. The r e s u l t s o f the Jo n e s, D avis, and Gergen stu d y ( c ite d e a r l i e r ) in d i c a te th a t b eh av io r which is in lin e w ith th e b e h a v io ra l e x p e c ta tio n s of the p erceiv ed p e rs o n 's r o le p ro v id es v ery l i t t l e b e n e f ic ia l in fo rm atio n 84 re g a rd in g h is d is p o s itio n. 80 E. E. Jones and V. A. H a rris, "The A ttr ib u tio n of A ttitu d e s," Jo u rn al of E xperim ental S o c ia l Psychology. I l l (Jan u ary, 1967), Jones and D avis, l o c. c i t The term b e n e f ic ia l in fo rm atio n r e f e r s to in fo rm atio n in p u ts which would be u s e fu l to the p e rc e iv e r in form ing an im pression of the p erc e iv e d. 83 Jones and H a rris, l o c. c i t Jones, Davis, and Gergen, loc. cit

130 In term s of a p p lic a tio n the Jonea and Davis model is q u ite sim i 115 l a r to the H eider model. The b u y er, as he re c e iv e s in fo rm atio n in p u ts from the s e l l e r, may i n i t i a l l y e v a lu a te the s e l l e r 's behavior u sin g a choice c r i t e r i o n. That i s, the buyer may c o n sid e r th e s e l l e r 's a c tio n s in a c o n tex t of degree o f c h o ic e. In a d d itio n, th e p r io r p r o b a b ility which the buyer a tta c h e s to th e s e l l e r 's b eh av io r is a determ in an t of the v alu e of the in fo rm atio n in p u ts re ce iv ed re g a rd in g the s e l l e r. To the e x te n t th a t the s e l l e r is p erceiv ed to have a wide range in the choice of h is a c tio n s, and the p r io r p r o b a b ility of the s e l l e r 's behavio r is low, then the in fo rm a tio n in p u ts re c e iv e d about the s e l l e r tend to have g re a te r v alu e to the buyer in making in fe re n c e s about the s e l l e r 's b e h a v io r. The H eider model and the Jones and Davis model a re s im ila r in th a t both are based upon the assum ption th a t b eh av io r has e f f e c t s and th a t an in d iv id u a l t r i e s to d e a l w ith the causes of b eh av io r in terms of the e f f e c t s. While H e id e r's model focuses on both in te r n a l and e x te rn a l c a u s a lity, the Jones and Davis model em phasizes in te r n a l causa l i t y. 85 The H eider model and r e la te d e m p iric a l fin d in g s y ie ld s e v e ra l im p lic a tio n s fo r e x p la in in g how the buyer forms an im pression of the s e l l e r based upon the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r. F i r s t, the buyer may a tte m p t to s e p a ra te the s e l l e r 's beh av io r as to w hether such b eh av io r is i n t e r n a ll y caused or e x te r n a lly caused. Second, i f the s e l l e r is p erceiv ed to be o f lower s t a t u s, h is b eh av io r is more A lb e rt H. H a s to rf, David J. S ch n eid er, and J u d ith P o lefka, P erson P e rc e p tio n (R eading, M assa ch u setts: Addison-W esiey P u b lish in g Company, 1970), p. 67.

131 116 lik e ly to be p erceiv ed as being e x te r n a lly caused. T hird, the buyer Is l i k e ly to p e rc e iv e th e s e l l e r 's beh av io r as being e x te r n a lly caused If the buyer b e lie v e s the s e l l e r 's beh av io r to be in - r o le b eh av io r. F o urth, the buyer a f t e r d if f e r e n t i a t i n g th e locus of c a u s a lity o f the s e l l e r 's b eh a v io r, tends to in f e r d is p o s itio n s, a t t i t u d e s, and p e rs o n a lity about the s e l l e r, thus in flu e n c in g th e b u y e r's im pression of th e s e l l e r. Based upon the Jones and Davis a t t r i b u t i o n model and r e la te d e m p iric a l re s e a rc h, one may make se v e ra l in fe re n c e s re g ard in g the e f f e c ts of the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n o f the s e l l e r 's beh av io r upon the b u y e r's im pression o f the s e l l e r. F i r s t, th e buyer tends to analyze the degree of choice which th e s e l l e r p o sse sse s in s e le c tin g h is a c tio n s. I f the buyer b e lie v e s the s e l l e r to have v ery l i t t l e choice of a c tio n s, he may tend to view the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r as not r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f h is r e a l s e l f. Second, the buyer may c o n sid e r the p r io r p r o b a b ility of a s p e c i f i c a c t of the s e l l e r in a t t r i b u t i n g v a rio u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to the s e l l e r. I f the p r io r p r o b a b ility of a given a c t is h ig h, such an a c tio n does n o t give the buyer v ery much a d d itio n a l in fo rm atio n about the s e l l e r, w hile i f the p r io r p r o b a b ility is low, such an a c t g iv es the buyer more a d d i tio n a l in fo rm atio n which i s u s e fu l to th e buyer in making in fe re n c e s about the s e l l e r which in tu rn a f f e c t s th e b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r. Thus f a r, the a n a ly s is o f th e a t t r i b u t i o n models and th e r e la te d e m p iric a l s tu d ie s have focused upon the v a r ia b le s which are a p a r t of the g en eral p ro cess of a t t r i b u t i o n. F u rth e r a n a ly s is d eals w ith th ree s p e c if ic types o f a t t r i b u t i o n. Types of A ttr ib u tio n Although th e models and e m p iric a l re s e a rc h s e t fo rth in the

132 117 s e c tio n above d e a l w ith the a t t r i b u t i o n pro cess in g e n e ra l, th e re a re o th e r v a r ia b le s and r e la te d e m p iric a l re s e a rc h d e a lin g w ith one of th re e s p e c if ic types of a t t r i b u t i o n in c lu d in g ( 1 ) a t t r i b u t i o n of a t t i t u d e s, (2) a t t r i b u t i o n of in te n tio n s, and (3) a t t r i b u t i o n of c a p a b i l i t i e s. A ttr ib u tio n o f A t t i t i d e s Due to e x te rn a l c a u s a lity people may behave in ways which are incongruent w ith t h e i r a t t i t u d e s. At tim es indiv id u als., make statem en ts th a t they a c tu a lly do n o t b e lie v e. O ne's b eh av io r may a ls o be a fu n c tio n of r e a l a t t i t u d e s. A p e rs o n 's in te rp e rs o n a l beh av io r may be determ ined by in te r n a l c a u s a lity a n d /o r e x te rn a l c a u s a l ity. A ttitu d e s expressed by both buyers and s e l l e r s d u rin g f a c e -to - f a c e in te r a c tio n may o r may not be t h e i r r e a l a t t i t u d e s. D isp o sitio n s of the p erce iv ed person are sometimes d eriv ed by a t t r i b u t i n g a t t i t u d e s to him. I f the p e rc e iv e r does n o t see stro n g environm ental fo rc e s o p e ra tin g on the p erce iv ed in d iv id u a l, th en the beh av io r e x h ib ite d by the p e rce iv ed is co n sid ere d to be in d ic a tiv e of h is tru e a t t i t u d e s. A ttitu d e s p re se n te d w ith an extrem e v alen ce may be more li k e ly p e rce iv ed to be o n e 's tru e a t t i t u d e s. The r e s u l t s of a stu d y perform ed by E is in g e r and M ills in d ic a te d th a t p erso n s who e x h ib it 86 s tro n g a t tit u d e s a re p e rc e iv e d to be more s in c e r e. The E isin g e r and M ills d ata su g g est th a t i f a s e l l e r e x p resses an a t t i t u d e w ith an extrem e v a le n c e, th e buyer is more li k e ly to view such a t tit u d e s as being th e s e l l e r 's own a t t i t u d e s. However, as 86 R. E is in g e r, and J. M ills, "P e rc e p tio n of the S in c e rity and Competence of a Communicator as a F unction of the E x trem ity of His P o s iti o n," Jo u rn a l of E xperim ental S o c ia l P sychology. IV (A p ril, 1968),

133 118 in d ic a te d e a r l i e r i f th e buyer view s the s e l l e r 's beh av io r as being in r o le b eh av io r (such as a stro n g e x p ressio n of a fa v o ra b le a t t i t u d e toward th e p ro d u c t), the buyer may d isc o u n t such an e x p re ssio n of a t t i tude as being in - r o l e b eh av io r and thus n o t n e c e s s a rily an ex p re ssio n of the s e l l e r 's tru e a t t i t u d e. P e rc e iv e rs, in a t t r i b u t i n g a t t i t u d e s, to some e x te n t co n sid er th e c o n te x t of th e stim u lu s perso n to deterim e i f he has a choice o r no choice in the b eh av io r which he e x h ib its. Jones and H a rris found ex p erim en tal data which su g g ests th a t an in d iv id u a l does tak e in to account p r io r p r o b a b il it ie s and s i t u a t i o n a l c o n s tr a in ts in h is a t t r i b u - 87 tio n o f a t t i t u d e s. However, th e se v a r ia b le s do not c a rry as heavy a w eight as one m ight p r e d ic t based upon the Jones and Davis model. The m oderate su p p o rt fo r Jones and H a r r is ' h y p o th e sis, th a t s i tu a tio n a l c o n s tr a in ts and p r io r p r o b a b ility of beh av io r on the p a r t o f the s e l l e r h e a v ily in flu e n c e a t t i t u d e a t t r i b u t i o n, su g g ests th a t the buyer may view th e s e l l e r 's ch o ice o f a c tio n as being b ro ad er than th a t s t r i c t l y p re s c rib e d by th e s e l l e r 's r o le. The buyer may p e rc e iv e a s e l l e r 's choice of a c tio n as not f a l l i n g in to a choice o r n o -ch o ice dichotomy but in s te a d view s the s e l l e r as having a c e r t a in le v e l o f d is c r e t io n in h is a c tio n s. The r e s u l t s of the Jones and H a rris study in d ic a te th a t an in d iv id u a l such as buyer may view a s e l l e r as having g r e a te r d i s c r e tio n in h is b eh av io r than the s e l l e r a c tu a lly p o s s e ss e s. Jones and H a r r is ' r e s u l t s a ls o su g g est th a t when the p erceiv ed in a n o -ch o ice s i t u a t i o n in d ic a te s no p e rso n a l commitment in e i t h e r a ^Jones and Harris, loc. cit., 22-4.

134 p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e d ir e c tio n, the p e rc e iv e r a t t r i b u t e s o p p o sitio n to oo the assig n ed p o s itio n on the p a r t of th e p erceiv ed in d iv id u a l. 0 0 a salesm an in a p erceiv ed n o -ch o lce c o n te x t does not make a p erso n al When commitment in re g a rd to a p ro d u ct or s e rv ic e which he is prom oting, the 119 buyer may a t t r i b u t e a p e rso n a l a t t i t u d e in o p p o sitio n to the a t tit u d e which the salesm an is o v e rtly p re se n tin g. The re se a rc h perform ed thus f a r re g ard in g a t t r i b u t i o n of a t tit u d e s in d ic a te s th a t the s e l l e r is somewhat in a dilemma in e x h ib itin g behavio r which w ill be p erce iv ed as r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of h is tru e a t t i t u d e s. I f he ta k es an extrem e and s tro n g p o s itio n in h is b e h a v io r, the buyer may p e rc e iv e such b eh av io r as being in - r o le b eh av io r and thus d isco u n t much of i t as being a fu n c tio n of e x te rn a l c a u s a lity. On the o th e r hand, i f the s e l l e r rem ains e q u iv o c a l, then the buyer a t t r i b u t e s an a t tit u d e in o p p o s itio n to th e a t t i t u d e which th e s i tu a tio n a l c o n s tr a in ts d i c t a t e. Only under the circu m stan ces th a t the buyer p e rc e iv e s th e s e l l e r as having some d is c r e t io n in h is choice of a c tio n, does th e b uyer, to some e x te n t, make a t t r i b u t i o n s of a t t i t u d e s which he b e lie v e s a re tru e a t t i tudes of the s e l l e r. From such a t t i t u d e s the buyer is a b le to make in fe re n c e s about th e d is p o s itio n s of th e s e l l e r. A ttr i b u tio n of I n te n tio n I n te r n a l c a u s a lity as d efin e d e a r l i e r r e f e r s to the e f f e c ts or ev en ts produced by o n e 's b eh av io r when h is behavior is n o t a ffe c te d by e x te rn a l fo r c e s. The e f f e c t s of an in d iv id u a l's beh av io r may be e i th e r 88Ibid.. 1.

135 known or unknown to him. A ttr ib u tio n of in te n tio n p e r ta in s to th a t b e h av io r in which the in d iv id u a l is p erceiv ed to have known the p o ssib le e f f e c ts of h is b eh av io r b e fo re he a c te d in th a t s p e c ific manner. In te n tio n is a t tr ib u t e d to an in d iv id u a l who is p erceiv ed as having knowledge of the e f f e c t s of h is a c tio n s. Even though a buyer may b e lie v e th a t a p a r t of th e s e l l e r 's beh av io r is determ ined by e x te rn a l ca u se s, the buyer, to some degree, w ill tend to view a p o rtio n of th e s e l l e r 's behavior to be a fu n c tio n of in te r n a l cau se s. The buyer as he re c e iv e s in fo rm atio n in p u ts re g a rd ing in t e r n a ll y caused b e h a v io r, w i l l attem p t to determ ine in te n tio n a lity From the in fo rm atio n in p u ts by which he a t t r i b u t e s in te n tio n, the buyer develops in fe re n c e s about d is p o s itio n s o f th e s e l l e r. H a sto rf and o th e rs attem p ted e x p e rim e n ta lly to determ ine the e f f e c ts on o n e 's im pression due to a change in the beh av io r of the stim u lu s p erso n. They found t h a t, a f t e r one has formed an im pression of a n o th e r, a change in the p erce iv ed p e rs o n 's beh av io r in a p o s itiv e d ir e c tio n causes th e p e rc e iv e r n o t to a t t r i b u t e in te n tio n to the p e r ceived fo r th e more p o s itiv e e f f e c t s, b u t in ste a d to view the change as a fu n c tio n o f e x te rn a l c a u s e s. 8 9 These re s e a rc h e rs ex p lain ed th e ir fin d ings by s ta t in g th a t p e rso n s, by a t t r i b u t i n g e f f e c ts of behavior to e x te rn a l causes r a th e r than a t t r i b u t i n g such e f f e c t s to in te n tio n s of 90 the a c to r, are more a b le to m a in tain constancy in t h e ir s o c ia l sp h ere. 8 9 A. H. H a s to rf, W. R. K ite, A. E. G ross, and Lyn J. Wolfe, "The P e rc e p tio n and E v a lu a tio n of B ehavior Change," S ociom etry, XXVIII ([December, 1965),

136 121 II' the buyer forms an Im pression based upon I n i t i a l in fo rm atio n inputs which re p re s e n t ln - r o le beh av io r on the p a r t o f the s e l l e r, the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r, which may e v e n tu a lly d e p a rt from r o le e x p e c ta tio n s, may be p erceiv ed as being a fu n c tio n of e x te rn a l c a u s a lity and th e re fo re does n o t change the im pression which the buyer holds fo r the s e l l e r. H eider developed a scheme in which th e amount of a t t r i b u t i o n of in te n tio n in r e la tio n s h ip to t o t a l c a u s a lity is s tru c tu re d in to a fiv e - 91 le v e l h ie ra rc h y of m a tu ra tio n. The f i r s t le v e l is the one of le a s t m a tu rity. H eider b e lie v e d t h a t young c h ild re n, in p e rc e iv in g e f f e c ts of b eh av io r, a t t r i b u t e a la rg e amount of in t e r n a ll y caused e f f e c ts to in te n tio n of the p e rc e iv e d. At the o th e r extrem e, th e le v e l of maximum m a tu rity, the p e rc e iv e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between e f f e c ts r e s u ltin g from o n e 's in te n tio n and e f f e c t s fo r which the p erceiv ed does n ot in te n d. Shaw and S u lzer found only p a r t i a l su p p o rt fo r the hypothe s is th a t c h ild re n tend to d i f f e r e n t i a t e le s s than a d u lts between e f f e c ts 92 which are intended and th o se which are u n in ten d ed. A lthough the r e s u l t s of the Shaw and S u lze r re se a rc h only p a r t i a l ly supported t h e i r h y p o th e sis, such data su g g est th a t th e m a tu rity le v e l of buyer may in flu e n c e h is a t t r i b u t i o n o f in te n tio n to th e s e l l e r. Based upon c u rre n t re se a rc h fin d in g s and p re d ic tio n s o f a t t r i b u tio n m odels, i t appears th a t the b u y e r's a t t r i b u t i o n o f in te n tio n to the s e l l e r is a fu n c tio n of ( 1 ) the e x te n t to which the buyer is capable ^ F r i t z H e id e r, The Psychology of In te rp e rs o n a l R e la tio n s (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1958), p p.' ^ M a rv in E. Shaw and J e ffe rs o n L. S u lz e r, "An E m p irical T est of H e id e r's L evels in th e A ttr ib u tio n of R e s p o n s ib ility," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o cia l P sychology. LXIX (J u ly, 1964), 45-6.

137 122 of s e p a ra tin g Intended e f f e c t s from unintended e f f e c t s of the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r, ( 2 ) the degree to which the buyer view s a change In the s e l l e r 's beh av io r as being determ ined by I n te r n a l cau ses, and (3) th e le v e l of the b u y e r's m a tu rity. A ttr ib u tio n of C a p a b ility Whether o r not the buyer a t t r i b u t e s in te n tio n to a s e l l e r may depend upon the e x te n t to which he view s the s e l l e r as being capable of producing such e f f e c t s by the s e l l e r 's a c tio n s. C a p a b ility may a ls o be viewed in a c o n te x t of non-perform ance. I f the s e l l e r does not perform in an expected way, th e p e rc e iv e r may a t t r i b u t e a lack of in te n tio n an d /o r a lack of c a p a b ility. In atte m p tin g to s e p a ra te e x te rn a l c a u s a l it y from in te r n a l c a u s a lity a buyer may a t t r i b u t e c a p a b ility to a s e l l e r when e x te rn a l causes a re n o t a p p a re n t. At tim es a s e l l e r w ill send fa v o ra b le in fo rm atio n in p u ts to the buyer in term s of com plim ents o r o th e r p o s itiv e statem en ts about the buyer in th e hope of c re a tin g a fa v o ra b le im p ressio n. In a study d e a l ing w ith the a t t r i b u t i o n of c a p a b ility, Lowe and G o ld ste in found th a t s u b je c ts, in te r a c tin g w ith an e v a lu a to r on a f a c e -to -fa c e b a s is, tend to i n f l a t e the c a p a b ility o f th e p o s itiv e e v a lu a to r (re g a rd le s s of the in te n t to be a c c u ra te o r to g ain ap p ro v al) and to u n d e rra te the capa- 93 b i l i t y of the n e g a tiv e e v a lu a to r. Jones and o th e rs perform ed an experim ent to determ ine i f the sequencing of in fo rm atio n in p u ts re g a rd in g c a p a b ility would in flu en ce qo 7JC harles A. Lowe and J o e l W. G o ld ste in, "R ecip ro cal L iking and A ttr ib u tio n s of A b i l i t y," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l Psychology. XVI (O ctober, 1970), 296.

138 123 o n e 's a t t r i b u t i o n of c a p a b ility. They found th a t an in d iv id u a l who dem onstrates a la rg e r number of s u c c e ssfu l a c ts I n i t i a l l y (w ith su c c e s s fu l a c ts ta p e rin g o ff as in te r a c tio n co n tin u e s) is p erce iv ed as being more capable than one whose success in c re a s e s as in te r a c tio n 94 c o n tin u e s. The data from the study perform ed by Jones and o th e rs suggest th a t the i n i t i a l b e h a v io ra l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which the buyer re c e iv e s from th e s e l l e r may be the most v a lu a b le in term s of a t t r i b u t i n g c a p a b ili t y to the s e l l e r. As th e number of in fo rm atio n in p u ts re g a rd in g capab i l i t y of the s e l l e r in c re a s e s, the in flu e n c e on the a t t r i b u t i o n of c a p a b ility d e c re a se s. In making in fe re n c e s re g a rd in g d is p o s itio n s or o th e r c h a r a c te r i s t i c s of the s e l l e r, the buyer may attem pt to determ ine w hether o r not the s e l l e r is capable of producing the ev en ts o r e f f e c t s through h is b eh a v io r. As suggested by th e r e s u lt s of e m p iric a l a n a ly s is, the b u y e r's a t t r i b u t i o n of c a p a b ility to th e s e l l e r tends to be in flu en ced by ( 1 ) th e o rd e r e f f e c ts and ( 2 ) the degree to which th e s e l l e r 's e v a lu a tio n of the buyer is p erceiv ed by the buyer to be p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e. The s e l l e r may have g r e a te r c a p a b i l i t i e s a t tr ib u t e d to him i f he e x h ib its su c c e ssfu l a c ts d u rin g th e i n i t i a l s ta g e s o f in te r a c tio n. I f the buyer p e rc e iv e s the s e l l e r to e v a lu a te him in a p o s itiv e d ir e c tio n, he may tend to o v e rra te th e c a p a b i l i t i y of the s e l l e r. A p erceiv ed n e g a tiv e e v a lu a tio n may lead to an u n d e rra tin g of the s e l l e r 's c a p a b i l i t i e s. 94 E. E. Jo n es, L. Rock, K. G. Shaver, G. R. G o eth als, and L. M. Ward, " P a tte rn Perform ance and A b ility A ttr ib u tio n : An U nexpected P rim acy," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology. X (December, 1968),

139 124 In summary the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of the s e l l e r 's beh av io r does n o t sim ply r e s u l t in a mere sensing of p h y sic a l a c tio n s or m otions. Based upon the sen sin g of the s e l l e r 's a c tio n s, the buyer may a t t r i b u t e in te n tio n s, a t t i t u d e s, an d /o r c a p a b ili tie s to th e s e l l e r. The buyer, in a t t r i b u t i n g v a rio u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to the s e l l e r, tends to determ ine the locus of c a u s a lity o f th e s e l l e r 's b eh a v io r. The r e la tiv e s ta tu s of the s e l l e r, as w ell as th e degree to which the s e l l e r e x h ib its in r o le b e h a v io r, are f a c to r s which a f f e c t the b u y e r's d ete rm in a tio n of w hether behavior is e x te r n a lly caused o r in te r n a lly caused. From the b eh av io r which the buyer views as being in te r n a lly caused, he a t t r i b u t e s in te n tio n s, a t t i t u d e s, a n d /o r c a p a b i l i t i e s to th e s e l l e r, and thus gains more in p u ts by which to form an im pression of the s e l l e r. E m p irical fin d in g s suggest th a t numerous and v a rie d fo rces a f f e c t s p e c if ic forms of a t t r i b u t i o n. The b u y e r's a t t r i b u t i o n of a t tit u d e s appears to be in flu e n c e d by the s tre n g th of the a t t i t u d e e x h ib ite d by the s e l l e r and by w hether o r n o t the s e l l e r ex p resses p e rso n al commitment in a p erceiv ed no -ch o ice s i t u a t i o n. When a t t r i b u t i n g in te n tio n to the s e l l e r, two in f l u e n t i a l f a c t o r s, th e f i r s t suggested by the Shaw and S ulzer fin d in g s and th e second by H a s to rf, appear to be the m a tu rity le v e l o f the buyer and th e tendency toward p e rc e iv in g th e p o s itiv e e f f e c t s to be e x te r n a lly caused a f t e r an im pression has been formed. A ttr ib u tio n of c a p a b ility to th e s e l l e r appears to be a ffe c te d by prim acy e f f e c ts of s u c c e s sfu l a c t s, and the p erceiv ed d ir e c tio n of the s e l l e r 's e v a lu a tio n of th e buyer. Summary One of the m ajor assum ptions of the in te r a c tio n model of buyer

140 125 b eh av io r Is th a t th e buyer p la c e s a v alu e upon the b eh av io r of the s e l l e r and th u s d e riv e s a b e h a v io ra l payoff from the s e l l e r 's p resence and b eh a v io r. The m ajor o b je c tiv e of th is c h a p te r has been to is o la te and analyze the d eterm in a n ts o f th e b u y e r's im pression o f the s e l l e r w hich, in tu rn, in flu e n c e s th e b u y e r's d e te rm in a tio n of a b e h a v io ra l payoff acq u ired by in te r a c tin g w ith th e s e lle r * Since the m ajor h y p o th e sis o f th e in te r a c tio n model o f buyer b eh av io r is th a t the b u y e r's b e h a v io ra l p ay o ff is d eriv ed from the imp re s s io n which th e buyer h o ld s re g a rd in g the s e l l e r, in te rp e rs o n a l p e r c e p tio n has been analyzed as i t s p e c if i c a l ly r e l a t e s to the form ation and a l t e r a t i o n of the b u y e r's im pression of th e s e l l e r. T h ere fo re, the m ajor a re a s o f in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n which have been analyzed are ( 1 ) the b a s ic p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e s s, ( 2 ) th e c o g n itiv e f a c to rs of im pression fo rm atio n, (3) the o rd er e f f e c t s of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, (4) the p e rc e p tio n of human p h y sic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, and (5) the p ro cess of a t t r i b u t i o n. To f a c i l i t a t e the a n a ly s is of in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n v a r i a b le s, i t was f i r s t n e ce ssary to d isc u ss th e g e n e ra l p ro cess of p e r c e p tio n. P e rc e p tio n was d efin ed as th e complex p ro cess by which a perso n s e l e c t s, o rg a n iz e s, and in t e r p r e ts in fo rm atio n in p u ts in to a m eaningful and co h eren t p ic tu re of the w orld. Even though the p rocess of p e rc e p tio n is a b a s is fo r perso n p e rc e p tio n, th e re are numerous v a r ia b le s which are unique to person p e rc e p tio n which a re n o t a p a r t of th e b a s ic p e rc e p tu a l p ro c e ss. In person p e rc e p tio n in fo rm atio n in p u ts which are s e le c te d, o rg an iz ed, and in te r p r e te d, are s o c ia l In fo rm atio n In p u ts because they re p re s e n t in fo rm a tio n about s o c ia l o b je c ts, namely the buyer and the

141 126 s e l l e r In th is m odel. The in fo rm atio n flow s in F ig u re 4-1 c o n s is t of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts. In both flows o f in fo rm atio n in F igure 4-1, the s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts may be i n i t i a t e d by e i th e r th e buyer or the s e l l e r. During the i n i t i a l s ta g e s of in te r a c tio n th e flows of in fo rm atio n may be somewhat r e s tr a in e d. By p ro cessin g s o c ia l inform a tio n in p u ts th e buyer forms an im pression of the s e l l e r from which he d e riv e s a b e h a v io ra l p a y o ff. The b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r may in clu d e the asp ects of the s e l l e r 's d is p o s itio n s, a t t i t u d e s, an d /o r p e r s o n a lity. In o rd er to analyze the manner in which the buyer forms and m ain tain s an im pressio n of the s e l l e r, s e v e ra l f a c to r s have been co n sid ered in c lu d in g c o g n itiv e o rg a n iz a tio n, c o g n itiv e com plexity, and the degree of co g n i tiv e r i g i d i t y. S ev eral e x p la n a tio n s d e a lin g w ith how the buyer o rganizes s o c ia l in fo rm a tio n in p u ts have been proposed. The buyer may org an ize h is im p ressio n ( 1 ) as a fu n c tio n of th e summation of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, (2) as a fu n c tio n of th e average of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, or (3) as a c o g n itiv e s tr u c tu r e which is more com prehensive than the sum of i t s p a r t s. To the e x te n t th a t a buyer e x h ib its a high degree of c o g n itiv e com plexity, in form ing an im pression o f the s e l l e r, he tends to seek and p ro cess more in fo rm a tio n, to be le s s c e r t a in of the accuracy of h is im p ressio n, and to be more capable o f c re a tin g a u n ifie d im pression from in c o n s is te n t s o c ia l In fo rm atio n In p u ts. A b u y e r's degree of cognitiv e r i g i d i t y appears to be a ffe c te d by h is own p e r s o n a lity. I f the buyer is h ig h ly c o m p etitiv e a n d /o r h ig h ly a u th o r ita r ia n, he is lik e ly to be more c o g n itiv e ly r ig i d cau sin g h is im pression of the s e l l e r to be more p o la r. A lthough the c o g n itiv e fo rc e s summarized above appear to a f f e c t

142 127 the form ation of th e b u y e r's Im pression of the s e l l e r, the o rd er or sequence in which the buyer a c q u ire s s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts a lso appears to be a fo rc e a c tin g upon the b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r. The a n a ly s is of the re s e a rc h on o rd er e f f e c ts supported the co n ten tio n th a t prim acy e f f e c t s tend to be more dominant than recency e f f e c ts in the b u y e r's im pression of th e s e l l e r. Prim acy e f f e c ts seem to be more i n f l u e n t i a l, because th e elem ents which le s s e n the prim acy e f f e c ts (such as a forew arning th a t c a u tio n s one about the inaccuracy of a f i r s t im pression and the in tro d u c tio n of ir r e le v a n t in fo rm atio n ) are g e n e ra lly n o t p re s e n t d u rin g on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. The b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r is not only determ ined by th e c o g n itiv e f a c to rs and the o rd e r e f f e c t s, but i t is a ls o a ffe c te d by the type of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts p erceiv ed by th e buyer. For a n a ly tic purposes s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts were d iv id ed in to two m ajor c a te g o rie s, one which c o n s is te d of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts r e garding p h y sic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s e l l e r and a second categ o ry which co n tain ed in p u ts re g ard in g the s e l l e r 's b eh a v io r. Based upon e m p iric a l fin d in g s, i t was determ ined th a t a b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r may be a ffe c te d by the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of c e r t a in p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s o f the s e l l e r. P h y sical fe a tu re s which have been found to in flu e n c e o n e 's Im pression of an o th er are f a c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, sk in c o lo r, and p h y sic a l d e v ia tio n s. E m pirical fin d ings su g g est th a t th e f a c i a l fe a tu re s which a f f e c t a b u y e r's im pression o f the s e l l e r are age, sk in te x tu r e, f u lln e s s of l i p s, and f a c ia l te n s io n. C lu s te rs of f a c i a l fe a tu re s a re g e n e ra lly a sso c ia te d w ith c lu s te r s of p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s. In re g a rd to sk in c o lo r, a Negro s e l l e r re g a rd le s s of the shade of sk in c o lo r tends to be p erceiv ed by a buyer

143 128 as p o sse ssin g the ste re o ty p e d p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s t ic s o N egroes. The h ig h ly p re ju d ic e d buyer may tend to o v er-ex ag g e rate the Negro p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c te r i s t ic s In h is Im pression of th e b uyer. The presence of p h y sic a l d e v ia tio n on the p a r t of e i t h e r th e buyer o r the s e l l e r causes the normal in te r a c ta n t to be uncom fortable and in h ib ite d. Since the normal in te r a c ta n t is more in h ib ite d under such c o n d itio n s, he is more li k e ly to ( 1 ) c o n tro l h is b e h a v io ra l o u tp u t, ( 2 ) express opinions which are le s s c o n s is te n t w ith h is a c tu a l b e l i e f s, and (3) term in ate the in te r a c tio n more r a p id ly. Even though s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts which p e r ta in to p h y sic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s have been found to a f f e c t a b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r, h is im pression appeared to a ls o be a fu n c tio n of s o c ia l inform a tio n in p u ts which p e r ta in to the s e l l e r 's b eh a v io r. When the buyer p e rc e iv e s the s e l l e r 's b e h a v io r, n o t only does he sense p h y sic a l m otion and a c t i v i t y, but he a ls o a t t r i b u t e s in te n tio n s, a t t i t u d e s, and capab i l i t i e s to the s e l l e r based upon in fe re n c e s from the s e l l e r s ' b eh av io r. Since the buyer bases such a t tr ib u t io n s upon b eh av io r which he p erce iv es to be in t e r n a ll y caused, he must determ ine the locus of c a u s a lity of the s e l l e r 's b eh a v io r. Two fa c to rs which make th e s e l l e r 's behavior appear to be e x te r n a lly caused are ( 1 ) low s ta tu s p o ssessed by the s e l l e r and ( 2 ) e x h ib itio n of in - r o le b eh av io r on the p a r t of the s e l l e r. In reg ard to s p e c if ic forms o f a t t r i b u t i o n em p iric a l fin d in g s suggested th a t th e a t t r i b u t i o n of a t tit u d e s is determ ined, to some d eg ree, by ( 1 ) w hether the s e l l e r, o p e ra tin g in a p erceiv ed no-choice s it u a t i o n, e x p resses a p e rso n a l commitment and ( 2 ) th e s tre n g th of an a t t i t u d e e x h ib ite d by the s e l l e r. C a p a b ility is more li k e ly to be a t t r i buted to the s e l l e r i f he e x h ib its s u c c e ssfu l a c ts during the i n i t i a l

144 p a r t of th e in te r a c tio n and i f the d ir e c tio n of th e s e l l e r 's e v a lu a tio n 129 o f the buyer 18 p erceiv ed to be p o a itlv e. The a t t r i b u t i o n of I n te n tio n to the s e l l e r tends to be a ffe c te d by the m a tu rity le v e l of the b uyer. As the buyer becomes more m ature, he is more lik e ly to d i f f e r e n t i a t e i n t e r n a ll y caused from e x te r n a lly caused b e h a v io r. In a d d itio n, a t t r i b u tio n of in te n tio n is a ffe c te d by th e tendency fo r a person to a t t r i b u t e p o s itiv e e f f e c ts to e x te rn a l cau ses. The b u y e r's im pression of the s e l l e r which th e buyer forms d u r ing on-going b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n appears to be a fu n c tio n of a la rg e number of v a r ia b le s. In atte m p tin g to e x p la in the fo rc e s which a f f e c t th e b u y e r's im pression of th e s e l l e r, s e v e ra l c a te g o rie s of v a r ia b le s have been analyzed in c lu d in g the c o g n itiv e f a c to rs o f im pressio n fo rm a tio n, the o rd e r or sequence e f f e c t s of in fo rm atio n in p u ts, the p e rc e p tio n of p h y s ic a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of p eo p le, and the p ro cess of a t t r i b u t i o n. These f a c to r s are o p e ra tiv e as the buyer forms an im pressio n of the s e l l e r. The b u y er, by a tta c h in g a v alen ce to h is im pression of the s e l l e r, d e riv e s a b e h a v o ria l pay o ff by in t e r a c t in g w ith th e s e l l e r. Even though, through the a n a ly s is of the v a r ia b le s which a f f e c t the b u y e r ' 8 im pression of the s e l l e r, s e v e ra l fo rc e s which in flu e n c e the attachm ent of a v alen ce have been s e t f o r th, o th e r f a c to r s which s p e c i f i c a l l y d eal w ith th e assignm ent o f a v alen ce to an im pression need to be more c lo s e ly c o n sid e re d. T h ere fo re, C hapter V focuses upon s e le c te d v a r ia b le s which in flu e n c e in te rp e rs o n a l a t tr a c t iv e n e s s.

145 CHAPTER V THE INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION VARIABLES OF THE INTERACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR In C hapter IV the a n a ly s is of b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n focused upon the way th a t v a rio u s types of s o c ia l in fo rm atio n in p u ts are p e r ceived by th e buyer in o rd e r to form an im pression of the s e l l e r. Based upon the im p ressio n th a t th e buyer has of th e s e l l e r, the buyer p la ces a v alen ce upon the in t e r a c t io n w ith th e s e l l e r and thus e s ta b lis h e s the v alu e of th e b e h a v io ra l payoff re c e iv e d from the s e l l e r durin g i n t e r a c tio n. Even though the a n a ly s is of the v a r ia b le s which are a p a r t of th e p ro cess of perso n p e rc e p tio n e x p la in s, to some d eg ree, the manner by which th e buyer p la c e s a v alen ce upon the p resence and beh av io r of the s e l l e r, th e re a re s e v e ra l o th e r v a r ia b le s which are d ir e c tly r e la te d to the way th a t a buyer d e riv e s a v alen ce of the s e l l e r 's behavior based upon h is p e rc e p tio n o f the s e l l e r. These v a r ia b le s are major components of th e p ro cess of in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n. The purpose of t h i s c h a p te r is to analyze the fo rc e s which determ ine o r in flu e n c e the degree of in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n between the buyer and s e l l e r which in tu rn a f f e c t s the v alu e which the buyer p la c e s upon the s e l l e r 's presen ce and b e h a v io r. For purposes of a n a ly s is a t t r a c t i o n is d e fin e d as a p o s itiv e v alen ce held toward another.^" *A. P ep ito n e and J. S herberg, "C ognitive F acto rs in I n te r p e r so n al A ttr a c tio n," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XXV (Ju n e, 1957),

146 L ikew ise, r e je c tio n r e f e r s to a n e g a tiv e v alen ce held re g ard in g an o th er 131 in d iv id u a l. The term s lik e and a t t r a c t are used synonymously as are the terms d is li k e and r e j e c t. A lthough the fo rc e s which a f f e c t a t t r a c tio n between a buyer and a s e l l e r a re numerous, they are grouped in to th re e c a te g o rie s of v a r ia b le s fo r a n a ly tic p u rposes. As shown in Figure 5-1 the c a te g o rie s o f v a r ia b le s which in flu e n c e a t t r a c t i o n in clu d e (1) p erceiv ed s im i la r i ty o f the in t e r a c t a n ts, ( 2 ) congruency o f f e e lin g s, and (3) a t t r i b u t i o n of in t e n t i o n a l i t y. These v a r ia b le s have been s e l e c t ed fo r in c lu s io n in the model due to the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f e m p iric a l r e search fin d in g s which p e r ta in to th e se v a r ia b le s. O ther v a r ia b le s, which have n o t y e t been re search e d e m p iric a lly, may be d eterm in an ts of a t t r a c t i o n between the buyer and s e l l e r. P erceiv ed S im ila r ity of th e I n te r a c ta n ts One m ajor d eterm in an t of in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n, which is supported v ery stro n g ly by e m p iric a l fin d in g s, is p erce iv ed s im i la r i ty between in t e r a c t a n ts. S im ila r ity of s e v e ra l d if f e r e n t dim ensions have been found to be p o s itiv e ly c o r r e la te d w ith a t t r a c t i o n. Research r e s u l t s in d ic a te a p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between a t t r a c t i o n and s im i la r i ty on 2 such dim ensions as economic s t a t u s, resp o n ses to item s of f a c t cono cern in g both p a s t and fu tu re e v e n ts, and e v a lu a tiv e statem en ts 2 D. Byrne, G. L. C l o r e, J r., and P. W orchel, "The E ffe c t of Economic S im ila r ity - D is s im ila r ity on In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n." of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology. I I (A ugust, 1966), 220. Jo u rn a l 3 D. Byrne, D. N elson, and K. Reeves, " E ffe c ts of Consensual V a lid a tio n and I n v a lid a tio n on A ttr a c tio n as a F un ctio n o f V e r i f i a b i l i t y, " Jo u rn a l of E xperim ental S o c ia l P sychology. I I (Jan u ary, 1966), 98.

147 Interpersonal Interpersonal \ Information / Attraction Perception Perceived Perceptual Similarity Process Congruency Of Cognitive Feelings H Factors Interpersonal Potential Attribution Of Order Effects Techniques Attraction Intentionality Perception Of Physical Characteristics Attribution Effects I Impression I And Valence \ Of The S eller Impression I And Valence \ Of The S eller Potential Attraction Effects Interpersonal Techniques BUYER / Information \ Interpersonal Perception Perceptual Process Cognitive Factors Order Effects Perception Of Physical Characteristics Attribution Figure 5-1 The In tera ctio n Model of Buyer Behavior: Focus Upon the V ariables of Interpersonal A ttraction H SELLER Interpersonal Attraction Perceived Similarity Congruency Of Feelings Attribution Of Intentionality 132

148 133 concerning the subject.^ Although these findings are somewhat isolated in th;it there are not similar studies to support these precise relationships, these findings are supported in a more comprehensive context by a substantial amount of research which relates attraction to perceived similarity of attitudes or perceived similarity of personality. Research studies which focus upon the relationship between perceived attitude similarity and interpersonal attraction, have been rather extensive and have overwhelmingly resulted in positive, direct correlations."* Based upon the results of his earlier research,** Byrne 4 D. Byrne and R. Rhamey, "Magnitude of Positive and Negative Reinforcement as a Determinant of Attraction," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. I I (December, 1965), 884. "*D. Byrne, "Response to A ttitu d e S im ila r ity - D is s im ila r ity as A F unction of A f f i l i a t i o n N eed," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a ilty. XXX (June, 1962), ; D. Byrne and C. McGraw, " In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n Toward N egroes," Human R e la tio n s. XVII (A ugust, 1964), ; D. Byrne and T. J. Wong, "R acial P re ju d ic e, P erso n al A ttr a c tio n, and Assumed D iss i m i l a r i t y of A ttitu d e s," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l P sychology. LXV (O ctober, 1962), ; D. Byrne^ " In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n as a F un ctio n of A f f i l i a t i o n Need and A ttitu d e S im ila r ity," Human R e la tio n s. XIV (A ugust, 1961), 283-9; E. E. Jones and B. H. D aughtery, " P o l i t i c a l O rie n ta tio n and P e rc e p tu a l E ffe c ts of an A n tic ip a te d I n te r a c tio n," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l P sychology. LIX (November, 1969), 340-9; S. S ch ach ter, "D ev iatio n, R e je c tio n, and Comm unication," Jo u rn a1 of Abnormal and S o cia l Psychology. XLVI (A p ril, 1951), ; A. J. Sm ith, " S im ila rity of V alues and I t s R e la tio n to A cceptance and P roje c tio n of S im i la r i ty." Jo u rn a l o f P sychology. X LIII (A p ril, 1957), ; D. Byrne and D. N elson, " A ttra c tio n as a L in ear F unction of P ro p o rtio n of P o s itiv e R ein fo rcem en ts," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology. I (Ju n e, 1965), ; Theodore M. Newcomb, "The P re d ic tio n of In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n," American P s y c h o lo g is t. XI (March, 1956), ; Abraham T e sse r, "E v alu ativ e and S tr u c tu r a l Simi l a r i t y of A ttitu d e s as D eterm inants of In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cial P sychology. XVIII (A p ril, 1971), For a com prehensive review of th e se types o f s tu d ie s see D. Byrne, " A ttitu d e s and A ttr a c tio n," Advances in E xperim ental S o cia l Psychology. IV, E d ited by Leonard Berkow itz (New York: Academic P re s s, 1968), pp See fo o tn o te 5.

149 134 and his associate, Don Nelson, developed a tentative law of attraction which states that attraction toward a person is a positive linear function of the proportion of similar attitudes held by the other inter- actant.^ Byrne indicates that one explanation of this relationship is the learned drive to be logical and to interpret information inputs accurately is reinforced by consensual validation and frustrated by cong sensual invalidation. Individuals who are interacting find attitude similarity rewarding and therefore are attracted to each other. Several research efforts have focused upon generalizing the relationship between attitude similarity and attraction. Byrne and Clore found the law of attraction to remain valid when the stimulus person was presented to the subjects by three different methods including a color movie with a sound track, a tape recording, and a set of written re- 9 sponses on a mimeographed attitude scale. In another effort to ascertain the generalizability of the similarity-attraction relationship. Byrne and others performed a cross-cultural study. Using subjects in Hawaii, India, Japan, Mexico, and Texas these researchers determined that the effect of attitude similarity on attraction is not narrowly bounded by nationality, race, or language.^ Other studies which provided ^D. Byrne and D. N elson, " A ttra c tio n as a L in ear F unction of P ro p o rtio n o f P o s itiv e R ein fo rcem en ts," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology, I (June, 1965), Ib id., 660. ^D. Byrne and G. L. C lo re, J r., " P re d ic tin g In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n Toward S tra n g e rs P resen ted in Three D iffe re n t Stim ulus Modes," Psychonomic S c ie n c e. IV (A ugust, 1966), 239. ^ D. Byrne, C. Gouaux, W. G r i f f i t t, J. Lamberth, N. Murakawa, M. Prasad, M. Ramirez; and A. P rasad, "The U biquitous R e la tio n sh ip : A ttitu d e S im ila r ity and A ttr a c tio n," Human R e la tio n s, XXIV (June, 1971),

150 135 support fo r g e n e ra liz in g the law of a t t r a c t i o n in c lu d e the Byrne and G r i f f i t t re se a rc h in which the a t t i t u d e s i m i la r i ty and a t t r a c t i o n r e l a tio n sh ip held fo r youth from high school down th ro u g h fo u rth grade** and the Byrne, G r i f f i t t, Hudgins, and Reeves re se a rc h which determ ined 12 the same r e la tio n s h ip s to hold fo r m iddleaged p erso n s. As was p o in ted out in the s e c tio n d e a lin g w ith the e f f e c ts of a t t r i b u t i o n in in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n, in t e r a c t a n ts, upon p e rc e iv in g the behavior o f the o th e r, may a t t r i b u t e a t t i t u d e s to the perceived person. Since the law o f a t t r a c t i o n su g g ests th a t a t t r a c t i o n is a functio n of p erceiv ed a t t i t u d e s i m i la r i ty, th e r o le of a t t i t u d e a t t r i b u t i o n on the p a r t of the buyer is q u ite s ig n if i c a n t in d eterm in in g the degree to which the buyer develops e i th e r a p o s itiv e or n eg ativ e v alen ce toward the s e l l e r. I f the buyer a t t r i b u t e s a t t i t u d e s to th e s e l l e r which are s im ila r to those o f the buyer, the buyer may be a t t r a c t e d to the s e l l e r because such c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the s e l l e r a re rew arding to th e buyer. A buyer, who a t t r i b u t e s to the s e l l e r a t t i t u d e s which are q u ite d if f e r e n t from those of the buyer, w ill tend to a tta c h to the s e l l e r a n eg ativ e v alen ce and thus d e riv e a more n eg ativ e b e h a v io ra l p ay o ff by in te r a c tin g w ith the s e l l e r. The b u y e r's a t t r i b u t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s a f f e c t s the a t t r a c t i o n he f e e ls fo r the s e l l e r w hich, in tu rn, c o n trib u te s to the d ete rm in a tio n of the b e h a v io ra l pay o ff re c e iv e d from in te r a c tin g w ith th a t s e l l e r. **D. Byrne and W. G r i f f i t t, "A Developm ental I n v e s tig a tio n of the Law of A ttr a c tio n," Jo u rn al o f P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology. IV (December, 1966), D. Byrne, W. G r i f f i t t, W. H udgins, and K. Reeves, " A ttitu d e S im ila r ity - D is s im ila r ity and A ttr a c tio n : G e n e ra lity Beyond the C ollege Sophomore," Jo u rn a l of S o c ia l P sychology. LXXIX (O ctober, 1969), 160.

151 136 S everal re se a rc h e f f o r t s have been aimed a t determ ining the in te rv e n in g v a ria b le s th a t a f f e c t the degree to which p erceiv ed a t t i t u d e s i m i la r i ty leads to a t t r a c t i o n. Gouaux tr i e d to determ ine i f the p er- c e i v e r 's em otional s t a t e would have any a f f e c t upon the a t t i t u d e and a t t r a c t i o n r e la tio n s h ip. o r a s t a t e o f d e p re ssio n. He induced in each s u b je c t a s t a t e o f e l a tio n He found th a t the e f f e c tiv e s t a t e does not change the g en eral r e la tio n s h ip between a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty and a t t r a c tio n, but th a t the degree o f a t t r a c t i o n, due to a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y, is 13 le s s fo r depressed s u b je c ts than fo r e la te d s u b je c ts. The b u y e r's a f f e c tiv e s t a t e, acco rd in g to Gouaux's fin d in g s, a f f e c t s h is r e c e p tiv ity and thus p e rc e p tio n o f the s e l l e r 's a t t i t u d e s. A buyer w ith a depressed e f f e c tiv e s t a t e w ill tend not to be as a t tr a c t e d to a s e l l e r due to p erceiv ed a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty as w ill be the same buyer i f h is em otional s t a t e is le ss d ep ressed. Another in te rv e n in g f a c to r, th a t of to p ic i n t e r e s t o r i n t e r e s t in the o b je c t o f the a t t i t u d e, was analyzed to determ ine w hether or not i t in flu e n c e s the a t t r a c t i o n - a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty r e la tio n s h ip. C lore and B aldridge a s c e rta in e d th a t the degree o f i n t e r e s t in the to p ic (or 14 o b je c t o f the a t t i t u d e ) is s ig n if i c a n t. I f the in te r a c ta n ts d isa g re e on a to p ic thus dem o n stratin g d i s s i m i l a r i t y of a t t i t u d e s and the to p ic is of l i t t l e i n t e r e s t to the in t e r a c t a n ts, a t t r a c t i o n is not reduced. During in te r a c tio n a s e l l e r may tr y to avoid c e r t a in to p ic s such as 13 C harles Gouaux, "Induced A ffe c tiv e S ta te s and In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l Psychology, XX (O ctober, 1971), 40. ^ G e ra ld C lore and B arbara B ald rid g e, " In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n : The Role o f Agreement and Topic I n t e r e s t, " Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l Psychology. IX (August, 1968), 341.

152 137 p o l i t i c s, not due to a lack of i n t e r e s t, but because o f too much i n t e r e s t, A s e l l e r may not want to take a chance on re v e a lin g an a t t i t u d e which is h ig h ly d is s im ila r re g ard in g a to p ic o f s ig n if i c a n t i n t e r e s t to the buyer. In fu r th e r re se a rc h which p e r ta in s to in te rv e n in g f a c to rs th a t m ight in flu e n c e the a t t r a c t i o n - a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty r e la tio n s h ip, an a ttem p t was made to determ ine the e f f e c ts o f r a c i a l p re ju d ic e. Byrne and Wong a s c e rta in e d th a t h ig h ly p re ju d ic e d persons p erce iv e s ig n if i c a n t a t titu d e d is s i m i l a r i t y w hile the assumed s im i la r i ty sco res fo r su b je c ts low in p re ju d ic e do not d i f f e r s ig n if i c a n tl y between b la c k and w h ite. Thus, in an i n t e r r a c i a l b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n the b u y e r's degree o f r a c i a l p re ju d ic e tends to in flu e n c e h is assignm ent of a v alen ce to the behavior of the s e l l e r who is a Negro. A h ig h ly p re ju d ic e d buyer, a cc o rd ing to th ese re se a rc h r e s u l t s, w ill tend to p e rc e iv e d i s s i m i l a r i t y in a t t i t u d e s and th e re fo re d e riv e a r e l a t i v e l y more n e g a tiv e b e h a v io ra l payo f f from in te r a c tin g w ith the Negro s e l l e r. I f the buyer does not p o ssess a high degree of r a c i a l p re ju d ic e, the f a c t th a t th e s e l l e r is Negro w ill tend not to in flu e n c e th e p e rc e p tio n o f a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty. The e f f e c t s o f p erceiv ed s im i la r i ty of p e rs o n a lity in r e l a t i o n to a t t r a c t i o n have been the focus o f s e v e ra l re s e a rc h e rs.* -** The fin d in g s *^D. Byrne and J. Wong, " R a c ia l P re ju d ic e, In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n and Assumed D is s im ila r ity o f A ttitu d e s," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. LXV (O ctober, 1962), 253. *^See H. R osenfeld and J. Jack so n, " E ffe c t o f S im ila r ity o f P erso n a l i t i e s on I n te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n," American P s y c h o lo g is t, XIV (J u ly, 1959), 366-7; E. G. B e ie r, A. M. R o ssi, and R. L. G a rfie ld, " S im ila rity P lus D is s im ila r ity of P e rs o n a lity : B asis fo r F rie n d s h ip," P sy c h o lo g ic al R e p o rte r, V III (F ebruary, 1961), 3-8; A. S. M orton, " S im ila r ity as a D eterm inant o f F rie n d s h ip : A M ultidim ensional S tu d y," T echnical R eport, 1959, P rin c e to n U n iv e rs ity, Nonr, 1858; Mary R e illy, W. D. Commins, and E. C. S t e f i c, "The C om plem entarity of P e rs o n a lity Needs in F rie n d sh ip C hoice," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l P sychology, LXI (November, 1960),

153 of v a rio u s s tu d ie s re g a rd in g th i s r e la tio n s h ip are n o t as overw helm ingly o n e-sid ed as are the r e s u l t s of re se a rc h p e rta in in g to the r e la tio n s h ip 138 between p e rce iv ed a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y and a t t r a c t i o n. The r e s u l t s of a stu d y perform ed by Iz a rd support the p ro p o s itio n th a t p e r s o n a lity s im i la r i ty is a s ig n if i c a n t fa c to r in in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n. ^ Because h e r m ethodology of the re s e a rc h did n o t tak e in to account the f a c t th a t the s i m i l a r i t y in p e rs o n a lity could have a r is e n a f t e r a t t r a c tio n developed, she su b seq u en tly perform ed a study which accounted fo r w hether o r n o t p e r s o n a lity s im i la r i ty e x is te d p r io r to a t t r a c t i o n. 18 A gain, th e a t tr a c t io n - p e r s o n a li ty s im i la r i ty p ro p o s itio n was su p p o rte d. 4-0 In a tte m p tin g to determ ine the g e n e r a liz a b ili ty of th i s r e la tio n s h ip I z a r d, in a th i r d experim ent, changed p o p u la tio n s from c o lle g e f r e s h men to c o lle g e se n io rs and found th a t p e r s o n a lity s i m i l a r i t y is n o t a 19 s ig n if i c a n t d eterm in a n t o f a t t r a c t i o n. She suggested th a t the d i f fe re n c e s in th e fin d in g s may have been due to d iffe re n c e s in the m aturi t y le v e l o f the two p o p u la tio n s of th e s u b je c ts. Iz a rd in d ic a te d th a t i t is p o s sib le th a t the more m ature in d iv id u a l does n o t have as g re a t a need fo r an in t e r a c t a n t to r e f l e c t th e p e r c e iv e r 's p e r s o n a lity. A lthough the fin d in g s o f I z a r d 's re se a rc h are in c o n g ru e n t, the r e la tio n s h ip between p erce iv ed p e r s o n a lity s i m i l a r i t y and a t t r a c t i o n 1 7 C. E. Iz a rd, " P e rs o n a lity S im ila r ity and F rie n d s h ip," Jo u rn a l of Abnorma1 and S o c ia l P sychology. LXI ( J u ly, 1960), C. E. Iz a rd, " P e rs o n a lity S im ila r ity, P o s itiv e A ffe c t, and In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l P sychology. LXI (November, 1960), C. E. I z a rd, " P e rs o n a lity S im ila r ity and F rie n d s h ip : A Follow Up S tu d y," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. LXVI (Ju n e, 1963),

154 139 should not be t o t a l l y d isc o u n te d. At le a s t to some e x te n t, th e degree to which the buyer p e rc e iv e s the s e l l e r to have a s im ila r p e rs o n a lity may in flu e n c e th e d ir e c tio n o f the v alen ce which the buyer a tta c h e s to the b eh av io r of the s e l l e r. As Iz a rd su g g ests th e m a tu rity le v e l of th e p e rc e iv e r may be an in te rv e n in g fa c to r which le sse n s th e im pact of p e rc e iv e d p e r s o n a lity s i m i l a r i t y on the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r. A nother in te rv e n in g f a c to r which may a f f e c t the in flu e n c e th a t p erceiv ed p e r s o n a lity s i m i l a r i t y has upon the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n to the s e l l e r is the p e r s o n a lity type of th e b u y er. H endrick and Brown a s c e rta in e d th a t th e p e r s o n a lity of th e p erce iv ed in flu e n c e s th e e f f e c t s of p e r s o n a lity s i m i l a r i t y upon a t t r a c t i o n. They found m oderate support fo r th e p ro p o s itio n th a t both in tr o v e r ts and e x tro v e r ts are a t tr a c t e d 20 to e x tro v e rte d s tr a n g e r s. These fin d in g s in d ic a te th a t the r e l a t i o n sh ip between a t t r a c t i o n and p e r s o n a lity s i m i l a r i t y holds f o r th e e x tro v e rte d p e rc e iv e r but n o t f o r th e in tro v e rte d p e rc e iv e r. The fin d in g s provided by H endrick and Brown's re se a rc h su g g est th a t an e x tro v e rte d s e l l e r is more li k e ly, than an in tro v e rte d s e l l e r, to be p erce iv ed as a t t r a c t i v e by both in tr o v e r te d and e x tro v e rte d buyers th e re fo re allo w in g such buyers to a c q u ire more p o s itiv e b e h a v io ra l payo ffs from th e in t e r a c t io n. However, an in tro v e rte d buyer may a tta c h a n e g a tiv e v a len ce to an in tr o v e r te d s e l l e r th u s d e riv in g a more n e g a tiv e b e h a v io ra l p ay o ff from th e s e l l e r. In summary, alth o u g h th e re appears to be a p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n 20 Clyde H endrick and Steven R. Brown, " In tro v e rs io n, E x tro v e rsio n, and I n te rp e rs o n a l A t tr a c tio n," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l Psych o lo g y. XX (O cto b er, 1971), 35.

155 140 between a t t r a c t i o n and s i m i l a r i t y on a number of dim ensions, the r e l a tio n s h ip s between a t t r a c t i o n and a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty and between a t t r a c t i o n and s im i la r i ty o f p e rs o n a lity have been th e focus of numerous e m p iric a l s tu d ie s. The r e la tio n s h ip betw een a t t r a c t i o n and a t tit u d e s im i la r i ty has been so s tro n g ly supported e m p iric a lly th a t a te n ta tiv e law of a t t r a c t i o n has been proposed. The te n ta ti v e law o f a t t r a c t i v e s ta t e s th a t a t t r a c tio n toward an in d iv id u a l is a p o s itiv e li n e a r fu n c tio n o f the pro p o r tio n of s im ila r a t t i t u d e s p erce iv ed to be held by the o th e r in t e r a c t a n t. Thus, according to th e te n ta ti v e law o f a t t r a c t i o n, the buyer may be more li k e ly to a tta c h a p o s itiv e v alen ce to h is im pression of th e s e l l e r i f he p e rce iv es a s ig n if i c a n t number of the s e l l e r 's a t tit u d e s to be s im ila r to h is own. Since a t t r a c t i o n i s, to some e x te n t, determ ined by p erce iv ed a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y, the a t t r i b u t i o n of a t t i t u d e s to th e s e l l e r by the buyer is an im portant f a c to r in e s ta b lis h in g the degree of a t t i tude s im i la r i ty by the buyer. Through se v e ra l e m p iric a l e f f o r t s the te n ta ti v e law of a t t r a c tio n has been g e n e ra liz e d to o th e r c u ltu r e s in c lu d in g H aw aii, Japan, M exico, and In d ia. In a d d itio n the te n ta ti v e law of a t t r a c t i o n has been g e n e ra liz e d to fo u rth g ra d e rs, hig h school s tu d e n ts, and m iddle-aged p e rs o n s. The e f f e c t s of o th e r v a r ia b le s upon the a t t r a c t i o n - a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y r e la tio n s h ip have been s tu d ie d. Research evidence su g g ests th a t the a t t r a c t i o n - a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty r e la tio n s h ip holds when s e le c te d v a r ia b le s are in tro d u c e d, but th a t the degree of a t t r a c t i o n due to p e rce iv ed a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y is le ssen ed ( 1 ) when th e b u y e r's a f f e c tiv e s t a t e is one of d e p re s s io n, ( 2 ) when the o b je c ts of the s im ila r

156 141 a t tit u d e s are of l i t t l e in t e r e s t to th e buyer and s e l l e r, and (3) when a r a c i a l l y p re ju d ic e d w hite buyer is in te r a c tin g w ith a b la ck s e l l e r. P e rs o n a lity s i m i l a r i t y in r e l a t i o n to a t t r a c t i o n has been the focus of s e v e ra l e m p iric a l s tu d ie s. The r e s u lt s in g e n era l tend to support a p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between p e r s o n a lity s im i la r i ty and a t t r a c t i o n, but th e se r e s u lt s are not as co n v in cin g ly on e-sid ed as are the fin d in g s which r e l a t e a t t r a c t i o n and a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty. The e f f e c t s of p e r s o n a lity s im i la r i ty on a t t r a c t i o n appear to be lessened and may d isa p p e a r as the buyer becomes more m ature. In a d d itio n, em p iric a l data su g g est th a t both in tro v e rte d and e x tro v e rte d buyers are a t tr a c t e d to e x tro v e rte d s e l l e r s thus in d ic a tin g th a t th e e f f e c ts of p e r s o n a lity s im i la r i ty upon a t t r a c t i o n may vary depending upon the p e r s o n a lity of the bu y er. A lthough the b u y e r's tendency to a ssig n a p o s itiv e v alence to h is im pression of the s e l l e r may b e, to some d egree, a fu n c tio n of h is p e rc e p tio n of the s e l l e r as being s im ila r in se v e ra l ways to h im se lf, h is a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r may a ls o be in flu en ced by w hether or n o t he b e lie v e s the s e l l e r to lik e him. Congruency I f a buyer p e rc e iv e s h im se lf to be lik e d by the s e l l e r, does th i s p erceiv ed lik in g cause th e buyer to a ss ig n a more p o s itiv e v alen ce to the behavior of the s e l l e r? This is a q u e stio n p e rta in in g to congruency. Congruency r e f e r s to the tendency of an in d iv id u a l to lik e a n o th e r person and to f e e l lik e d by him o r to d is li k e and to sense

157 rejection on the part of the other person. On a more g e n e ra liz e d le v e l s e v e ra l re s e a rc h e rs have found evidence v h lch su p p o rts a p o s itiv e answer to th is q u e stio n. T a g iu r i, B lake, and Bruner found s tro n g p o s itiv e support fo r the r e l a tio n s h ip between th e p e rc e p tio n of being lik e d by an o th er in d iv id u a l and 23 lik in g him. Data g en erated by re s e a rc h conducted by Backman and Secord in d ic a te d th a t only durin g i n i t i a l in te r a c tio n does p erceiv ed lik in g 24 in c re a se a t t r a c t i o n toward the p erce iv ed l i k e r. The im portance of o n e 's p e rc e p tio n of being lik e d is in d ic a te d by W alster and W a ls te r's re s e a rc h. They a s c e rta in e d th a t when one h ig h ly v a lu e s being lik e d, which many people do, the perso n tends to seek an 25 in te r a c ta n t th a t is s im ila r r a th e r than d is s im ila r. These fin d in g s are g e n e ra lly c o n s is te n t w ith the r e s u l t s o f many of th e s tu d ie s d e a lin g 2 1 C. W. Backman and P. F. Secord, "The E ffe c t of P erceived L iking on In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n," Human R e la tio n s. X II (November, 1959), See: T. M. Newcomb, "The C ognition o f Persons as C o g n iz ers," Person P e rc e p tio n and In te rp e rs o n a l B eh av io r, ed. by R. T ag iu ri and L. P e tr u llo (S ta n fo rd : S tan fo rd U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1958), pp ; R. T a g iu ri and N. Kogan, "The V i s i b i l i t y of In te rp e rs o n a l P re fe re n c e s," Human R e la tio n s. X (November, 1957), ; R. T a g iu ri, J. S. B runer, and R. R. B lake, "On th e R e la tio n Between F eelin g s and P e rc e p tio n of F e e lin g s Among Members o f Small G roups," Readings in S o cia l Psychology, ed. by E.E. Maccoby and o th e rs (New York: H o lt, R in e h art and W inston, I n c., 1958). 23 T. T a g iu ri, R. R. B lake, and J. S. B runer, "Some D eterm inants of the P e rc e p tio n of P o s itiv e and N egative F e elin g s in O th e rs," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o cia l Psychology. XLVIII (O ctober, 1953), Backman and Secord, lo c. c i t E. W alster and G. W. W alster, " E ffe c t o f E xpecting to be Liked on Choice o f A s s o c ia te s," Jo u rn a l o f Abnormal and S o cia l Psychology. LXVII (O ctober, 1963), 402.

158 143 w ith a t t r a c t i o n and a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y. A perso n chooses a s im ila r person to i n t e r a c t w ith because he b e lie v e s th a t th e s im ila r In d iv id u a l is more lik e ly to be a t tr a c t e d to him. I f one p e rc e iv e s th a t he is not lik e d by the o th e r in t e r a c t a n t, then s im ila r ity is of l i t t l e im portance 26 to the p e rc e iv e r. He tends n o t to be a t tr a c t e d to a s im ila r i n t e r a c ta n t i f he p e rc e iv e s d is li k e on the p a r t of th a t p erso n. I f a t t r a c t i o n to th e s e l l e r i s, to some e x te n t, a fu n c tio n of the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of being lik e d by the s e l l e r, the f a c to rs th a t in flu e n c e such p e rc e p tio n a r e, in tu rn, d eterm in an ts of the a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r. S ev eral types of e m p iric a l re se a rc h have been aimed a t the d e te rm in a tio n of such in f l u e n t i a l f a c to rs a t a more g e n era l l e v e l. One such f a c to r which has been analyzed is th e degree to which an e v a lu a to r d is c rim in a te s in h is e v a lu a tio n o f o th e rs. Landy and Aronson stu d ie d the e f f e c ts of degree of discernm ent re g ard in g the l i k ing o f an in d iv id u a l by an in te r a c ta n t and a t t r a c t i o n toward th e i n t e r a c ta n t. They determ ined th a t an in d iv id u a l is more a ttr a c te d to a 27 d isc e rn in g in te r a c ta n t than a n o n d iscern in g i n t e r a c t a n t. A d isc e rn in g i n t e r a c t a n t, one who d o e s n 't " lik e " everyone, is more lik e ly to be p e r ceived as re v e a lin g h is tru e fe e lin g s th an a n o n d isc e m in g or non-, d is c rim in a tin g i n t e r a c t a n t. When an in d iv id u a l p e rc e iv e s h im se lf as being lik e d by a d is c e rn in g i n t e r a c t a n t, he tends to b e lie v e th a t the 2 6 E. Aronson and P. W orchel, " S im ila rity v s. L iking as D eterm i nants o f In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tiv e n e s s," Psychonomic S c ie n ce. V (June, 1966), D. Landy and E. Aronson, "L iking fo r an E v alu ato r as a F unction of His D iscernm ent," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l Psychology. IX (Ju n e, 1968), 138.

159 144 in tc r a c ta n t is s in c e r e. Such s in c e r i ty is rew arding to the in d iv id u a l and thus he is more a t tr a c t e d to th e d is c e rn in g in t e r a c t a n t. A s e l l e r, due to h is r o le, may q u ite o fte n be p erceiv ed as a n o n d isc e m in g perso n who " lik e s ev ery o n e." As a buyer in te r a c ts w ith a n o n d iscern in g s e l l e r, the buyer may p e rc e iv e him to be in s in c e re when in d ic a tin g a lik in g fo r the buyer thus cau sin g the buyer n o t to a ss ig n a p o s itiv e v alen ce to the b eh av io r of the s e l l e r. I f the s e l l e r is capable of in d ic a tin g to the buyer th a t the s e l l e r is a d is c rim in a t ing p erso n, th e buyer may b e lie v e h im se lf to be lik e d by the s e l l e r and th e re fo re may be more a t tr a c t e d to th e s e l l e r. A nother f a c to r which has been exp lo red fo r p o s s ib le in flu en ce on o n e 's p e rc e p tio n of being lik e d is r e l a t i v e in c re a s e or d ecrease of esteem. Aronson and L in d er have h y p o th esized th a t i f Person A 's behavio r toward P erson B is i n i t i a l l y n e g a tiv e b u t g ra d u a lly becomes more p o s itiv e, B w i l l be more a t tr a c t e d to A than i f A 's beh av io r is c o n sta n t- 28 ly p o s itiv e. The fin d in g s o f Aronson and L in d e r 's study support the h y p o th e sis. They found th a t s u b je c ts lik e d an e v a lu a to r b e s t when h is e v a lu a tio n s moved from n e g a tiv e to p o s iti v e. As the e v a lu a tio n s pro- 29 g ressed from p o s itiv e to n e g a tiv e, the e v a lu a to r was lik e d l e a s t. Thus a g ain or lo ss in esteem appears to cause a g r e a te r lik in g or d is lik in g re s p e c tiv e ly fo r the e v a lu a to r than does a c o n sta n t le v e l of esteem. As in d ic a te d e a r l i e r a s e l l e r, due to h is r o le, may be p erceiv ed by a buyer as being a n o n d iscern in g perso n a t th e extrem e of " lik in g 28 E. Aronson and D. L in d er, "Gain and Loss of Esteem as D eterm i nants of In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tiv e n e s s," Jo u rn a l of E xperim ental S o cia l P sychology. I (May, 1965), Ibid

160 145 ev ery o n e." I f, In ste a d of m a in tain in g a c o n s ta n t p o s itiv e " fe e lin g " toward everyone, th e s e l l e r would tend to move from in d iffe re n c e to a p o s itiv e f e e lin g toward the b uyer, two f a c to r s are a t work to In crease the reward to the b u y er. F i r s t, by in d ic a tin g a change in fe e lin g the buyer may view the s e l l e r as b ein g more d is c e rn in g, th e re fo re causing the buyer to be more a t t r a c t e d to th e s e l l e r because th e d isc e rn in g s e l l e r is p erceiv ed by th e buyer as e x p re ssin g h is tru e fe e lin g s about a n o th e r. Second, by moving from an in d i f f e r e n t p o s itio n to a more p o s i tiv e p o s itio n, the s e l l e r in d ic a te s th a t he h o ld s g re a te r esteem fo r the buyer which is rew arding to th e buyer, and, acco rd in g to the fin d in g s of Aronson and L in d e r, w i l l cause the buyer to p la c e a more p o s itiv e v alen ce upon the beh av io r o f the s e l l e r. In c o n sid e rin g th e e f f e c t s of congruency upon the b u y e r's a ssig n ment of a v alen ce to th e im p ressio n he holds o f the s e l l e r, the buyer may be a ttr a c t e d to the s e l l e r i f he b e lie v e s th a t the s e l l e r is a t tr a c t e d to him. I f being lik e d is im p o rtan t to the b u y er, he may seek a s e l l e r which is s im ila r to h im se lf because such a s e l l e r may be more a t tr a c t e d to the b uyer. The buyer is more l i k e ly to p e rc e iv e h im self as being lik e d by the s e l l e r i f ( 1 ) th e buyer view s the s e l l e r as being a d isc e rn in g judge and th e judgment appears to be p o s itiv e, and ( 2 ) the s e l l e r 's e v a lu a tio n of the buyer appears to move from in d iffe re n c e to a p o s itiv e p o s itio n so th a t the buyer gains esteem. A lthough the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n to th e s e l l e r may be a ffe c te d by p erceiv ed s i m i la r i ty and p erce iv ed congruency of f e e lin g s, the buyer may a ls o take in to c o n s id e ra tio n th e s e l l e r 's in te n tio n s.

161 146 A ttr ib u tio n of I n te n t to n a l ity The degree to which a buyer is a t tr a c t e d to a s e l l e r is p a r t i a l ly determ ined by th e in te n tio n s which th e buyer a t t r i b u t e s to the s e l l e r. In seeking a p o s itiv e response o r support of the buyer, the s e l l e r may use such t a c t i c s as the g iv in g of com plim ents, th e p re s e n ta tio n of ap p ea lin g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s, and/or the e x h ib itio n of beh av io r in the d ir e c tio n of agreem ent, con fo rm ity, o r im ita tio n. These techniques a re c a lle d in g r a t ia t io n t a c t i c s. The e ffe c tiv e n e s s of in g r a tia tio n t a c t i c s in in c re a s in g th e a t tr a c t iv e n e s s of th e u s e r of such t a c t i c s i s, to some e x te n t, determ ined by th e in te n tio n s which a buyer a t t r i b u t e s to a s e l l e r. The e f f e c t s of conform ity (ex p ressed by c o n sta n t agreem ent of o p in io n s) upon a ttr a c tiv e n e s s have been an aly zed. Jo n es, Jo n es, and Gergen attem pted to determ ine how c o n sta n t op in io n conform ity in flu e n c e s a ttr a c tiv e n e s s under v a ry in g co n d itio n s of dependence. 31 T heir fin d in g s in d ic a te th a t when one has stro n g reasons fo r g ain in g approval (high dependence) from another p erso n, and he does conform to th e o th e r 's o p in io n s, the o th e r person a tta c h e s a n e g a tiv e v alen ce to the co n fo rm er's b eh a v io r. High a t t r a c t i o n was found fo r persons who are under stro n g p re s su re s to i n g r a t ia t e b u t who do not respond w ith a high incidence of 32 op in io n co n fo rm ity. 30 E. E. Jo n e s, R. G. Jo n es, and K. J. Gergen, "Some C onditions Aff e c tin g the E v a lu a tio n of a C o n fo rm ist," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XXXI (Ju n e, 1963), I b i d., Ibid

162 These fin d in g s su g g est th a t when an In d iv id u a l a ssig n s a v alence 147 to the behavior of a n o th e r, he a t t r i b u t e s in te n tio n or makes an assumptio n re g a rd in g th e in te n t of th a t p erso n. The in te n tio n a t tr ib u te d to th e s e l l e r is p a r t i a l l y determ ined by the e x te n t to which the s e l l e r u ses in g r a t ia t io n t a c t i c s and the degree to which the buyer view s the s e l l e r as being dependent upon the bu y er. The b u y e r's b e l ie f reg ard in g th e dependence of the s e l l e r upon him may be a fu n c tio n of th e b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of m arket c o n d itio n s. I f he view s the s e l l e r as having a la rg e number of buyers who are a c tiv e ly seeking the s e l l e r 's p ro d u c ts, he may tend to see the s e l l e r 's dependence as being lower than i f he view s th e s e l l e r as having a sm all number of p o te n tia l b u y ers. A s e l l e r who is s i g n if i c a n tl y dependent upon th e buyer and whose tru e opinions are q u ite s im ila r to those o f the buyer may be " v ic tim iz e d " by such c o n d itio n s. When a s e l l e r under th e se c o n d itio n s, co n tin u es to express h is tru e o p in io n s, he may be a t a d isa d v a n ta g e, due to the v ic tim iz a tio n c* _ 33 e f f e c t. A lthough the b u y er, in e v a lu a tin g the s e l l e r 's dependence, may c o n sid e r th e m arket c o n d itio n s, he may a ls o tak e in to account the e x iste n c e of o th e r environm ental c o n s tr a in ts from a more com prehensive p o in t of view. For exam ple, the s e l l e r may be o p e ra tin g under such environm ental c o n s tr a in ts as governm ental r e g u la tio n s, m arginal re s o u rc e s, m anagerial p re ssu re s from above, a n d /o r s e v e re ly adverse economic cond it io n s. Nemeth h y p o th esized th a t although one u s u a lly lik e s and b e n e f its a person who has helped him, such a r e a c tio n is dependent upon the 33 Ibid.

163 148 in te n tio n which he a t t r i b u t e s to the p erso n. He found th a t an in d iv id u al is more a t tr a c t e d to a h e lp in g person who is fre e of environm ental c o n s tr a in ts than one who p ro v id es b e n e fits due to the e x iste n c e of 34 environm ental c o n s tr a in ts. A buyer as he in t e r a c t s w ith a s e l l e r g e n e ra lly holds c e r ta in e x p e c ta tio n s about the r o le of the s e l l e r. More s p e c if i c a l ly, he expects the s e l l e r to e x h ib it h e lp in g b eh a v io r, and he u s u a lly does n o t view the s e l l e r 's beh av io r to be fre e of environm ental c o n s tr a in ts. In the co n tex t of b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n a t t r i b u t i o n of in te n tio n to the s e l l e r is not a m a tte r of e x iste n c e v e rsu s n o n -e x iste n c e of environm ental c o n s tr a in ts but i s, in s te a d, more a fu n c tio n o f the perceived degree of e x iste n c e of environm ental c o n s tr a in ts. Thus, th e b u y e r's assignm ent of a v alence to the s e l l e r 's behavior is p a r t i a l l y determ ined by the a t t r i b u t i o n of in te n tio n d eriv e d from the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of the s e l l e r 's behavior in a c o n te x t of environm ental c o n s tr a in ts. Thus, i t appears th a t the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n to the s e l l e r is to some d egree, a ffe c te d by th e b u y e r's b e l ie f s re g a rd in g the in te n tio n of the s e l l e r. In o rd er to gain p o s itiv e su p p o rt of the b uyer, the s e l l e r may use in g r a t ia t io n t a c t i c s. E m pirical fin d in g s su g g est th a t i f a s e l l e r u ses the in g r a t ia t io n t a c t i c of o p in io n con fo rm ity, the buyer may be a t tr a c t e d to th e s e l l e r i f the buyer b e lie v e s the s e l l e r is not s tro n g ly dependent upon him. L ikew ise, i f th e s e l l e r is perceived to b h ig h ly dependent upon th e buyer, the buyer may r e j e c t the s e l l e r due to the s e l l e r 's e x h ib itio n of o pinion con fo rm ity. On a more g en eral ^Charlan Nemeth, " E ffe c ts of Free Versus C onstrained Behavior on A ttr a c tio n Between P e o p le," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l Psychology. XV (A ugust, 1970), 308.

164 149 le v e l, re se a rc h evidence su g g ests th a t h elp in g behavior by the s e l l e r w ill lead to g r e a te r a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r to the e x te n t th a t the buyer view s the s e l l e r as being fre e of environm ental cons t r a i n t s. Summary The fo rc e s which in flu e n c e th e degree of in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n between th e buyer and th e s e l l e r in tu rn a f f e c t the v a lu e which the buyer p la c e s upon p resence and b eh av io r of the s e l l e r. A ttr a c tio n was defined as a p o s itiv e v alen ce held toward a n o th er in d iv id u a l. For p u r poses of a n a ly s is the fo rc e s of in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n were divided in to th re e c a te g o rie s in c lu d in g ( 1 ) p erceiv ed s im i la r i ty of the i n t e r a c ta n ts, (2) congruency of f e e lin g s, and (3) a t t r i b u t i o n of in te n tio n - a l i t y. Even though th e re seems to be a p o s itiv e c o r r e la tio n between a t t r a c t i o n and s im i la r i ty along s e v e ra l dim ensions, the most dominant r e la tio n s h ip s appear to be the r e la tio n s h ip between a t t r a c t i o n and a t t i tude s im i la r i ty and a t t r a c t i o n and p e rs o n a lity s im i la r i ty. The e m p iric a l fin d in g s su p p o rtin g a p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between a t t r a c t i o n and a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty are so stro n g th a t a te n ta tiv e law of a t t r a c t i o n has been s e t fo r th in th e l i t e r a t u r e. This te n ta tiv e law s ta t e s th a t a t t r a c t i o n toward an in d iv id u a l is a p o s itiv e lin e a r fu n c tio n of the p ro p o rtio n of s im ila r a t tit u d e s p erceiv ed to be held by th e o th e r in t e r a c t a n t. The te n ta tiv e law of a t t r a c t i o n has been g e n e ra liz e d to o th e r c u ltu re s in c lu d in g H aw aii, Japan, M exico, and In d ia and to a number o f age groups from fo u rth g rad ers to m iddle-aged p erso n s. As th e b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n i s somewhat dependent upon p erceiv ed

165 150 a t tit u d e s im i la r i ty, h is a t t r i b u t i o n of a t tit u d e s to the s e l l e r d i r e c t ly a f f e c t s h is a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r. A b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n to th e s e l l e r, due to p erceiv ed a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty, tends to hold g e n e ra lly b u t th e in t e n s ity o f a t t r a c t i o n may le ss e n ( 1 ) when the b u y e r's a f f e c tiv e s t a t e is one of d e p re ssio n, ( 2 ) when the o b je c ts of the s im ila r a t t i t u d e s a re of l i t t l e i n t e r e s t to the buyer and s e l l e r, and (3) when a r a c i a l l y p re ju d ic e d w hite buyer is in te r a c tin g w ith a b lack s e l l e r. Support fo r a p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between a t t r a c t i o n and p e rs o n a lity is a v a ila b le in em p iric a l f in d in g s. However, th is r e l a t i o n sh ip may not hold when th e buyer is in tr o v e r te d. T his r e la tio n s h ip may le sse n as the buyer becomes more m ature. In c o n sid e rin g the e f f e c t s of congruency, the buyer may be a t tr a c t e d to th e s e l l e r i f he b e lie v e s th e s e l l e r to lik e him. Since being lik ed is o fte n im portant to the buyer, he may seek a s e l l e r which is s im ila r to h im se lf, because he b e lie v e s such a s e l l e r to be more a ttr a c te d to him. The buyer is more l i k e ly to p e rc e iv e the s e l l e r as lik in g him i f ( 1 ) the s e l l e r e x h ib its discernm ent in judging people and h is judgment of the buyer is p o s itiv e and ( 2 ) the s e l l e r in d ic a te s a g ain in esteem fo r the buyer. Although p erceiv ed s im i la r i ty and p erceiv ed congruency of f e e l ings may cause th e buyer to be more a t tr a c t e d to the s e l l e r, the buyer a ls o co n sid ers the in te n tio n s o f the s e l l e r. The s e l l e r may use in g r a t i a t i o n t a c t i c s in o rder to gain the b u y e r's su p p o rt. I f th e s e l l e r uses op in io n conform ity to g ain the su p p o rt of the b uyer, th e b uyer, in a t t r i b u t i n g in te n tio n to th e s e lle r, may take in to c o n s id e ra tio n the degree to which the s e l l e r is dependent upon th e b u y er. On a more

166 151 g en era l le v e l th e buyer may tr y to determ ine the degree to which the s e l l e r is o p e ra tin g under environm ental c o n s tr a in ts when the s e l l e r exh i b i t s h e lp in g b eh a v io r. In C hapter IV in te rp e rs o n a l p e rc e p tio n, and in th e p re s e n t chapt e r in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n, have been examined in order to is o la te and e x p la in the v a r ia b le s which a f f e c t th e b u y e r's d e riv a tio n of a b e h a v io ra l pay o ff which he re c e iv e s from b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. C hapter VI focuses upon p o te n tia l c o g n itiv e and b e h a v io ra l e f f e c t s on the buyer due to h is a t t r a c t i o n toward th e s e l l e r. In a d d itio n, the s o c ia l tech n iq u es which buyers and s e l l e r s use to tra n sm it s o c ia l in f o r m ation in p u ts are s e t f o r th.

167 CHAPTER VI POTENTIAL ATTRACTION EFFECTS ON THE BUYER AND INTERPERSONAL TECHNIQUES In the form er c h a p te r s e v e ra l d eterm in a n ts of in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n were analyzed in term s of the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r. Although s e v e ra l v a r ia b le s were suggested as fa c to r s which in flu e n c e the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward a s e l l e r, the p o te n tia l cognitiv e and b e h a v io ra l e f f e c t s of such a t t r a c t i o n upon th e buyer were not c o n sid ere d. The c o g n itiv e and b e h a v io ra l e f f e c t s on th e buyer, due to a t t r a c tio n toward th e s e l l e r, need to be analyzed because such e f f e c ts may a f f e c t the in fo rm atio n which flows to th e s e l l e r. As the s e l l e r re a c ts to th e se in fo rm atio n in p u ts, h is b eh av io r may become in fo rm atio n inputs to the b uyer, and such in p u ts may, in tu rn, in flu e n c e the b u y e r's im pressio n and v alen ce of the s e l l e r. Because a m ajor component of in te r a c t. tio n is a c y c lic a l flow of in fo rm a tio n, th e e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n upon the buyer a f f e c t s h is b eh av io r toward th e s e l l e r and in d ir e c tly a f f e c ts the s e l l e r 's b eh av io r toward th e buyer. The m ajor o b je c tiv e o f t h i s c h a p te r is to is o la te and analyze the e f f e c t s on the b u y e r's c o g n itiv e s tr u c tu r e and beh av io r which a r is e due to the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r. In a d d itio n, fiv e i n t e r p e rso n a l tech n iq u es which buyers and s e l l e r s use during in te r a c tio n to tra n s m it in fo rm atio n are d e sc rib e d in c lu d in g ( 1 ) proxemic communication, ( 2 ) k in e s ic com m unication, (3) t a c t i l e com munication, (4) language, and 152

168 153 (5) para l i n g u is tic com munication. These s o c ia l tech n iq u es are included in the in te r a c tio n model because they f u l f i l l a f a c i l i t a t i v e fu n ctio n d u rin g in te r a c tio n. In the f i r s t s e c tio n of th is c h ap ter the p o te n tia l e f f e c ts of a t t r a c t i o n upon the b u y e r's o v e rt behavior a re d isc u sse d. The second s e c tio n focuses on the p o te n tia l c o g n itiv e e f f e c t s upon the buyer due to h is a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r. F in a lly, the in te rp e rs o n a l te c h niques which f a c i l i t a t e b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n a re s e t fo rth. P o te n tia l B ehavioral E ffe c ts o f A ttr a c tio n Toward the S e lle r Assuming th a t th e buyer does form an im pression of the s e l l e r and he a ssig n s a v alence to th a t im pression, the behavior of the buyer toward the s e l l e r may be a ffe c te d by the a ssig n ed v a le n c e. The inform a tio n (c o n s is tin g of the b u y e r's beh av io r) which flow s from the buyer to the s e l l e r in F igure 6-1 is p a r t i a l l y a fu n c tio n of the c u rre n t s t a t e of the v alence which the buyer a s s o c ia te s w ith h is im pression of the s e l l e r. E m pirical re se a rc h fo cu sin g upon the fo rc e s which determ ine a t tr a c tio n i s ra th e r e x te n siv e as in d ic a te d in the an a ly se s in Chapter V. However, the e f f e c ts of a t t r a c t i o n upon o n e 's beh av io r have not been as e x te n siv e ly e x p lo re d. R obert Baron s t a t e s : ^ A la rg e number of experim ents have been perform ed to in v e s tig a te p o s sib le d eterm in an ts of the degree o f lik in g between human b ein g s. In c o n tr a s t, however, r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has been d ire c te d to the in flu en ce o f in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n on v a rio u s forms of s o c ia l b eh av io r. In view of the common o b se rv a tio n th a t our r e la tio n s w ith o th e rs are o fte n s tro n g ly a ffe c te d by our degree of lik in g or d is li k in g fo r them, the c u rre n t la ck o f i n t e r e s t in th is to p ic is somewhat s u rp ris in g. R. A. Baron, "B ehavioral E ffe c ts of In te rp e rs o n a l A ttra c tio n : Compliance w ith R equests from Liked and D islik e d O th e rs," Psychonomic S c ie n c e. XXV (March, 1971), 325.

169 Interpersonal Interpersonal \ Information / A ttractio n Perception Perceived Perceptual S im ilarity Process Congruency Of Cognitive Feelings H Factors A ttrib u tio n Of Order E ffects In te n tio n a lity Perception Of Physical C h aracteristics A ttrib u tio n Interpersonal Techniques P otential A ttraction E ffects B ehavioral: Competition A nticipation Aggression Compliance C ognitive: Content Perception A ttitude Change Inference Of A ttitude Impression And Valence Of The S eller ( Impression And Valence Of The Buyer.ro m u re w \ * s 'J t a a E ffects Behavioral Competition A nticipation Aggression Compliance C ognitive: Content Perception A ttitude Change Inference Of A ttitude BUYER Techniques Information Interpersonal Perception Perceptual Process Cognitive Factors Order E ffects Perception of Physical C h aracteristics A ttribution SELLER Interpersonal A ttractio n Perceived S im ilarity Congruence Of Feelings A ttribution Of In te n tio n a lity Figure 6-1 The In tera ctio n Model of Buyer Behavior: Focus Upon P o ten tial E ffects of A ttraction 154

170 155 Even though em p iric a l re se a rc h is lim ite d fo r any one s p e c ific e f f e c t o f a t t r a c t i o n, e m p iric a l research has been performed reg ard in g the e f f e c ts o f a t t r a c t i o n upon fo u r types o f s o c ia l b eh av io r. As in d i cated in F igure 6-1, the p o te n tia l b e h av io ral e f f e c ts of a t t r a c t i o n to be explored as a p a r t o f the in te r a c tio n model o f buyer behavior a re : ( 1 ) co o p era tiv e and co m p etitiv e b eh av io r, ( 2 ) a n tic ip a to r y responses re g a rd in g subsequent in te r a c tio n, (3) a g g re ssiv e b eh av io r, and (4) comp lia n t b eh av io r. Due to the e x p lo ra to ry n a tu re o f the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r, these e f f e c ts have been s e le c te d to be included in the in te r a c tio n model on the b a s is o f a v a i l a b i l i t y of e m p irica l r e search s tu d ie s. There may be o th e r b e h a v io ra l e f f e c ts of a t t r a c t i o n which have not been e m p iric a lly s tu d ie d. Cooperative and Competitive Behavior If the buyer assigns a positive valence to his impression of the seller, does such attraction cause the buyer's behavior to become more cooperative? There have been several attempts to determine the relationship between differential attraction and levels of cooperativeness and competitiveness. Krauss found that an increase in interpersonal attrac- 2 tio n tends to le sse n co m p etitiv en ess d u rin g in te rp e rs o n a l b a rg a in in g. As in d ic a te d e a r l i e r in the s e c tio n p e rta in in g to a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y and a t t r a c t i o n, s im i la r i ty of a t t i t u d e s between in te r a c ta n ts tends to cause the in te r a c ta n ts to be a t tr a c t e d to each o th e r. Using a la b o ra to ry co m p etitiv e game, T ornatzky and G eiw itz attem pted to a s c e r ta in the e f f e c t s of a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty upon the in cid en ce of co o p era tiv e 2 R. M. K rauss, " S tr u c tu r a l and A ttitu d in a l F acto rs in In te rp e rs o n a l B a rg a in in g," Jo u rn a l o f E xperim ental S o c ia l P sychology. I I (January, 1966),

171 156 responses e x h ib ite d between two I n te r a c tin g p erso n s. They found th a t dyads c h a ra c te riz e d by high m utual a t t r a c t i o n (high a t t i t u d e s im ila r ity ) tend to s e le c t co o p era tiv e responses more o fte n than low m utually a t - tra c te d p a ir s. F ish e r and Smith, u sin g a p r is o n e r 's dilemma game, a ls o d e te r mined th a t a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty is p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to the e x h ib itio n o f co o p e ra tiv e b eh av io r. 4 These e m p iric a l fin d in g s su g g est th a t i f a buyer fin d s the s e l l e r a t t r a c t i v e, the b u y e r's subsequent behavior tends to be more c o o p e ra tiv e. A ccording to the fin d in g s o f K elley and S ta h e ls k i, d iscu ssed e a r l i e r in reg ard to p e rs o n a lity in flu e n c e s upon c o g n itiv e com plexity, the e x te n t to which the s e l l e r p e rc e iv e s the b u y e r's behavior as becoming more c o o p era tiv e i s, to some d eg ree, determ ined by w hether the s e l l e r 's p e r s o n a lity is g e n e ra lly co o p era tiv e o r c o m p e titiv e.^ I f the s e l l e r 's p e rs o n a lity is c o o p e ra tiv e, he is more lik e ly to p e rc e iv e the b u y e r's behavior as becoming more c o o p e ra tiv e. A n tic ip a to ry Responses R egarding Subsequent I n te r a c tio n There appears to be a v ery lim ite d amount o f e m p iric a l re se a rc h d e a lin g d i r e c t l y w ith th e e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n upon a n tic ip a tio n s or ^L. Tornatzky and P. J. G eiw itz, "The E ffe c ts o f T h rea t and A ttr a c tio n on In te rp e rs o n a l B a rg a in in g," Psychonomic S c ie n c e. X III (November, 1968), R. F is h e r and W. P. Smith, " C o n flic t of I n t e r e s t and A ttra c tio n in the Development o f C o o p eratio n," Psvchonomic S c ie n c e. XIV (February, 1969), H. K elley and D. S ta h e ls k i, " S o c ia l I n te r a c tio n B asis of Cooperat o r s ' and C o m p e tito rs' B e lie fs About O th e rs," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology. XVI (Septem ber, 1970), 6 6.

172 157 e x p e c ta tio n s re g ard in g subsequent I n te r a c tio n. S p e c if ic a lly, the re se a rc h q u e stio n reg ard s w hether o r not in te rp e rs o n a l a t t r a c t i o n d u r ing i n i t i a l in te r a c tio n In flu e n c e s o n e 's e x p e c ta tio n s about the p o s iti v e ness of fu tu re in te r a c tio n. In a study perform ed a t Kansas S ta te U niv e r s i t y, G r i f f i t t attem pted to m easure the e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n upon e x p e c ta tio n s of subsequent in te r a c tio n. S u b jec ts were inform ed th a t each would have fu tu re in te r a c tio n s w ith a s tra n g e r to which each was in tro d u c e d. V arying degrees of a t t r a c t i o n were c re a te d by m an ip u latin g a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty between the p a irs o f s u b je c ts. G r i f f i t t determ ined th a t the g re a te r the a t t r a c t i o n (as c re a te d by g re a te r a t t i t u d e s im ila r it y ), the h ig h er the r a tin g s re g a rd in g a n tic ip a te d p o s itiv e n e s s o f subsequent in te r a c tio n s.^ As suggested by G r i f f i t t 's re se a rc h r e s u l t s, a t t r a c t i o n which the buyer holds toward the s e l l e r may cause the buyer to e x h ib it p o s itiv e a n tic ip a to r y responses re g a rd in g expected subsequent in te r a c tio n. A l though not s p e c if i c a l ly te s te d by G r i f f i t t 's ex p erim en tal d e sig n, h is r e s u l t s lend support to the p ro p o s itio n th a t i f the buyer is a t tr a c t e d to the s e l l e r durin g th e i n i t i a l sta g e s o f a s in g le given in te r a c tio n, the buyer may e x h ib it more p o s itiv e resp o n ses toward the s e l l e r as the i n te r a c tio n c o n tin u e s. A ggressive Behavior I f a buyer is a t t r a c t e d to a s e l l e r, does such a t t r a c t i o n tend to le sse n a g g re ssiv e beh av io r on the p a r t o f the buyer? H endrick and T aylor attem p ted to d eal w ith the above q u e stio n a t 6 W. G r i f f i t t, " A ttitu d e Evoked A n tic ip a to ry Responses and A ttra c t i o n," Psychonomic S c ie n c e. XIV (F ebruary, 1969),

173 a more g en era l le v e l. They te s te d the h y p o th e sis th a t a g g re ssiv e behavio r is a l te r e d, to some e x te n t, by a t t r a c t i o n. Through m an ip u latin g a t t i t u d e s i m i la r i ty a s tra n g e r was p resen te d as being a t t r a c t i v e o r as b eing u n a ttr a c tiv e to the s u b je c ts in a co m p etitiv e game s i t u a t i o n. A g g ressiv en ess was measured by the in t e n s ity o f an e l e c t r i c a l shock which the s u b je c t a d m in iste re d to h is opponent. These re s e a rc h e rs a s c e rta in e d th a t o n e 's a g g re s siv e behavior is a fu n c tio n o f the o th e r i n t e r a c t a n t 's a g g re ssiv e b eh av io r but i s n o t s ig n if i c a n tl y in flu e n c e d by the amount o f a t t r a c t i o n between th e in t e r a c t a n ts.^ In a study d e a lin g w ith a g g re ssio n Baron examined sim u ltan e o u sly the e f f e c t s upon a g g re ssio n of the m agnitude o f pain cues given by the v ic tim, le v e l of p r io r anger a r o u s a l, and s i m i l a r i t y - d i s s i m i l a r i t y of a g g re sso r and v ic tim. L ike the r e s u lt s of H endrick and T a y lo r, he found th a t the degree of a t t r a c t i o n (m anipulated by deg ree of s im i la r i ty ) does n o t in flu e n c e a g g re ssio n. g Baron and Kepner, in a s im ila r re s e a rc h e f f o r t, found th a t the in t e n s ity o f a g g re s siv e beh av io r is n o t m ediated by a t t r a c t i o n but th a t a t t r a c t i o n y ie ld s a m inim ally s ig n if i c a n t e f f e c t upon the d u ra tio n of th e a g g re ssiv e b e h a v io r. An in d iv id u a l w ith low a t t r a c t i o n toward an in t e r a c t a n t tends to e x h ib it a g g re ss iv e beh av io r lo n g e r.^ 7 C. H endrick and S. P. T ay lo r, " E ffe c ts o f B e lie f S im ila r ity and A ggression on A ttr a c tio n and C o u n ter-a g g ressio n," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology. XVII (March, 1971), g R. A. Baron, "A ggression as a F unction o f M agnitude o f V ic tim 's P a in Cues, Level o f P rio r Anger A ro u sa l, and A ggressor-v ictim S im ila r ity, J o u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l P sychology. XVIII (A p ril, 1971), Q R. A. Baron and C. R. Kepner, "M odel's B ehavior and A ttr a c tio n Toward the Model as D eterm inants o f A dult A g g ressiv e B eh a v io r," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology. XIV (A p ril, 1970),

174 The findings of the empirical studies which test the general hypothesis that attraction mediates aggressive behavior are, in general, not supportive of such a hypothesis. A buyer, who assigns a positive valence to his impression of the seller, may still exhibit aggressive behavior toward the seller. Likewise, the exhibition of aggressive behavior on the part of the buyer toward the seller is not indicative of a lack of attraction toward the seller. Compliant Behavior If the buyer assigns a positive valence to his impression of the seller, is the buyer more likely to behave in a manner consistent with the seller's desires? One of Baron's studies deals with this question on a more general level. He investigated the influence of attraction upon compliance with requests of an interactant toward which one is attracted. Baron's data suggested that compliance with requests from a stranger may be significantly affected by the degree of attraction held toward the stranger. However, this relationship holds only when the stranger's requests are above some minimal level.baron explains that in situations where the stranger's requests are very small the norm of social responsibility dictates compliance regardless of attraction. The seller, instead of overtly requesting the buyer to purchase a certain product, may request the buyer to' relate to the product in certain ways in order to stimulate the buyer's interest. For example, A. Baron, "Behavioral Effects of Interpersonal Attraction: Compliance with Requests from Liked and Disliked Others," Psychonomic Science. XXV (March, 1971), 326.

175 160 the automobile salesman may request that the buyer take a test drive. The data generated by Baron's study of attraction and compliance suggest that the degree to which the buyer is attracted to the seller influences the extent to which the buyer will tend to comply with the seller's request. If the seller, however, makes very minimal requests, the buyer may tend to comply regardless of the degree of attraction he holds for the seller. Summary of the Potential Behavioral Effects of Attraction Even though empirical analyses of the effects of attraction on overt behavior have been sparse, the findings of existing empirical studies have several implications regarding the effects of attraction upon the buyer's overt behavior toward the seller. First, if the buyer is attracted to the seller, the buyer's behavior may tend to become more cooperative. Second, the buyer's attraction toward the seller may cause the buyer to exhibit positive anticipatory responses regarding expected subsequent interactions. Third, attraction does not appear to mediate aggressive behavior that the buyer may exhibit toward the seller. If the buyer assigns a positive valence to his impression of the seller, the buyer may or may not behave in an aggressive manner toward the seller. Fourth, as the degree of attraction held by the buyer toward the seller increases, the buyer may be more likely to comply with the requests of the seller. However, for this relationship to hold, the seller's requests must be more significant in terms of difficulty than what one would expect to do under the norm of social responsibility. Although the direction of the valence which the buyer assigns to his impression of the seller may affect the buyer's overt behavior,

176 161 such p o te n tia l e f f e c t s may not be lim ite d to the b u y e r's o v e rt b ehavior. In the fo llo w in g se c tio n s e v e ra l p o te n tia l c o g n itiv e e f f e c ts on the buyer, due to the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward th e s e l l e r, a re co n sid ere d. P o te n tia l C ognitive E ffe c ts of A ttr a c tio n Toward the S e lle r A lthough the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r may have d ir e c t e f f e c t s upon the o v e rt beh av io r of the buyer, a t t r a c t i o n may a ls o have e f f e c t s on the buyer which a re le s s d i r e c t l y o b se rv a b le. A ttra c tio n toward the s e l l e r may a f f e c t the b u y e r's c o g n itiv e a c t i v i t i e s. Even though such e f f e c t s a re not d i r e c t l y v i s i b l e, the consequences o f such e f f e c t s may be e x h ib ite d through o v e rt b eh a v io r. As shown in F igure 6-1 th re e c o g n itiv e f a c to rs th a t appear to be in flu e n c e d by a t t r a c t i o n a re ( 1 ) p e rc e p tio n o f communication c o n te n t, ( 2 ) a t t i t u d e and opinion change, and (3) in fe re n c e of a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y. Due to the e x p lo ra to ry n a tu re o f the developm ent of the in te r a c tio n model, the c o g n itiv e e f f e c t s o f a t t r a c t i o n, which a re in clu d ed in the model, have been s e l e c t ed on the b a s is of a v a i l a b i l i t y o f e m p iric a l a n a ly s e s. There may be o th e r c o g n itiv e e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n which have n o t been d e a lt w ith e m p iric a lly. P e rc e p tio n o f Communication C ontent When the buyer a s s ig n s e i th e r a p o s itiv e o r a n eg ativ e valence to h is im pression o f th e s e l l e r, does h is e v a lu a tio n a f f e c t h is percep tio n of subsequent in fo rm a tio n in p u ts from the s e ll e r? S ev eral e m p iric a l s tu d ie s have been perform ed a t a more g en eral le v e l in an a tte m p t to a c q u ire a b e t t e r u n d erstan d in g o f the r e l a t i o n sh ip between a t t r a c t i o n toward the sender o f a communication and the r e c e iv e r 's p e rc e p tio n o f the c o n te n t o f th e m essage. K elley and Woodruff

177 found th a t In d iv id u a ls who a c q u ire communication from a p o s itiv e ly e v a lu a te d sen d er, tend to d i s t o r t the c o n ten t of the message in the d ir e c tio n of o n e 's own o p in io n re g a rd in g a s p e c if ic to p ic. i 2 M anis, by a s s o c ia tin g v a rio u s com munications w ith e i t h e r high or low p re s tig e sources determ ined th a t r e c e iv e rs tend to d is p la c e the message c o n te n t of a h lg h -p re s tig e source in th e d ir e c tio n of t h e i r own p o s i ti o n s. However, Manis did n o t fin d a s ig n if i c a n t tendency fo r r e c ip ie n ts to d is p la c e the o p in io n of th e low p r e s tig e source away from t h e i r own p o s itio n s. 13 In a more re c e n t re se a rc h e f f o r t Kelman and Eagly have a s c e rta in e d th a t the tendency to p e rc e iv e communication c o n ten t in term s of o n e 's a t t i t u d e toward the communicator is lik e ly to be most a c tiv e when the sender aro u ses stro n g f e e l i n g s. T h u s, ag ain i t appears th a t the co n ten t o f the communication from a p o s itiv e sender tends to be m isperceived in the d ir e c tio n of the r e c e iv e r 's a t t i t u d e, and the c o n te n t of the message from a n e g a tiv e ly e v alu ate d sen d er tends to be d is to r te d in the d ir e c tio n o p p o site of the r e c e iv e r 's own p o s itio n. Kelman and Eagly e x p la in th i s fin d in g by s t a t i n g : ^ 12 H. H. K elley and C. L. W oodruff, "Members' R eactions to Appare n t Group Approval of a Counter-Norm Comm unication," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o cia l Psychology. L II (Jan u ary, 1956), M. M anis, "The I n te r p r e ta ti o n of O pinion S tatem ents as a F unction of R e c ip ie n t A ttitu d e and Source P r e s tig e," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. LXIII (J u ly, 1961), H. C. Kelman.and A lic e H. E agly, " A ttitu d e Toward th e Communic a to r, P e rc e p tio n of Communication C ontent, and A ttitu d e Change," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l Psychology. I (Jan u ary, 1965), 73.

178 163 The fin d in g is q u ite c o n s is te n t w ith w hat one would expect from b alan ce th e o ry, i f we make two f a i r l y stra ig h tfo rw a rd assumptio n s. F i r s t, as th e f e e lin g toward 0 (o th e r) becomes s tro n g e r, the im balance and th e r e s u ltin g fo rc e s to r e s to r e balance gene ra te d by any sig n o f in c o n g ru ity Also become s tro n g e r. Since m isp e rc e p tio n is one o f th e mechanisms fo r r e s to r in g b alan ce, the lik e lih o o d of i t s u s e provided the s itu a tio n perm its i t w ill thus in c re a s e. Second, as the f e e lin g toward 0 becomes s tro n g e r, one o f the m ajor mechanisms fo r r e s to r in g b alan ce namely, changing o n e 's a t t i t u d e toward 0 becomes le s s and le s s a v a ila b le : i t is d i f f i c u l t to devalue a stro n g ly p o s itiv e 0 ju s t because one fin d s o n e 's s e l f in disagreem ent w ith him and i t is d i f f i c u l t to open o n e 's h e a r t to a s tro n g ly n e g a tiv e 0 j u s t because one fin d s o n e 's s e l f in agreem ent w ith him. Thus, th e lik e lih o o d in c re a se s th a t o th e r mechanisms fo r re s to r in g b a la n c e, such as m isp e rcep tio n, w ill come in to p la y. In g e n e ra l, th e e m p iric a l fin d in g s which d eal w ith th e e f f e c ts of a t t r a c t i o n upon p e rc e p tio n o f communication c o n te n t suggest th a t i f a buyer is a t t r a c t e d to the s e l l e r, th e buyer is lik e ly to p erce iv e the c o n ten t of th e s e l l e r 's message as being c lo s e r to the b u y e r's p o s itio n than is the c o n te n t in a c t u a l i t y. L ikew ise, when th e buyer a ssig n s a n e g a tiv e v alen ce to h is im pression o f th e s e l l e r, th e buyer may tend to d i s t o r t the c o n te n t o f th e s e l l e r 's message in the d ir e c tio n o p p o site from the b u y e r's p o s itio n. A q u e stio n which is c lo s e ly r e la te d to the e f f e c ts of a t t r a c t i o n upon the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of the s e l l e r 's message c o n ten t is to what e x te n t does the d ir e c tio n o f th e assig n ed v a le n c e o f th e b u y e r's im pressio n of the s e l l e r a f f e c t th e b u y e r's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to the s e l l e r 's attem p ts of a t t i t u d e o r op in io n change? A ttitu d e and O pinion Change As in d ic a te d in th e p rev io u s s e c tio n, th e b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n to o r r e je c ti o n of the s e l l e r tends to in flu e n c e the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n o f in fo rm atio n which he re c e iv e s from the s e l l e r. Since a t tit u d e s appear

179 164 to be formed and changed through o n e 's c o n ta c t w ith v a rio u s kinds of Inform ation inputs*** and a t t r a c t i o n tends to In flu e n c e the p e rc e p tio n of In fo rm atio n In p u ts, one may reaso n ab ly expect th a t the d ir e c tio n of the v alen ce th a t the buyer p la c e s upon h is im pression o f the s e l l e r tends to a f f e c t the b u y e r's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to attem p ts of a t t i t u d e change made by the s e l l e r. Even though an a t t i t u d e and an o p in io n d i f f e r d e f in i ti o n a lly in term s o f g e n e r a lity a n d /o r i n t e n s i t y, f o r p u r poses of a n a ly s is in t h i s s e c tio n th e se term s a re grouped in to a s in g le c a te g o ry. In g e n era l th e fin d in g s of th e e m p iric a l re se a rc h e f f o r t s th a t p e r ta in to the e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n upon a t t i t u d e change in d ic a te th a t i f an in d iv id u a l is a t tr a c t e d to a com municator, the communication is more li k e ly to cause a change in the a t t i t u d e of the re c e iv e r. The re se a rc h s tu d ie s d e a lin g w ith the e f f e c t s o f a t t i t u d e change due to the com m unicator's a t tr a c t iv e n e s s have been explored by u sin g s e v e ra l c o r r e la te s of a t t r a c t i o n. A ttr a c tio n - r e la te d v a r ia b le s which appear to 1 ft produce a t t i t u d e change in c lu d e ( 1 ) th e communicators h e ig h t, ( 2 ) IQ p h y s ic a l a t tr a c t iv e n s s in term s of c lo th in g and p e rso n a l c le a n lin e s s, 7 *^John W. MeDavid and H erb ert H a ra rl, S o cia l Psychology: In d iv id u a l s. G roups, and S o c ie tie s (New York: H arper & Row, P u b lis h e rs, 1968), pp ^ B e rn a rd B erelson and Gary S te in e r, Human B eh av io r: An Invento ry of S c ie n tif i c F indings (New York: H arco u rt, B race, and World, I n c., 1964), p E. E. B aker, and W. C. Redding, "The E ffe c ts of P erceived T a l l n ess in P e rsu asiv e Speaking: An E xperim ent," Jo u rn a l of Communication. I (March, 1962), J. M ills and E. A ronson, "O pinion Change as a F unction of the Com m unicator's A ttra c tiv e n e s s and D esire to In flu e n c e." Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity and S o c ia l P sychology. I (F eb ru ary, 1965),

180 165 (3) congruency o r th e a d d re s s e e 's p e rc e p tio n of the com m unicator1s l i k ing him,^ (4) r a c e, ^ (5) s im i la r i ty in r e la tio n s h ip to an o b j e c t, ^ and ( 6 ) p erceiv ed b e l i e f s i m i l a r i t y between communicator and re c ip - These r e s u l t s o f e m p iric a l re se a rc h su g g est th a t th e d ir e c tio n of th e v alen ce which the buyer a ssig n s to h is im pression of th e s e l l e r a f f e c ts th e b u y e r's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to in flu e n c e. I f the buyer is a t tr a c t e d to the s e l l e r, the b u y e r's a t t i t u d e s o r o p inions tend to be more e a s ily changed by communication re c e iv e d from the s e l l e r. When th e buyer r e j e c t s the s e l l e r, th e s e l l e r 's communication tends to be le s s e f f e c tiv e in changing the a t t i t u d e s o r o p in io n s of the b uyer. Even though, in a g g re g a te, the e m p iric a l fin d in g s su p p o rt the r e la tio n s h ip th a t a t t r a c t i o n on th e p a r t o f the r e c i p ie n t toward the communicator makes th e r e c e iv e r more s u s c e p tib le to attem pted a t t i t u d e change, th e re appear to be s e v e ra l v a r ia b le s which may a l t e r the 20 Judson M ills, "O pinion Change as a F un ctio n of the Communicat o r 's D esire to In flu e n c e and L iking fo r th e A udience," Jo u rn a l of E xperim ental S o c ia l P sychology. I I (A p ril, 1966), ^ E l l i o t Aronson and B urton W. G olden, "The E f f e c t of R elevant and I r r e le v a n t A spects of Communicator C r e d i b ili ty on O pinion Change," Jo u rn a l of P e r s o n a lity. XXX (Ju n e, 1962), ^ T im o th y C. Brock, "Communicator R e c ip ie n t S im ila r ity and D ecision Change," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l P sychology. I (Ju n e, 1965), ^ S e e : W. W eiss, "O pinion Congruence w ith a N egative Source on One Issu e as a F acto r In flu e n c in g Agreement on A nother I s s u e," Jd u rn a l o f Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. LIV (March, 1957), 180-6; E lle n B ersch eid, "O pinion Change and Communicator - Communicatee S im ila r ity and D is s im ila r ity," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o c ia l Psychology. IV (December, 1966), ; E. B u rn ste in, E. S to tla n d, and A. Zander, " S im ila rity to a Model and S e lf-e v a lu a tio n," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. LXII (March, 1961),

181 166 I n te n s ity of th is r e la tio n s h ip. The v a r ia b le s which have been te s te d e m p iric a lly to determ ine i f they are in te rv e n in g v a ria b le s in the a t t r a c t l o n - a t t l t u d e change r e la tio n s h ip a re ( 1 ) commitment, ( 2 ) ego- involvem ent, (3) d e s ire to In flu en c e and (4) a u th o rita ria n is m. Commitment K ie s le r and C orbin attem pted to determ ine i f commitment to a group in flu e n c e s th e e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n upon a t tit u d e or opinion change. They found th a t i f a person is n o t committed and is not a t t r a c t e d, th e le s s he tends to conform to group a t tit u d e s and o p in io n s. However, to the e x te n t th a t the perso n is committed to the group and n ot a t tr a c t e d to th e group the le s s l i k e ly he is to conform down to a c e r t a in p o in t o r le v e l o f a t t r a c t i o n. Beyond th a t p o in t, a f u r th e r d ecrease in a t t r a c t i o n tends to r e s u l t s in r e l a t i v e l y heig h ten ed a t t i - 24 tude conform ity. A lthough the K ie s le r and Corbin re s e a rc h d e a ls w ith commitment and a t t r a c t i o n toward a group r a th e r th an an In d iv id u a l, th e ir fin d in g s have im p lic a tio n s fo r b u y e r - s e lle r in t e r a c t io n. The buyer may be comm itte d to co n tin u e tr a n s a c tin g w ith a p a r t i c u l a r s e l l e r, due to m arket c o n d itio n s o r c o n tra c tu a l o b lig a tio n s. I f th e b u y e r's v alen ce toward the s e l l e r becomes more n e g a tiv e, th e a b i l i t y of th e s e l l e r to in flu en ce th e buyer toward conform ity does not d ecre ase p ro p o rtio n a lly. The r a te of d ecre ase in th e s e l l e r 's a b i l i t y to In flu en c e appears to le ss e n when a t t r a c t i o n f a l l s below a c e r t a in le v e l of a t t r a c t i o n. 24 C. A. K ie s le r and L. H. C orbin, "Commitment, A ttr a c tio n, and C o nform ity," Jo u rn a l o f P e rs o n a lity and S o cial Psychology. I I (December, 1965),

182 167 Ego-Involvem ent In a n o th e r e m p iric a l study which focused upon v a r ia b le s th a t in flu e n c e the a t t r a c t l o n - a t t i t u d e change r e la tio n s h ip, Johnson and S c ile p p i measured th e In flu en c e of the r e c i p i e n t 's ego-involvem ent w ith the c o n ten t o f the message upon the a t t i t u d e change e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n. T h eir fin d in g s in d ic a te th a t the g r e a te s t amount o f a t t i tude change occurs when the communicator has high c r e d i b i l i t y (in d ic a tiv e of high a t t r a c t i o n ), and the r e c e i v e r 's ego-involvem ent toward the c o n te n t is low. The amount o f a t t i t u d e change due to high communic a to r c r e d i b i l i t y (h ig h a t t r a c t i o n ) ten d s n o t to be as g re a t when the 25 r e c ip ie n t i s more ego involved w ith th e c o n ten t of the communication. Thus, i f the buyer is a t tr a c t e d to the s e l l e r, the b u y e r's s u s c e p tib i l i t y to atte m p ts o f a t t i t u d e change is p a r t i a l l y a fu n c tio n of the b u y e r's ego-involvem ent w ith the c o n te n t of the m essage. High ego- involvem ent reduces the b u y e r's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to a t t i t u d e change. D esire to In flu e n c e Two s e p a ra te s tu d ie s have been focused upon w hether o r not the a t t r a c t l o n - a t t i t u d e change r e la tio n s h ip is a ffe c te d by the com m unicator's statem en t in d ic a tin g h is d e s ir e to change o p in io n s. M ills and Aronson h ypothesized th a t an o v e rtly s ta te d d e s ire to in flu e n c e would enhance an a t t r a c t i v e com m unicator's e f f e c tiv e n e s s. T heir fin d in g s supported th is h y p o th e sis. An a t t r a c t i v e communicator tends to be more e f f e c tiv e i f he announces h is In te n t to in flu e n c e w hile an u n a ttr a c tiv e 2 5 Homer H. Johnson and John A. S c ile p p i, " E ffe c ts of E go-involvement C onditions on A ttitu d e Change to High and Low C r e d ib ility Comm u n ic a to rs," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l Psychology. X III (Septem ber, 1969), 35.

183 communicator, who behaves in a s im ila r manner, does not tend to Improve 26 h is e ff e c tiv e n e s s. In a l a t e r study M ills ag ain focused h is a t t e n tio n upon the e f f e c t s o f o n e 's statem en t re g a rd in g h is d e s ir e to in flu e n c e. However, in th is study he d if f e r e n tia t e d the le v e ls of a t tr a c tio n by v a ry in g th e com m unicator s p erceiv ed lik in g fo r the re c e iv e r 168 of th e com m unication. He determ ined th a t a re c e iv e r, who b e lie v e s h im se lf to be lik e d by the communicator, tends to be more li k e ly to agree w ith the communicator i f he announces h is in te n t to persuade than i f he does n o t make such a sta te m e n t. In v e rs e ly, in d iv id u a ls who p e r ceive them selves to be d is lik e d, tend to agree le s s when th e communicato r s ta t e s h is in te n tio n to persuade than i f he does n o t make such an 27 in d ic a tio n. Due to the n a tu re of b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n the s e l l e r does not have to e x p l i c i t l y inform the buyer th a t he d e s ire s to in flu e n c e or persuade the buyer. I t is reaso n ab le to b e lie v e th a t the s e l l e r 's d e s ire to in flu e n c e is an im p lic it p a r t of the b u y e r's e x p e c ta tio n s reg ard in g th e s e l l e r 's b e h a v io r. The f a c t th a t an e x p l i c i t statem en t p e rta in in g to d e s ire to in flu e n c e appears to make an a t t r a c t i v e communic a to r more e f f e c tiv e te n ta ti v e ly su g g ests th a t a b u y e r's im p lic it u n d erstan d in g of th e s e l l e r 's d e s ire to persuade may h e ig h te n the p e r su asiv e e f fe c tiv e n e s s o f an a t t r a c t i v e s e l l e r. 26 M ills and Aronson, lo c. c i t., M ills, lo c. c i t.,

184 A u th o rita ria n ism Does the p e rs o n a lity of the buyer in flu e n c e the e x te n t to which a t t r a c t i o n toward th e s e l l e r is a d eterm in an t of the b u y e r's s u s c e p tib i l i t y to a t t i t u d e change attem p ts? A u th o rita ria n ism appears to be the only p e r s o n a lity v a r ia b le which has been te s te d to determ ine i t s e f f e c t upon the a t t r a c t l o n - a t t i t u d e change r e la tio n s h ip. Johnson and S te i n e r 's r e s u l t s suggest th a t a h ig h ly a u th o r ita r ia n re c e iv e r is " so u rc e -o rie n te d " causing h is degree o f a t t i t u d e change to be very much 28 determ ined by high a t t r a c t i o n toward the communicator. In a l a t e r re se a rc h e f f o r t Johnson, T o rc iv ia, and P oprick a s c e rta in e d th a t a low a u t h o r i t a r i a n 's s u s c e p ti b ili ty to in flu e n c e tends to be a ffe c te d more by d iffe re n c e s in a t t r a c t i o n, as m anipulated by d i f f e r e n t i a l source c r e d i b i l i t y, than are high a u t h o r i t a r i a n s. ^ A th ir d study d e a lin g w ith the e f f e c ts of a u th o rita ria n is m was perform ed by Johnson and I z z e t t. T heir fin d in g s in d ic a te th a t le v e l o f a u th o rita ria n is m is n o t an in te r - 30 vening v a r ia b le in the a t t r a c t l o n - a t t i t u d e change r e la tio n s h ip. At t h i s p o in t in time the e m p iric a l re se a rc h fin d in g s reg ard in g the e f f e c ts of a u th o rita ria n is m upon the r e la tio n s h ip between a t t r a c t i o n and a t t i t u d e change are too ambiguous and in c o n s is te n t to draw in fe re n c e s 28 H. H. Johnson and I. D. S te in e r, "Some E ffe c ts of D iscrepancy Level on R e la tio n sh ip s Between A u th o rita ria n ism and C onform ity," Jo u rn al of S o c ia l P sychology. LXXIII (December, 1967), ^ H. H. Johnson, J. M. T o rc iv ia, and M. A. P o p rick, " E ffe c ts of Source C r e d ib ility on the R e la tio n sh ip Between A u th o rita ria n ism and A ttitu d e Change," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cial Psychology. IX (Ju n e, 1968), ^Horner H. Johnson and R ichard R. I z z e t t, "R e la tio n sh ip Between A u th o rita ria n ism and A ttitu d e Change as a F unction of Source C r e d ib ility and Type of Communication," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l Psychology. X III (Septem ber, 1969),

185 170 about Im p lic a tio n s fo r e f f e c t s upon the b u y e r's b eh av io r. Summary of Effects Upon Attitudes and Opinion Change The v alen ce which the buyer a ssig n s to h i s im pression of the s e ll e r appears to in flu e n c e h is s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to attem p ts of a t tit u d e change made by the s e l l e r. As the v a le n c e, which the buyer a tta c h e s to the s e l l e r, becomes more p o s itiv e, the b u y e r's s u s c e p ti b ili ty to the s e l l e r 's in flu e n c e tends to in c re a s e. E m p irical fin d in g s suggest th a t s e v e ra l a t t r a c t i o n - r e l a t e d v a r ia b le s may cause the buyer to change h is a t t i t u d e and o p in io n s. These in clu d e (1) the s e l l e r 's h e ig h t, (2) the s e l l e r 's p h y sic a l a t tr a c tiv e n e s s in term s of c lo th in g and p erso n al c le a n li n e s s, (3) congruency o r the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of the s e l l e r 's lik in g fo r him, (4) race of the s e l l e r, (5) s im i la r i ty to th e s e l l e r 's r e l a tio n sh ip to the o b je c t, and ( 6 ) th e b u y e r's p erceiv ed s im i la r i ty in b e l ie f s between h im se lf and the s e l l e r. Though the e m p iric a l re se a rc h r e s u l t s tend to su p p o rt a p o s itiv e re la tio n s h ip between a t t r a c t i o n and a t t i t u d e or o p in io n change, se v e ra l fa c to r s have been te s te d to determ ine th e e x te n t to which they in terv en e in the a t t r a c t i o n - a t t i t u d e r e la tio n s h ip. The a ttitu d e -c h a n g e e f f e c ts due to a t t r a c t i o n to th e s e l l e r may be lessen ed to the e x te n t th a t ( 1 ) the buyer is not committed to the s e l l e r, ( 2 ) th e buyer i s ego-involved w ith the c o n ten t o f the s e l l e r 's m essage, and (3) the s e l l e r 's d e s ire to in flu e n c e is le s s e x p l i c i t. The e f f e c ts of a u th o rita ria n is m on the a t t r a c t i o n - a t t i t u d e change r e la tio n s h ip have been stu d ie d and have thus f a r re s u lte d in h ig h ly in c o n s is te n t fin d in g s. I f a t t r a c t i o n tends to cause th e buyer to conform more to the a t tit u d e s o f the s e l l e r, the buyer must f i r s t p e rc e iv e the s e l l e r 's

186 171 a t t i t u d e s. Thus, a c lo s e ly r e la te d q u e stio n Is w hether o r n o t the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n to the s e l l e r a f f e c t s the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of the s e l l e r 's a t t i t u d e s. In fere n c e of A ttitu d e S im ila r ity As in d ic a te d in the e a r l i e r d is c u s s io n re g ard in g the fo rc e s which determ ine a t t r a c t i o n th e r e s u l t s of e m p iric a l re se a rc h overwhelm ingly suggest a s tro n g, p o s itiv e r e la tio n s h ip between b u y e r - s e lle r a t tit u d e s im i la r i ty and a t t r a c t i o n. Even though e m p iric a l re s e a rc h is sp a rse, attem p ts have been made to determ ine th e e x iste n c e and s tre n g th of the in v e rse r e la tio n s h ip, th a t i s, w hether o r n o t a t t r a c t i o n lead s to in f e r ences of s im ila r a t t i t u d e s. Moss tr i e d to determ ine the e f f e c t s of a t t r a c t i o n upon o n e 's p ro p e n sity to in f e r s im ila r a t t i t u d e s. S u b jec ts i n i t i a l l y were asked to com plete a f o r ty - f o u r item a t t i t u d e s c a le. Then each s u b je c t was shown an in te rp e rs o n a l judgment s c a le and asked i f he had com pleted such a sc a le re g a rd in g a n o th e r, what a t t i t u d e s would the o th e r person have expressed in o rd er to e l i c i t those in te rp e rs o n a l judgment resp o n ses. Moss found th a t i f the h y p o th e tic a l in te rp e rs o n a l judgment sc a le in d i cated stro n g a t t r a c t i o n, th e s u b je c t tended to in f e r a t tit u d e s s im ila r to h is own.^^ In a study developed by Sachs and Byrne s im ila r r e s u lts were a s c e rta in e d M. K. Moss, " In te rp e rs o n a l A ttr a c tio n and Assumed S im ila rity of A tti tu d e s," U npublished M anuscript, W right S ta te U n iv e rs ity, D. H. Sachs and D. Byrne, " D if f e r e n tia l C o n d itio n in g of E valuativ e Responses to N eu tral S tim u li Through A sso c ia tio n w ith A ttitu d e S ta te m e n ts," Jo u rn a l of E xperim ental R esearch in P e r s o n a lity. IV (June, 1970),

187 172 The r e s u l t s of the Moss study in d ic a te th a t when a buyer is a t tr a c t e d to a s e l l e r, th e buyer tends to in f e r or a t t r i b u t e a t tit u d e s to the s e l l e r which are s im ila r to h is own. I f th e se fin d in g s are consid e re d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith p re v io u sly d isc u sse d em p iric a l d ata which s tro n g ly support the h y p o th e sis th a t a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y in c re a se s i n t e r p erso n al a t t r a c t i o n, the a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y - a t t r a c t i o n - a t t i t u d e s im ila r i t y sequence appears to be a s e lf - r e i n f o r c in g, c y c lic a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h ip. Thus, due to a t t i t u d e s im i la r i ty, a buyer may be a t tr a c t e d to a s e l l e r, and, in tu r n, such a t t r a c t i o n may cause the buyer to in fe r to the s e l l e r a t t i t u d e s s im ila r to h is own. Summary of P o te n tia l C ognitive E ffe c ts of A ttr a c tio n The b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r appears to have se v e ra l p o te n tia l e f f e c t s upon the c o g n itiv e a c t i v i t i e s of the b uyer. These p o te n tia l c o g n itiv e e f f e c t s may produce changes in th e o v e rt behavior of the buyer. A ttr a c tio n toward the s e l l e r may a f f e c t the b u y e r's p e r c e p tio n of communication c o n te n t, h is s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to attem p ts of a t t i tude and op in io n change, and h is in fe re n c e o f a t t i t u d e s to the s e l l e r. E m pirical fin d in g s su g g est th a t the b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r tends to cause the buyer to d is p la c e the c o n ten t of the s e l l e r 's message in the d ir e c tio n of the b u y e r's own p o s itio n. I f the buyer a ssig n s a n e g a tiv e v alen ce to h is im pression of the s e l l e r, the buyer tends to m isp erceiv e the s e l l e r 's message by d is p la c in g i t away from h is own p o s itio n. In reg ard to the e f f e c t s of the s e l l e r 's a ttr a c tiv e n e s s upon the b u y e r's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to in flu e n c e, the fin d in g s in g e n era l support the p ro p o s itio n th a t th e b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r makes the

188 173 buyer more s u s c e p tib le to a ttem p ts of a t t i t u d e change. S everal a t t r a c tio n - r e la te d v a ria b le s which th e em p iric a l fin d in g s suggest as fa c to rs th a t in c re a se the b u y e r's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to In flu en c e are the s e l l e r 's h e ig h t, h is p h y sic a l a t tr a c t iv e n e s s in term s of c lo th in g and p erso n al c le a n lin e s s, h is p erceiv ed lik in g fo r the b uyer, and h is ra c e. In a d d itio n, the b u y e r's p erceiv ed s im i la r i ty of b e l ie f s held by h im self and the s e l l e r, and the b u y e r's p e rc e p tio n of s i m i l a r i t y of both i n t e r a c ta n ts ' r e la tio n s h ip to th e o b je c t are both a t t r a c t i o n - r e l a t e d fa c to rs which in c re a se the b u y e r's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to in flu e n c e. E m pirical fin d in g s in d ic a te th a t s e v e ra l f a c to rs in te rv e n e in the a t t r a c t i o n - a t t i t u d e change r e la tio n s h ip. The a ttitu d e -c h a n g e e f f e c ts of a t t r a c t i o n are reduced to the e x te n t th a t ( 1 ) th e buyer is not committed to the s e l l e r, ( 2 ) the buyer is ego-in v o lv ed w ith the c o n te n t of the s e l l e r 's m essage, and (3) th e s e l l e r 's d e s ire to in flu e n c e is le s s e x p l i c i t. A th ir d p o te n tia l c o g n itiv e e f f e c t upon the buyer due to h is a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r d e a ls w ith the b u y e r's in fe re n c e of a t tit u d e s to the s e l l e r. The lim ite d fin d in g s su p p o rt th e b e lie f th a t a buyer who is a t t r a c t e d to a s e l l e r tends to in f e r a t t i t u d e s to the s e l l e r which are s im ila r to those of the b uyer. When th ese r e s u l t s are i n t e r r e la te d w ith p re v io u s ly c ite d fin d in g s re g a rd in g the a t t i t u d e s i m i l a r i t y - a t t r a c t i o n r e la tio n s h ip, a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r may in c re a se the a ttr a c t iv e n e s s o f the s e l l e r. The b u y e r's a t t r a c t i o n toward the s e l l e r has numerous p o te n tia l consequences fo r the b uyer. A ttr a c tio n may produce d i r e c t l y observ ab le e f f e c ts in term s of o v e rt b eh av io r a n d /o r e f f e c ts on the b u y e r's co g n i tiv e s tr u c tu r e which may in tu rn lead to changes in the b u y e r's o v e rt b eh a v io r. The b eh av io r of th e buyer and the changes in h is b eh av io r,

189 174 which may a r is e due to the v alen ce th a t he a ssig n s to h is im pression of the s e l l e r, arc conveyed to the s e l l e r through v a rio u s forms of s o c ia l techniques as shown in F ig u re 6-2. In the fo llo w in g s e c tio n fiv e d i f fe re n t types of s o c ia l tech n iq u es a re b r i e f l y d isc u sse d. I n te rp e rs o n a l Techniques Although in fo rm atio n in p u ts have been analyzed in term s of th e ir e f f e c ts upon the b u y e r's b e h a v io r, th e methods by which in fo rm atio n is tra n s m itte d to the buyer o r to th e s e l l e r needs to be c o n sid ere d. Since in te r a c tio n is dependent upon one o r more modes fo r tra n s m ittin g in fo rm atio n, i t is n e ce ssary to in clu d e in th e in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r s e v e ra l tech n iq u es fo r sending info rm atio n between the i n t e r a c t a n t s. The s e t of in te rp e rs o n a l tech n iq u es are included as a n c illa r y v a r ia b le s in the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b e h a v io r. As a n c illa r y v a r i a b le s, the in te rp e rs o n a l tech n iq u es serv e a fu n c tio n of f a c i l i t a t i n g b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n. As shown in F ig u re 6-2, the in te rp e rs o n a l tech n iq u es which appear to be o p e ra tiv e during b u y e r - s e lle r in t e r a c t io n are ( 1 ) jiroxemic communic a tio n, (2) k in e s ic com m unication, (3) t a c t i l e com munication, (4) 33 language, and (5) p a r a l in g u is ti c com m unication. Froxemic Communication I n te r a c ta n ts communicate through the v a r ia tio n in p h y sical OO Mark Abrahamson, Interpersonal Accomodation (New York: Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1966), p. 36. Van

190 Interpersonal Interpersonal A ttractio n Perception Perceived Perceputal S im ilarity Process Congruency Of Cognitive Feelings H Factors A ttrib u tio n Of Order Effexts In te n tio n a lity Perception Of Physical C h aracteristics A ttrib u tio n Information Interpersonal P o ten tial A ttraction Techniques E ffects Proxemic B ehavioral: Communication Competition Kinesic A nticipation Communication Aggression T actile Compliance Communication Cognitive: Language Content P aralin g u istic Perception Communication A ttitude Change Inference Of A ttitude Impression And Valence Of Hie S eller Impression And Valence Of The Buyer P o ten tial A ttractio n E ffects B ehavioral: Competition A nticipation Aggression Compliance C ognitive: Content Perception A ttitude Change Inference Of A ttitude - Interpersonal Techniques Proxemic Communication Kinesic Communication T actile Communication Language P aralin g u istic Communication Interpersonal Perception Perceptual Process Cognitive Factors Order Effects Perception Of Physical C h aracteristics A ttribution Interpersonal A ttraction Perceived Sim ilarity Congruency Of Feelings A ttribution Of In te n tio n a lity BUYER SELLER Figure 6-2 The In tera ctio n Model of Buyer Behavior Focus Upon Interpersonal Techniques

191 d is ta n c e s. a/ H all In d ic a te s th a t proxemic communication occurs when a 176 person a c q u ire s u nderstanding o f the c o n ten t o f an o th er in d iv id u a l's mind by p e rc e iv in g the b eh av io ral p a tte rn s a s s o c ia te d w ith v a r ia tio n s in proxim ity to th a t in d iv id u a l. JC Thus, the v a r ia tio n s in p h y sic a l space which s e p a ra te s the buyer and s e l l e r in F ig u re 6-2 is a technique used fo r sending inform ation to each o th e r. J u s t as th e re are c r o s s - c u ltu r a l v a r ia tio n s in v e rb a l languages, so th e re a re c r o s s - c u ltu r a l v a r ia tio n s in the meaning of s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n sh ip s between in t e r a c t a n ts. For exam ple, Arabs and L a tin A m ericans, when in te r a c tin g f a c e -to - f a c e, tend to p o s itio n them selves c lo s e r to each other.in m u lti-n a tio n a l b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n s the in fo rm atio n For d isc u ssio n s 2 nd review s o f proxemic com munication see: 0. M ichael Watson, Proxemic B eh av io r: A C ross- C u ltu ra l Study (The Hague, N eth erlan d s: Mouton and Company, 1970); S tu a rt A lb e rt and James Dabbs, "P h y sical D istance and P e rs a u s io n," Jo u rn a l of P e rs o n a lity and S o cia l P sychology. XV (1970), ; M. A rgyle and J. Dean, "E ye-c ontact, D ista n c e, and A f f i l i a t i o n, " Sociom etry XXVIII (Septem ber, 1965), ; Edward T. H a ll, "The S ile n t Language in O verseas B u sin e ss," Harvard B usiness Review. XXXVIII (M ay-june, 1960), 87-96; E. T. H a ll, "Proxemics The Study of Man's S p a tia l R e la tio n s," Man's Image in M edicine and A nthropology. I, Glads to n, ed. (New York: I n te r n a tio n a l U n iv e rs itie s P re s s, 1963), pp ; K. B. L i t t l e, "P erso n al S pace," Jo u rn a l o f E xperim ental S o cia l P sychology, I (A ugust, 1965), ; A. P. Hare and R. F. B ales, "S eatin g P o s itio n and Small Group I n te r a c ti o n," Sociom etry. XXVI (December, 1963), 480-6; E. T. H a ll, The Hidden Dimension (New York: Doubleday and Company, 1966); R. Sommer, "The D istance fo r Com fortable C onversation: A F u rth e r S tu d y," S ociom etry, XXV (June, 1962), ; B. S te in z o r, "The S p a tia l F acto r in F ace-to -F a ce D iscu s sio n G roups," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology, XLV (J u ly, 1950), 552-5; 0. M. Watson and T. D. G raves, " Q u a n tita tiv e R esearch in Proxemic B eh av io r." American A n th ro p o lo g ist, LXVIII (A ugust, 1966), Edward T. H a ll, JTCie S ile n t Language (Garden C ity, New York: Doubleday and Company, I n c., 1959), pp M ichael Watson, Proxemic B eh av io r: A C ross- C u ltu ra l Study (The Hague, N eth erlan d s: Mouton and Company, 1970), p. 78.

192 tra n s m itte d through proxemic communication may be m isperceived due to cultural variations in the meaning of physical space between interact- 37 ants. 177 When an in te r a c ta n t p e rc e iv e s h is pro x im ity to an o th er to be in a p p ro p ria te a t a p o in t d u rin g in t e r a c t io n, he may focus h is a t te n ti o n upon the s t a t e of h is own p o s itio n o r th a t o f the o th e r in d iv id u a l. Under such c o n d itio n s when h is a t te n ti o n is d iv e rte d from th e v e rb a l conte n t o f the message to the pro x im ity o f the in t e r a c t a n ts, m isp e rcep tio n may a r i s e not only because of proxemic problem s b u t a ls o due to a lack 38 o f a t te n ti o n toward message c o n te n t. I f th e buyer or the s e l l e r in F ig u re 6-2 p e rc e iv e s th e i r p ro x im ity to be too c lo se or too d i s t a n t, he may be in a tte n t iv e to o th e r in fo rm atio n in p u ts d u rin g th e time th a t he is a tte m p tin g to move to a more a p p ro p ria te p h y sic a l d is ta n c e. Not only are the buyer and seller able to communicate due to the physical location of their bodies, but they may also communicate due to the movement of their bodies. Kinesic Conmunication As e i t h e r the buyer o r s e l l e r in F ig u re 6-2 moves h is body or lim b s, he is sending in fo rm a tio n to the o th e r in t e r a c t a n t by u sin g k in e sic te c h n iq u e s.^ B ir d w h is te ll, a m ajor c o n trib u to r to k in e sic theory and For s e v e ra l examples o f c r o s s - c u ltu r a l v a r ia tio n s see: Edward T. H a ll, The S ile n t Language (Garden C ity, New York: Doubleday and Company, I n c., 1959), pp E rving Goffman, " A lie n a tio n from I n t e r a c t i o n," Human R e la tio n s, X (F eb ru ary, 1957), For review s and a n a ly se s of k in e s ic communication se e : Ray B ird w h is te ll, In tro d u c tio n to K ln e slc s (L o u is v ille, Kentucky: U n iv ersi t y of L o u is v ille P re s s, 1952); J. D. M atarazzo, and o th e rs, " I n te r -

193 re s e a rc h, proposes th a t body m otion Is s im ila r to o th e r types of communic a tio n in th a t i t Is le a rn e d. In a d d itio n, he b e lie v e s t h a t the meaning 40 o f body m otion may be determ ined only in c o n te x t. For exam ple, f a c i a l e x p ressio n s of persons in a p ic tu re are more m eaningful in communicating em otion when the p ersons a re d e p ic te d in a c o n tex t than i f they are shown on a blank background. The buyer and s e l l e r in F igure 6-2 send in fo rm atio n to each o th e r u sin g a number o f k in e s ic te c h n iq u e s. K in esic communication may occur in such forms as f a c i a l e x p re ssio n s, eye c o n ta c t and movement, head nodding, hand and arm g e s tu re s, movement of the to r s o, and p a tte rn s of leg movement. Communication through th e se k in e s ic techniques a r e, to some d egree, c u l tu r a ll y bound. The meanings of body movements are not u n iv e rs a l b u t tend to v ary from one c u ltu re to anotherthus, as w ith proxemic com m unication, b u y e r - s e lle r in te r a c tio n s which are c ro ss- c u ltu r a l may be re ta rd e d o r confusing because of the c r o s s - c u ltu r a l viewec Head-Nodding and In terv iew ee Speech D e v ia tio n s," P sy ch o th erap y. I (Jan u ary, 1964), 54-63; C. E. Osgood, "D im en sio n ality of Semantic Space fo r Communication Via F a c ia l E x p re s s io n s," S candinavian Jo u rn al of P sychology. V II (March, 1966), 1-30; C. L an d is, "S tu d ies of Em otional R eac tio n s: G eneral B ehavior and F a c ia l E x p re ssio n," Jo u rn a l of Comp a ra tiv e Psychology. IV (O ctober, 1924), ; Ray L. B ird w h is te ll, "K in esics and Com m unications," E x p lo ra tio n s in Communication, ed. by E. C arp en ter and M. McLuhan (B oston: The Beacon P re s s, I9 60); Ray L. B ird w h is te ll, "Some R e la tio n s Between American K in e sic s and Spoken American E n g lis h," Communication and C u ltu re, ed. by A. G. Smith (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, I n c., 1966), pp : and Paul E. Ekman, "Body P o s itio n, F a c ia l E x p ressio n, and V erbal Behavior During In te rv ie w s," Jo u rn a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l Psychology. LXVIII (March, 1964), Ray B ir d w h is te ll, In tro d u c tio n t o K in esics ( L o u is v ille, Kentucky U n iv e rs ity of L o u is v ille P re s s, 1952), p. 5T ^*Ibld.. pp. 5-6.

194 179 d iffe re n c e s in meanings of body m otions. T a c tile Communication When one or both in te r a c ta n ts p h y s ic a lly touches the o th e r p e r- 42 son, in fo rm atio n is flow ing through t a c t i l e com m unication. Frank s ta t e s th a t t a c t i l e communication is probably th e most elem ental form 43 of com munication. The ty p e, frequency, and in t e n s ity of t a c t i l e communication is c u l tu r a ll y d eterm ined. In reg ard to t a c t i l e a c t i v i t y H all c a te g o riz e s humans as being in e ith e r a c o n ta c t group o r a n o n -co n ta ct group. For exam ple, he p la c e s Americans and N orthern Europeans in the n o n -co n ta ct 44 group and Arabs in the c o n ta c t group. A lthough t a c t i l e communication might be p re v a le n t in c e r ta in types of m u ltin a tio n a l b u y e r - s e lle r in t e r a c t io n s, t a c t i l e communication between the buyer and s e l l e r in th is co u n try is q u ite lim ite d. T a c tile communication between buyers and s e l l e r s in th e U.S. occurs m ainly through hand-sh ak in g. The tr a n s a c tio n s in v o lv in g c e r t a in types of p ro d u cts such as cosm etics may p rovide an o ccasio n fo r t a c t i l e b eh av io r. Due to the c u l tu r a l norms in the U.S., t a c t i l e communication is / o For review s and f u r th e r d is c u s sio n s of t a c t i l e communication se e : 0. M ichael W atson, Proxemic B eh av io r: A C ro ss-c u ltu ra l Study (The Hague, N e th erlan d s: Mouton and Company, 1970); 0. M. Watson and T. D. G raves, " Q u a n tita tiv e Research in Proxemic B eh v av io r," American A n th ro p o lo g ist. LXVIII (A ugust, 1966), ; and C. W incik and H. H o lt, "S eatin g P o s itio n s as Non-Verbal Communication in Group A n a ly s is," P s y c h ia try. XXIV (May, 1961), ^L aw ren ce K. Frank, " T a c tile Comm unication," G enetic Psychology Monographs. LVI (November, 1957), 209. ^E dw ard T. H a ll, "A System fo r th e N o tatio n o f Proxemic B eh av io r," American A n th ro p o lo g ist. LXV (O ctober, 1963), 1005.

195 probably the le a s t s ig n if i c a n t mode which the buyer and s e l l e r In Figure 6-2 u t i l i z e fo r sending In fo rm atio n to one a n o th e r. 180 Language Language Is a sy ste m a tic s tr u c tu r e c o n s is tin g of s o c ia l conventio n s th a t s p e c if i c a l ly r e l a t e symbols and id e a s. ^ 46 both v e rb a l and nonverbal sym bols. A language in clu d es V erbal language r e f e r s to words 47 and is used to communicate meaning through w ritin g and v e rb a l speech. The buyer and s e l l e r in F ig u re 6-2 are a b le to send in fo rm atio n to each o th e r through the v e rb a l symbols of speech and w r itte n w ords. Although a lp h a b e tic and num erical symbols a re used by i n t e r a c t an ts to communicate in fo rm atio n and co n c e p ts, they are not s t r i c t l y lim ite d to v e rb a l sym bols. The buyer and s e l l e r, when in te r a c tin g w ith each o th e r, may ex p ress them selves through nonverbal symbols such as sk e tc h e s, c h a r ts, and graphs. In o rd er fo r language to be an e f f e c tiv e in te rp e rs o n a l technique fo r communication th e re must be a commonness of meaning between the in te r a c ta n ts as to the r e la tio n h i p between th e symbols of the language and th e id e as to which th e symbols r e l a t e. Due to c u l tu r a l, s u b - c u ltu ra l, ^ J o h n W. McDavid and H erb ert H a ra ri, S o cia l P sychology: I n d iv id u a l s. G roups. and S o c ie tie s (New York: Harper and Row P u b lis h e rs, 1968), p, For d is c u s s io n s and review s of language se e ; Duncan R. Luce, Robert R. Busch, and Eugene G a la n te r, Handbook of M athem atical Psychology (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c., 1963); A rchibald A. H ill, In tro d u c tio n to L in g u is tic S tru c tu re s (New York: H arco u rt, Brace & W orld, I n c., 1958); I. I. R evzin, Models of Language (London: Methuen and Company, L im ited, 1966). Thomas M. Olshewsky, Problems in the Philosophy of Language (New York: H o lt, R in e h a rt, and W inston, I n c., 1969); Herman P a r r e t, Language and D iscourse (The Hague, N eth erlan d s: Mouton and Company, 1971). ^McDavid and Harari, loc. cit.. p. 151.

196 181 and o ccu p a tio n a l v a r ia tio n s in languages, the communication between the buyer and s e l l e r in F igure 6-2 is sometimes n o t m eaningful to one or both in t e r a c t a n ts. The most im portant to o ls of communication fo r people a re the spoken and w r itte n forms of language.^ A lthough spoken language may be an e f f e c tiv e form of com m unication, th e e ffe c tiv e n e s s of th is form is not only determ ined by the l i n g u i s t i c c o n te n t b u t a ls o by the background of the l i n g u i s t i c c o n te n t. This background is r e fe rre d to as paralanguage P a r a lin g u is tic Communication As th e buyer and s e l l e r communicate v e r b a lly they may be sending in fo rm atio n not only coded in language b u t a ls o coded in paralanguage. Paralanguage c o n s is ts o f v o ic e s e t, v o ic e q u a l i t i e s, and v o c a liz a tio n s.^ Voice s e t is a fu n c tio n o f o n e 's ag e, sex, s t a t e of h e a lth, body b u ild, and mood. Out of th e se c h a r a c te r i s t ic s o n e 's v o ic e s e t tak es on a c u ltu r a l i d e n tif i c a ti o n of age c a te g o ry, gender, s t a t u s, h e a lth image, and em otional mood.^^ Voice q u a l i t i e s in c lu d e such f a c to rs as p itc h ran g e, v o cal l i p c o n tro l, a r t i c u l a t i o n c o n tro l, p itc h c o n tro l, resonance, and tempo. V o c a liz a tio n s a re a c tu a l i d e n tif i a b le n o ises b u t are d if f e r e n t 48 I b i d., p George L. T rag er, "P aralanguage: A F i r s t A pproxim ation," S tu d ie s in L in g u is tic s. X III (S p rin g, 1958), 3. 50I b i d., 4. 51Ibid.

197 from sounds of language. As the buyer and s e l l e r In F igure 6-2 communicate through v e rb a l speech, they are a ls o communicating through p aralan g u ag e. Communication through paralanguage allow s the buyer and s e l l e r another technique to 53 express attitudes and emotions as well as message content. In te rp e rs o n a l Techniques in P e rsp e c tiv e In te rp e rs o n a l tech n iq u es are mechanisms u t i l i z e d by in te r a c ta n ts to send in fo rm atio n to each o th e r. Since in te rp e rs o n a l in te r a c tio n r e q u ire s th a t in fo rm atio n flows between the in t e r a c t a n ts, f iv e in te rp e rs o n a l techniques a re included in the in te r a c tio n model of buyer b eh av io r. The fiv e in te rp e rs o n a l techniques a re (1) proxemic communication, (2) k in e s ic com m unication, (3) t a c t i l e com nunication, (4) language, and (5) p a r a lin g u is tic com munication. The buyer and s e l l e r in F igure 6-2 a re ab le to send info rm atio n through the p ro x im ity and v a r ia tio n in pro x im ity of t h e i r p h y sic a l b e in g s. K in esic communication may occur between the buyer and s e l l e r due to the m otion of v a rio u s p a r ts of th e i r bodies such as the head, ey es, fa c e, to rs o, arm s, hands, and le g s. Due to c u ltu r a l norms t a c t i l e conmunica- tio n, communication through to uching, is h ig h ly lim ite d among buyers and s e l l e r s in the U.S. I n te r n a tio n a l buyers and s e l l e r s may experience la rg e r amounts of t a c t i l e com munication. Language is a s e t of c u l tu r a ll y determ ined r e la tio n s h ip s between symbols and id e a s. The buyer and s e l l e r may send in fo rm atio n to each o th e r through nonverbal symbols such as 52 Ibid Abrahamson, loc. cit.. p. 43.

198 drawings, charts, and graphs and through verbal symbols such as w riting 183 and verbal speech. As the buyer and s e lle r in te ra c t through verbal speech, they are not only conanunieating through language but also through paralanguage. P aralin g u istic communication occurs when one's voice se t, voice q u ality, and nonverbal vocalizations send information to the receiver. For example, the tone of the s e l l e r 's voice may be indicative of his current emotional s ta te. Interpersonal techniques are included as an cilla ry v ariables in the in teractio n model of buyer behavior because they f a c i lit a te the in te r action between the buyer and s e lle r. Summary The analyses in th is chapter have focused on the e ffects of the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r upon the buyer's overt behavior and h is cognitive a c tiv itie s. In addition, five interpersonal techniques which serve a f a c ilita tiv e function for b u y er-seller in teractio n have been set forth. In regard to the p o te n tial behavioral e ffe c ts, the buyer's a ttr a c tion toward the s e lle r appears to p o te n tia lly influence the buyer's ( 1 ) cooperative behavior, ( 2 ) anticip ato ry behavior regarding expected subsequent in teractio n s, and (3) compliant behavior. I f the buyer is a ttra c te d to the s e lle r, the buyer may exhibit behavior which is more cooperative. The buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r may cause the buyer to have p ositive an ticip ato ry expectations about future in te ra c tio n s. As a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r increases, the buyer may tend to be more compliant in dealing with the requests of the s e lle r. However, this rela tio n sh ip holds only when the s e l l e r 's requests are more

199 sig n ifican t in terms of d iffic u lty than what an indiviaual would expect 184 to do under the norm of social re sp o n sib ility. The amount of aggressive behavior exhibited by the buyer toward the s e lle r does not appear to be lessened by a ttra c tio n. The em pirical findings suggest that a buyer, although a ttra c te d to a s e lle r, may s t i l l exhibit as much aggressive behavior toward the s e lle r as he might do if he were not attracted to the s e lle r. In general the em pirical findings regarding the relationship between the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r and p otential cognitive effects suggest that the buyer's cognitive facto rs affected include ( 1 ) perception of communication content, ( 2 ) su sc e p tib ility to attempts of a ttitu d e and opinion change, and (3) inference of a ttitu d e s to the s e lle r. The data from em pirical research suggest th at the buyer's a ttr a c tion toward the s e lle r may cause the buyer to misperceive the content of the s e ll e r 's message in the d irectio n of the buyer's own position. When the buyer assigns a negative valence to his impression of the s e lle r, the buyer tends to displace the s e ll e r 's message away from his own position. The re su lts of research e ffo rts which deal with the effects of the s e l l e r 's attra c tiv e n e ss upon the buyer's su sc e p tib ility to attempts of a ttitu d e change in general support the proposition that the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r causes the buyer to be more susceptible to a ttitu d e change attem pts exhibited by the s e lle r. The a ttra c tio n - rela ted v ariab les which the re su lts of em pirical research suggest as factors that tend to increase the buyer's su sc e p tib ility to influence are ( 1 ) the s e l l e r 's height, ( 2 ) his physical attractiv en ess in terms

200 185 of clothing and personal cleanliness, (3) h is perceived a ttra c tio n for the buyer, (4) his race, (5) the buyer's perceived sim ila rity of b eliefs held by himself and the s e lle r, and ( 6 ) the buyer s perception of sim ila rity of both interactants' rela tio n sh ip to the object. Although the a ttra c tio n -a ttitu d e change rela tio n sh ip is sig n ific a n tly supported by research data, there are em pirical findings which indicate th at several factors intervene in the a ttra c tio n -a ttitu d e change rela tio n sh ip. The attitude-change e ffe c ts of a ttra c tio n tend to be reduced to the extent that ( 1 ) the buyer is not committed to the s e lle r, ( 2 ) the buyer is ego-involved with the content of the s e l l e r 's message, and (3) the s e l l e r 's desire to influence is less e x p lic it. Another p o te n tia l cognitive e ffe c t upon the buyer which may arise out of his a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r is h is inference of attitu d e s to the s e lle r. The lim ited findings suggest that a buyer, who is attracted to a s e lle r, tends to a ttrib u te a ttitu d e s to the s e lle r which are sim i la r to his own a ttitu d e s. When these findings are considered in conjunction with previously cited findings regarding the a ttitu d e sim ilarity - a ttra c tio n rela tio n sh ip, a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r may lead to further a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r. Although an analysis of the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r indicates th a t several p o te n tial behavioral and cognitive effects may a rise, the analysis does not focus upon the manner in which these effects are communicated. Therefore, the la s t section of th is chapter consists of a description of interpersonal techniques u tiliz e d by buyers and s e lle rs for communicating with one another. These techniques are included in the in teractio n model of buyer behavior as an cillary v ariables which serve to f a c i lit a te b u y er-seller in teractio n.

201 186 Buyers and se lle rs send information to each other through at least five interpersonal techniques. Proxemic communication takes place as the buyer and s e lle r adjust the physical distance between themselves. Through the movement of various body parts such as the head, eyes, face, hands, arms, legs, and torso, the in teractan ts send information to each other. Because of restrain in g c u ltu ra l norms in the U.S. ta c tile communication, is highly lim ited during b u y er-seller in teractio n in the U.S. Language is a set of c u ltu ra lly determined relatio n sh ip s between symbols and ideas. The buyer and s e lle r may communicate by language through nonverbal symbols such as w riting and verbal speech. P aralin- g u istic communication occurs when one's voice s e t, voice q u ality, and non-verbal v ocalizations send inform ation to the receiver. The consideration of the variab les in th is chapter completes the series of three chapters in which the v aria b les and relatio n sh ip s of the in teractio n model of buyer behavior are analyzed. In Chapter VII, the fin a l chapter, a summary of the model, a se t of hypotheses for further research, suggested methodologies for selected hypotheses, and the conclusions are presented.

202 CHAPTER VII SUMMARY OF THE INTERACTION MODEL OF BUYER BEHAVIOR, SUGGESTED HYPOTHESES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH, PROPOSED METHODOLOGIES FOR SELECTED HYPOTHESES, AND CONCLUSIONS As indicated in Chapter I I, in a review of selected buyer behavior models, most of the models are oriented toward buyer behavior in the general case without taking into consideration whether the s e lle r is a person, a se lf-se rv ic e establishm ent, or a vending machine. The consumer behavior models which have been developed do not adequately consider the case of face-to-face buy er-seller in teractio n in which v ariables and relatio n sh ip s unique to on-going in teractio n affect the buyer's behavior. The objective of th is study has been to develop a buyer behavior model that deals with face-to-face b u y er-seller in teractio n and not with the in teractio n of a buyer and a vending machine or self-serv ic e r e ta il establishm ent. S p ecifically, the purpose of th is research has been to develop an in teractio n model of buyer behavior which focuses upon the v ariables and relatio n sh ip s which influence a buyer's determination of a behavioral payoff acquired through in teractio n with the s e lle r. The model which has been developed is a microscopic model of buyer behavior rather than a comprehensive model in that it does not attempt to explain a ll of the v ariables which affect consumer behavior but instead is oriented toward an analysis of selected v ariables and 187

203 188 relationships unique to on-golng buyer-seller Interaction. The methodology of th is research used In the development of the Interaction model of buyer behavior has been of an exploratory type. Thus, through the analysis of em pirical research findings an attempt has been made to iso la te the relevant v aria b les, to estab lish re la tio n ships among these v a ria b les, and to develop a framework on which hypotheses for future research may be based. The purposes of th is chapter are (1) to summarize the interaction model of buyer behavior, ( 2 ) to present a set of hypotheses suggested for fu rth er research, (3) to propose several methodologies for selected hypotheses, and (4) to set forth the conclusions. Summary of the In teractio n Model of Buyer Behavior The in teractio n model is based upon the assumption that in te r actants value behavior. Support for this assumption was presented in the Chapter I I I. Based upon this assumption the proposition on which the in teractio n model is founded is that the buyer, as he in teracts with the s e lle r, acquires a behavioral payoff through the in teractio n. Depending upon the d irectio n of the valence, the behavioral payoff may increase the to ta l transactional payoff. Boundaries of the Model Because the in teractio n model of buyer behavior is microscopic, i t was necessary to c la rify several boundaries. F irs t, the s e lle r in the model is a person and not a machine, a company, or a group of personal salesmen. Second, the buyer in th is model is not the economic ratio n al man. Third, ^he buyer and s e lle r in the in teractio n arena do not ex ist

204 in social iso la tio n before in teractin g with each other. Both p a r tic i pants have been subjected to social influences such as the family, peer 189 groups, reference groups, social c lass, and subcultural facto rs. Each enters the transactional situ a tio n with c e rta in motives, a ttitu d e s, and goals. Fourth, buy er-seller in teractio n ex ists whenever the buyer or the s e lle r is aware of the o th e r's presence. The Exogenous Variables Since the in teractio n model is microscopic, i t was necessary for purposes of c la rific a tio n to present the v ariables which were treated as exogenous. Even though the exogenous variables may influence the major v ariables included in the model, they were not explained by the model. The fact that the exogenous v ariables were not analyzed in the model is not meant to imply that these v ariables do not affect the other variables and relatio n sh ip s in the in teractio n model. However, to sim plify the analysis, the exogenous variab les were treated as constants. The v ariables which were treated as exogenous are (1) c u ltu rally induced norms and ro les, ( 2 ) environmental forces such as economic facto rs, technological forces, and government and legal v aria b les, and (3) needs, motives, and goals of the in te ra c ta n ts. These variables were considered to be exogenous because th e ir effects may be manifested before, during, and a fte r in teractio n. The endogenous variab les were considered to be ones which are unique to on-going buyer-seller interactio n. The Endogenous V ariables Depicted in Figure 7-1 are the major components of the in teractio n model of buyer behavior. The major components of the model are (1) in te r personal perception, (2) interpersonal a ttra c tio n, (3) poten tial e ffects

205 Interpersonal Interpersonal Attraction Perception Perceived Perceptual Similarity Process Congruency Of Cognitive Feelings H Factors Attribution Of Order Effects Intentionality Perception Of Physical Characteristics Attribution Interpersonal Techniques Proxemic Communica tion Kinesic Communication Tactile Communication Language Paralinguistic Communication Potential Attraction fefleets Behavioral: Competition Anticipation Aggression Compliance Cognitive: Content Perception Attitude Change Inference Of Attitude Impression And Valence Of The Seller Impression And Valence Of Hie Buyer Potential Attrac tion Effects Behavioral: Competition Anticipation Aggression Compliance Cognitive: Content Perception Attitude Change Inference Of Attitude BUYER Interpersonal Techniques Proxemic Communication Kinesic Communication Tactile Communication Language Paralinguistic Comnunication Interpersonal Perception Perceptual Process Cognitive Factors Order Effects Perception Of Physical Characteristics Attribution Interpersonal Attraction Perceived Similarity Congruency Of H Feelings Attribution Of Intentionality SELLER Figure 7-1 The Interaction Model Buyer Behavior 190

206 191 of the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r, and (4) interpersonal techniques. Due to the exploratory nature of th is study the variables which are contained in each of the components were selected on the basis of a v a ila b ility of em pirical research pertaining to the v aria b les. Since the buyer's determ ination of bis behavioral payoff is, to some extent, a function of h is impression of the s e lle r, tne tir s c major component which was considered is interpersonal perception. Interpersonal Perception Interpersonal perception was explored in terms of how i t specific a lly re la te s to the formation and change of the buyer's impression of the s e lle r. The main areas of interpersonal perception which were analyzed are ( 1 ) the basic process of perception, ( 2 ) selected cognitive facto rs which are determinants of impression formation, (3) the order effects of information inputs, (4) the perception of human physical c h a ra c te ristic s, and (5} the a ttrib u tio n process. To f a c i lit a te the analysis of interpersonal perceptual v ariables, a discussion of the general process of perception was necessary. Perception was defined as the complex process D y which a person selec ts, organizes, and in te rp re ts information inputs into a meaningful and coherent p ictu re of the world. Although the perceptual process is a basis for person perception, other variables unique to person perception are active but are not a part of the basic perceptual process. The information inputs which are selected, organized, and in te r preted for person perception are social information inputs because they are u n its of information pertaining to social objects, namely the buyer and s e lle r in th is model. The information flows in Figure 7-1 consist

207 192 of social information inputs. In both flows of inform ation, the social Information inputs may be in itia te d by e ith e r the buyer or the s e lle r. The flows of information may be somewhat restrain ed during the in i tia l stages of in teractio n. The processing of social information inputs allows the buyer to form an impression of the s e lle r from which he derives a behavioral payoff. The buyer's impression of the s e lle r may consist of aspects of the s e l l e r 's d isp o sitio n s, a ttitu d e s, and/or p ersonality. In order to analyze how the buyer forms and maintains an impression of the s e lle r, three cognitive factors were considered including cognitive organization, cognitive complexity, and the degree of cognitive rig id ity. Several explanations dealing with the manner in which the buyer organizes social information inputs were proposed. The buyer may organize his impression of the s e lle r ( 1 ) as a function of the summation of information inputs, (2) as a function of the average of information inputs, or (3) as a cognitive stru ctu re which is more comprehensive than the sum of its p a r ts. To the degree that the buyer possesses a high degree of cognitive complexity in forming an impression of the s e lle r, the buyer tends ( 1 ) to seek and process more information, ( 2 ) to be less certain of the accuracy of his impression, and (3) to be more capable of creating a unified impression from incongruent social inform ation inputs. A buyer's degree of cognitive r ig id ity appears to be affected by his own persona lity. If the buyer is highly competitive and/or highly au th o ritarian, he tends to be more cognitively rig id causing h is impression of the s e lle r to be more extreme. Even though these cognitive factors seemed to influence the

208 193 formation of the buyer's impression of the s e lle r, the order or sequence in which the buyer receives social information inputs also appeared to be a variable acting upon the formation of the buyer's impression of the s e lle r. The analysis of the em pirical findings pertaining to order e ffects supported the proposition that primacy effects tend to be more dominant than recency e ffe c ts in the buyer's impression of the s e lle r. Primacy e ffects appear to be more in flu e n tia l because the elements which lessen the primacy e ffects (such as a forewarning that cautions one about the inaccuracy of a f i r s t impression and the introduction of irrelev an t information) are generally not present during on-going buyer-seller in teractio n. The buyer's impression of the s e lle r appeared to be not only a function of cognitive facto rs and the order e ffe c ts, but also a function of the type of social inform ation inputs received by the buyer. For purposes of analysis social inform ation inputs were separated into two major categories including ( 1 ) inputs pertaining to physical characteris tic s and ( 2 ) inputs regarding the s e ll e r 's behavior. Facial featu res, skin color, and physical deviations are physical c h a ra c te ristic s which were found to affect one's impression of another individual. Empirical findings suggested that the fa c ia l ch aracteristic s which influence a buyer's impression of the s e lle r are age, skin texture, fullness of lip s, and fa c ia l tension. C lusters of facial features are generally re la te d to clu sters of personality tr a i ts. In regard to skin color, a Negro s e lle r, regardless of the shade of skin color, tends to be perceived by a buyer as possessing the stereotyped p ersonality c h a ra c te ristic s of Negroes. There is a tendency for the highly prejudiced buyer to over-exaggerate the Negro personality

209 194 ch a ra c te ristic s in his impression of the buyer. The existence of physical deviations on the part of e ith e r the buyer or the s e lle r tends to cause the normal in teractan t to be inhibited and uncomfortable. Since the normal in te ra c ta n t is inhibited under such conditions, he tends to ( 1 ) r e s t r i c t his behavioral output, ( 2 ) express opinions which are less consistent with his actual b e lie fs, and (3) term inate the in te r action more rapidly. The buyer's impression appeared to be not only a function of social information inputs regarding the s e ll e r 's physical c h ara cteristic s but also a function of social information inputs pertaining to the s e ll e r 's behavior. As the buyer perceives the s e l l e r 's behavior, he not only senses physical motion and a c tiv ity, but he also a ttrib u te s intentions, a ttitu d e s, and c a p a b ilitie s to the s e lle r. The buyer makes such a ttrib u tio n s based upon behavior which he perceives to be in tern ally caused. behavior. Thus, he must determine the locus of cau sality of the s e lle r 's Two factors which were found to cause the s e l l e r 's behavior to appear to be externally caused are ( 1 ) low status possessed by the s e lle r and ( 2 ) exhibition of in -ro le behavior on the p art of the s e lle r. Three major types of a ttrib u tio n were analyzed including (1) the a ttrib u tio n of a ttitu d e s, (2) the a ttrib u tio n of cap a b ility, and (3) the a ttrib u tio n of intention. The em pirical findings suggested that the a ttrib u tio n of a ttitu d e s is, to some degree, a function of ( 1 ) whether the s e lle r, when operating in a perceived no-choice situ a tio n, expresses a personal commitment regarding the object being discussed, and ( 2 ) a function of the strength of an a ttitu d e exhibited by the s e lle r. A ttrib u tio n of capability is more lik ely to occur if the s e lle r exhibits successful acts during the in i t i a l p art of the in teractio n as opposed

210 to the la tte r part and If the d irectio n of the s e ll e r 's evaluation of 195 the buyer is perceived to be p o sitiv e. In regard to the a ttrib u tio n of intention, the findings suggested that the a ttrib u tio n of intention may tend to be influenced by the m aturity level of the buyer. As the buyer becomes more mature, he is more lik ely to d iffe re n tia te in tern ally caused behavior from externally caused behavior. A ttribution of intention is also affected by the tendency for a person to a ttrib u te positive effects to external causes. Through interpersonal perception the buyer forms an impression of the s e lle r. The analyses indicated that the buyer's impression of the s e lle r, which the buyer forms during on-going buyer-seller in teractio n, appears to be determined by numerous v ariab les. In attempting to explain the forces which influence the buyer's impression of the s e lle r, the categories of variables analyzed included several cognitive factors of impression formation, the order effects of information inputs, the perception of physical c h a ra c te ristic s of people, and the a ttrib u tio n process. The buyer, by attaching a valence to his impression of the s e lle r, derives a behavioral payoff by in teractin g with the s e lle r. Therefore, the forces which affe c t the assignment of a valence, were analyzed. Interpersonal A ttraction Although the analysis of the interpersonal perceptual v ariab les, to some degree, explained the manner by which the buyer places a valence upon his presence and behavior of the s e lle r, there were other variables considered which are more d ire c tly re la te d to the buyer's assignment of a valence to h is impression of the s e lle r. These variables are major components of the process of interpersonal a ttra c tio n. The factors that

211 196 affect Interpersonal A ttraction between the buyer and the s e lle r, in turn, influence determination of a valence which the buyer places upon the presence and behavior of the s e lle r. For analytic purposes a ttra c tion was defined as a positive valence held toward another. Likewise, reje ctio n was defined as a negative valence held regarding another individual. The interpersonal a ttra c tio n variables which were analyzed in the in teractio n model of buyer behavior were, for purposes of analysis, divided into three categories including ( 1 ) perceived sim ilarity of the in teractan ts, (2) congruency of feelings, and (3) a ttrib u tio n of intentio n a lity. An analysis of the existing em pirical findings indicated that there is a strong p ositive rela tio n sh ip between attitu d e sim ilarity and a ttra c tio n. The em pirical findings regarding the relatio n sh ip between a ttra c tio n and a ttitu d e s im ila rity are so strong that a ten tativ e law of a ttra c tio n has been set forth in the lite r a tu r e. The tentative law of a ttra c tio n sta te s th a t a ttra c tio n toward an individual is a positive lin ear function of the proportion of sim ilar a ttitu d e s perceived to be held by the other in te ra c ta n t. This rela tio n sh ip has been generalized to a number of age groups from fourth graders to middle-aged groups and to other cultures including Hawaii, Japan, Mexico, and India. Since his a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r is, to some degree, a perceived function of a ttitu d e sim ila rity, the buyer's a ttrib u tio n of a ttitu d es to the s e lle r d ire c tly influences his a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r. Even though the existing em pirical findings were found to strongly support the rela tio n sh ip between a ttitu d e sim ila rity and a ttra c tio n, several factors which influence the strength of this relationship were

212 197 determined. The analysis of empirical research re su lts indicated that the a ttra c tio n due to a ttitu d e sim ilarity may lessen ( 1 ) when the buyer's affectiv e sta te is one of depression, ( 2 ) when the objects of the sim ilar a tttitu d e s are of l i t t l e in te re s t to the buyer and s e lle r, and (3) when a ra c ia lly prejudiced white buyer is in teractin g with a Negro s e lle r. The findings of existing em pirical studies tended to support a positive relatio n sh ip between personality sim ila rity and a ttra c tio n. As the buyer becomes more mature, the strength of th is rela tio n sh ip may decrease. If the buyer is introverted, the rela tio n sh ip may not hold. A second major v ariab le analyzed to determine its effects on the buyer's assignment of a valence to his impression of the s e lle r was congruency. Congruency e x ists to the degree that a perceiver believes that the perceived person likes the perceiver as much as the perceiver likes the perceived person. The analysis of existing findings suggesed th at a buyer may tend to be attracted to a s e lle r if the buyer perceives the s e lle r as liking him. Two factors were found that affect the buyer's perception of the s e ll e r 's liking for him. The buyer is more lik e ly to perceive the s e lle r as liking him if ( 1 ) the s e lle r exhibits discernment in judging people and his judgment of the buyer is p o sitiv e, and ( 2 ) the s e lle r indicates a gain in esteem for the buyer. The third facto r analyzed as a p o te n tial determinant of a t tr a c tion was the a ttrib u tio n of in te n tio n a lity. Results of em pirical research suggesed that if a s e lle r, in order to gain the buyer's support, u tiliz e s in g ra tia tio n ta c tic s such as opinion conformity, the buyer in a t tr ib u t ing intention to the s e lle r may consider the degree to which the s e lle r is dependent upon him. When the s e lle r exhibits helping behavior, the

213 198 buyer may attempt to determine the extent to which the s e lle r is acting under environmental co n strain ts. Interpersonal perception and interpersonal a ttra c tio n were examined in order to explain the variables that are determinants of the buyer's impression and valence of the s e lle r which in turn affects the behavioral payoff which the buyer receives from b uyer-seller in teractio n. A fter focusing upon the variables of interpersonal perception and in te r personal a ttra c tio n, the p o te n tial e ffects on the buyer due to his a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r were analyzed. The P o tential E ffects of A ttraction The p o te n tial e ffects on the buyer, due to his a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r, were analyzed because such e ffects could a ffe c t the s e ll e r 's behavior and in turn, as the s e lle r re a c ts, a ffe c t the buyer's impression and the valence he assigns to his impression of the s e lle r. Two major categories of p o ten tial a ttra c tio n e ffects on the buyer were considered including ( 1 ) e ffects on the buyer's overt behavior, and ( 2 ) effects on the buyer's cognitive a c tiv itie s. Although analysis indicated th at em pirical research pertaining to the effects of a ttra c tio n on overt behavior is lim ited, the re su lts of existing em pirical studies had several im plications regarding the e ffects of a ttra c tio n upon the buyer's overt behavior toward the s e lle r. In general the em pirical findings suggested that if the buyer is a t tr a c t ed to the s e lle r, the buyer's behavior may tend ( 1 ) to become more cooperative, ( 2 ) to exhibit positive a n t'c ip ato ry responses regarding expected subsequent in teractio n s, (3) to not necessarily increase or decrease in aggression toward the s e lle r, and (4) to be more lik ely to

214 199 comply with the requests of the s e lle r. For the fourth relatio n sh ip to hold, the s e ll e r 's requests must be more sig n ifican t In terms of d if fic u lty than what one would be expected to do under the norm of social re sp o n sib ility. The effects upon the buyer's cognitive a c tiv itie s due to his a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r, appeared to be active in terms of the buyer's ( 1 ) perception of message content, ( 2 ) su sc e p tib ility to attempts of a ttitu d e change, and (3) inference of a ttitu d e s to the s e lle r. The re su lts of available em pirical research suggested that the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r may cause the buyer to misperceive the s e l l e r 's message in the d irectio n of his own position. If the buyer re je c ts the s e lle r, the buyer tends to displace the s e ll e r 's message away from his own position. In regard to the buyer's su sc e p tib ility to attempts of a ttitu d e change, the analysis of the findings indicated th at the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r causes the buyer to be more susceptible to attempts of a ttitu d e change. Several a ttra c tio n -re la te d variab les which the em pirical findings suggested as factors th at ra ise the buyer's susceptib i l ity to influence are ( 1 ) the s e l l e r 's height, ( 2 ) his physical a ttr a c tiveness in terms of clothing and personal clean lin ess, (3) h is perceived liking for the buyer, (4) his race, (5) the buyer's perceived sim ila rity of b eliefs held by himself and the s e lle r, and ( 6 ) the buyer's perception of s im ila rity of both in te ra c ta n ts ' rela tio n sh ip to the object. Several v ariab les appear to intervene in the a ttra c tio n -a ttitu d e change rela tio n sh ip. The attitude-change effects of a ttra c tio n decrease to the degree that ( 1 ) the buyer is not committed to the s e lle r, ( 2 ) the buyer is ego-involved with the content of the s e l l e r 's message, and (3) the

215 200 s e ll e r 's desire to Influence is less e x p lic it. An analysis of the available em pirical resu lts pertaining to the influence of the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r upon the buyer's inferences of a ttitu d e s to the s e lle r, indicated that a ttra c tio n to ward the s e lle r causes a tendency on the buyer's part to in fer a ttitu d e s to the s e lle r which are sim ilar to those of the buyer. A comparison of these findings with the previously cited re su lts regarding the a ttitu d e s im ila rity -a ttra c tio n relatio n sh ip suggested that a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r may increase the attractiv en ess of the s e lle r. A fter an analysis of the cognitive and behavioral effects of a ttra c tio n upon the buyer, several techniques were set forth which the buyer uses for communicating these effects and more generally which both the buyer and s e lle r use in sending information to each other. The Interpersonal Techniques The buyer and s e lle r in Figure 7-1 send information to each other through interpersonal techniques. Because interpersonal in te ra c tion n ecessitates the flow of information between the in te ra c ta n ts, a set of five interpersonal techniques were described as a part of the in teractio n model of buyer behavior. The five interpersonal techniques are (1) proxemic communication, (2) kinesic communication, (3) ta c tile communication, (4) language, and (5) p a ra lin g u istic communication. Proxemic communication allows the buyer and s e lle r to send in fo r mation to each other by a lterin g the physical distance between themselves. The buyer and s e lle r may communicate k in e sically through the motion of various parts of th e ir bodies such as the head, eyes, face, torso, arms,

216 201 hands, and logs. Since cu ltu ral norms In the U.S. are quite constraining regarding the touching of another individual, ta c tile communication is highly restrained among buyers and se lle rs in domestic interactions but may be more prevalent in m ultinational buyer-seller interaction. Language is a set of cu ltu ra lly determined relationships between symbols and ideas. Buyers and se lle rs may communicate by using nonverbal symbols such as drawings, charts, and graphs, and through verbal symbols such as w riting and verbal speech. P aralin g u istic communication allows the buyer and s e lle r a method of sending information through voice set, voice q u ality, and nonverbal v ocalizations. Thus, as the buyer and se lle r in teract through verbal speech, they are not only communicating through language but also through paralanguage. The interpersonal techniques were included in the model as a set of a n cilla ry variables which serve a function of fa c ilita tin g in teractio n between the buyer and s e lle r. The variables and relationships of the in teractio n model of buyer behavior have been isolated and te n ta tiv e ly supported by the analyses of available em pirical findings of research in the areas of psychology, sociology, and social psychology. Using the in teractio n model of buyer behavior as a theo retical base, a number of suggested hypotheses may be derived for further research. Suggested Hypotheses for Further Research Through the development of the in teractio n model of buyer behavio r, a number of variables and in te rre la tio n sh ip s, pertaining to on-going buyer-seller in teractio n, have been set fo rth. These variables and in terrelatio n sh ip s have been te n tativ ely supported by the em pirical find

217 202 ings of researchers in the areas of psychology, social psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Although the em pirical re su lts of studies in these areas te n ta tiv e ly support the variables and relationships in the in teractio n model of buyer behavior, a great deal of further research is needed to provide g reater support for these variables and in te rre la tionships. Thus a set of hypotheses, suggested for further research, is presented. The following hypotheses are c la ssifie d in terms of the major categories of variab les of the in teractio n model as shown in Figure 7-1. Interpersonal Perception The hypotheses set forth in th is section p ertain to specific variables and relatio n sh ip s regarding the buyer's perception of the s e l le r. S p ecifically, these hypotheses are categorized into one of five areas including ( 1 ) flows of social information inputs, ( 2 ) cognitive factors of impression formation, (3) order e ffects of information inputs, (4) perception of physical c h a ra c te ristic s, and (5) a ttrib u tio n or the perception of behavior. Flows of Social Information Inputs A If the s e lle r does not expect to have subsequent interactions with the buyer, the s e lle r r e s tr ic ts the flow of social in fo r mation inputs to the buyer less than if the s e lle r expects to have subsequent in teractio n with that buyer. A When the buyer does not an ticip ate future interaction with the s e lle r, the buyer r e s tr ic ts the flow of social information inputs to the s e lle r less than if the buyer does anticipate future in teractio n with that s e lle r. Cognitive Factors of Impression Formation A The buyer's impression of the s e lle r is a summation of the

218 2 0 3 social information inputs acquired by the buyer. A The buyer forms an impression of the s e lle r by averaging the social Information inputs received about the s e lle r. A Based upon a re la tiv e ly small set of central c h a ra c te ristic s, the buyer forms a larg er, more comprehensive impression of the s e lle r. A A fter a buyer has formed an unfavorable impression of the s e lle r, the buyer r e s tr ic ts the flow of information to the s e lle r. A The level of a buyer's cognitive complexity is d ire c tly related to his (a) occupational le v el, (b) income, or (c) level of educational attainm ent. A Buyers view most se lle rs as being highly competitive. A The competitiveness of the buyer's personality is positively related to his perception of s e ll e r 's level of competitiveness. A The buyer's perception of the s e ll e r 's competitiveness is a function of the buyer's level of authoritarianism. Order E ffects of Information Inputs A In the buyer's Impression formation process there is a primacy e f f e c t. A If there is a primacy e ffe c t in the buyer's impression formation process, th is e ffe c t can be reduced by very extreme a ttitu d e statements on the part of the s e lle r. Perception of Physical C haracteristics A If a buyer is aware that an individual is a s e lle r, the buyer before verbally In teractin g with the s e lle r, makes personality inferences based upon observation of fa c ia l features of the s e lle r, and such inferences are d iffe re n t from those made when the buyer is not aware that the individual is a s e lle r. A The impression held by a black buyer toward a black s e lle r d if fers sig n ific a n tly from the impression held by a white buyer regarding the same black s e lle r. The degree of v aria tio n is a function of the degree of ra c ia l prejudice held by the white buyer. A When the s e lle r is physically stigm atized, the flow of information from the buyer to the s e lle r is re s tric te d.

219 A When the buyer is physically stigm atized, the flow of information from the buyer to the s e lle r is re s tric te d. 204 A ttrib u tio n : The Perception of Behavior A Assuming that a buyer, when a ttrib u tin g a ttitu d e s, c a p a b ilitie s, or intentions to the s e lle r, attempts to separate externally caused behavior from in tern ally caused behavior, environmental factors considered by the buyer are (a) v is ib le managerial pressure, (b) presence of other customers, and/or (c) the specific economic conditions of the industry. A To the extent that the s e lle r varies his overt behavior from "in -ro le" behavior, the buyer views the s e lle r 's behavior as being in tern ally caused. A If the s e lle r does not indicate personal involver^nt with the product which he is promoting, the buyer a ttrib u te s to the s e lle r an attitu d e regarding the product which is less favorable than if the s e lle r does indicate personal involvement with the product. A The age of the buyer is a determinant of the buyer's tendency to accurately separate intentional behavior from unintentional behavior on the part of the s e lle r. A When the s e lle r exhibits successful acts in the in i t i a l part of the in teractio n, the buyer a ttrib u te s capability to the s e lle r to a greater extent than if the s e lle r exhibits successful acts during other parts of the in teractio n. Interpersonal A ttraction In th is section hypotheses are suggested regarding selected v a r i ables and relationships pertaining to the buyer's assignment of a valance to his impression of the s e lle r. These hypotheses are c la ssifie d into the following areas: ( 1 ) perceived sim ila rity of the in teractan ts, ( 2 ) congruency of feelings, and (3) a ttrib u tio n of in te n tio n a lity. Perceived S im ilarity of the In teractan ts B To the extent th at the buyer perceives the s e lle r to have* a t t i tudes sim ilar to his own, the buyer assigns a positive valence to his impression of the s e lle r. B The degree of the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r, due to

220 205 perceived a ttitu d e sim ila rity, is a function of common in terest in the objects of the a ttitu d e s perceived to be sim ilar. B Assuming (a) that environmental facto rs, such as the internal decor of a r e t a i l o u tle t, affect a buyer's emotional sta te, and (b) th at an in d iv id u al's emotional sta te influences the degree of a ttra c tio n created by perceived a ttitu d e sim ila rity, a pleasant in -sto re decor causes a buyer to find a specific s a le s man to be more a ttra c tiv e than if the decor is depressing. B The degree to which a white buyer is ra c ia lly prejudiced is negatively related to his perceived s im ila rity of attitu d e s held by a black s e lle r. B Due to the general relatio n sh ip s between personality sim ilarity and a ttra c tio n, an introverted buyer is more a ttra c te d to an introverted s e lle r than to an extroverted s e lle r. B As the buyer's m aturity level increases, perceived personality sim ila rity becomes less important as a determinant of a s e lle r 's a ttra c tiv e n e s s. B An extroverted buyer is a ttra c te d to an extroverted s e lle r, while an introverted buyer is a ttra c te d to an introverted s e lle r. Congruency of Feelings B When the s e lle r demonstrates a gain in esteem for the buyer, the buyer is move a ttra c te d to the s e lle r than if the s e lle r ex h ib its a constant level of a ttra c tio n toward the buyer. A ttribution of In te n tio n a lity B The buyer does not to ta lly discount the s e l l e r 's in g ratiatin g messages, and thus is attra c te d to the s e lle r to a greater extent than i f the s e lle r does not use an in g ra tia tio n ta c tic. B If the buyer perceives the s e lle r to exhibit discernment in his evaluation of the other persons, the buyer is more attracted to the s e lle r when the s e lle r expresses liking for that buyer. A ttraction E ffects on the Buyer As indicated in the analysis of the model, the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r may have ( 1 ) behavioral e ffects and ( 2 ) cognitive e ffects on the buyer. Since fu rth er research is necessary to provide stronger support for the propositions regarding these e ffe c ts, several

221 206 hypotheses are suggested. Behavioral Effects of A ttraction C A ttraction toward the s e lle r causes the buyer to become more cooperative. C The degree to which the buyer exhibits cooperative behavior, due to his a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r, is a function of the competitiveness of the buyer's personality. C If the buyer is attra c te d to the s e lle r, the strength of the valence which the buyer assigns to his expectations regarding subsequent interactions with that s e lle r vary d ire c tly with the strength of a ttra c tio n. C The buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r reduces the amount of aggressive behavior exhibited toward the s e lle r. C A ttraction toward the s e lle r causes the buyer to be more compliant regarding the s e ll e r 's requests. Cognitive Effects of A ttractio n C A ttraction toward the s e lle r causes the buyer to d is to rt the message of the s e lle r in the d irectio n of the buyer's own position. Likewise, re je c tio n of the s e lle r causes the buyer to misperceive the content of the s e ll e r 's message in a direction away from his own position. C If the buyer is committed to deal with the s e lle r due to contracts or lack of other a lte rn a tiv e s, the buyer's su sc e p tib ility to a ttitu d e change attempts increases re la tiv e ly as his a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r decreases beyond a ce rta in level. C When the buyer is ego-involved with the content of the s e lle r 's message, a buyer who is a ttracted to a s e lle r is less susceptible to a ttitu d e change attempts made by the s e lle r. C The a ttitu d e change e ffects of a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r increase to the extent th a t the s e ll e r 's desire to influence is more e x p lic it. C If the buyer is a ttra c te d to the s e lle r, the buyer is more lik ely to perceive the s e lle r to have a ttitu d e s which are sim ilar to his own a ttitu d e s than if the buyer is not attra c te d to the s e lle r.

222 207 Proposed Methodologies for Selected Hypotheses The hypotheses set forth in the la s t section are presented as suggestions for further research. In order to promote and f a c ilita te fu rth er research in these areas, several methodologies for selected hypotheses are set fo rth. The major purpose for developing and presenting these methodologies is to indicate that the hypotheses are feasible and te sta b le. The hypotheses for which methodologies are presented, have been selected on the basis of illu s tr a tin g the fe a s ib ility of hypotheses in a large proportion of the categories and on the basis of demons tra tin g th at these hypotheses may be tested in a number of settings including fie ld experiments, classroom research, and behavioral laboratory experiments. The hypothesis to be tested by a sp ecific methodology is id e n tifie d according to its reference number found in the hypotheses section of th is chapter. The Buyer's Expectations of Future In teractio n and the Flow of Information Inputs Based upon the discussion of the flows of social information inputs in the i n i t i a l part of Chapter IV there appears to be empirical support for the b e lie f that a buyer's expectations regarding the existence of future interactions affects his behavior during i n i t i a l interaction. The sp ecific hypothesis to be tested is when the buyer does not a n tic i pate future in teractio n with the s e lle r, the buyer r e s tr ic ts the flow of social information inputs to the s e lle r less than if the buyer does a n ticipate future in teractio n with th at s e lle r (A.1.2). This hypothesis could be tested at an academic in s titu tio n in a behavioral laboratory. The subjects could be acquired through an

223 2 0 8 advertisement in the college newspaper. The message in the ad vertisement in the newspaper would s ta te that a certain individual is seeking persons who wish to p a rtic ip a te in a series of experiments for unspecified compensation. (The reference to the series of experiments could be hypoth e tic a l or in fact the respondents could be used for subsequent experiments). When the applicants contact the researcher to inquire about the research program, each applicant would be subjected to one of two tr e a t ments. Half of the applicants would be placed into the experimental group while the other h alf of the applicants would become the control group. Each person in both groups would be asked to go into a room with the salesman so that he could explain the research program. In order to maintain some degree of consistency the same person should act as the salesman for a ll persons interviewed. The salesman would explain, in general terms, certain aspects of the research program to each ap p licant. Subjects in the experimental group at the outset would be told th at the en tire program would be explained at that time if they were interested in p a rtic ip a tin g, they would need to commit themselves a t that time. In addition, the salesman would explain that regardless of the respondent's decision as to whether or not to p a rtic ip a te, the salesman and the subject would have no future in teractio n. In the control group each subject would je told at the outset that several meetings with the salesman would be necessary before the subject would be asked to decide whether he or she would prefer to p a rtic ip a te. A fter such a statem ent, each subject would be told about the requirements of the program. Both a hidden camera and a concealed tape recorder would be used

224 2 0 9 to record the behavior of each subject. A q u a lita tiv e analysis of the recorded data could be used to determine whether or not the subjects in the experimental group tend to be less restrained and inhibited as compared to subjects in the control group. In terms of q u an titativ e analysis several elements related to the flow of information would be analyzed. For each subject the factors to be analyzed would include (1) the number of times the subject i n i t i ated communication, (2) the duration of h is comments, and (3) the number of questions asked by the subject. Using a t- t e s t the researcher could compare the means of these factors for the experimental group with the means of the control group to determine if the differences are s ig n if i cant. The Buyer's Impression Formation Process and the Primacy E ffect The primacy effect has been found to dominate through several em pirical studies some of which were discussed in Chapter IV. However, an examination of the em pirical studies indicates that the order effects of information inputs pertaining to a salesman have not been investigated. Thus, a hypothesis which requires te stin g is that in the buyer's impression formation process there is a primacy effect (A.3.1). This hypothesis may be tested through a fie ld study. study in a sim plified form could be conducted by two persons. The fie ld One of the individuals, with the cooperation of a firm which markets its products by door-to-door se llin g, s e lls a product such a set of encyclopedias or a dictionary on a house-to-house basis. The behavior of the salesman as well as the sales presentation would have to be well planned and structured in order for each customer to be exposed to approximately the

225 210 same experimental treatm ent. One day a fte r the salesman called at a p a rtic u la r house, the second person would c a ll at the house at which the salesman was allowed to make a fu ll presentation. The second person, with the cooperation of the firm, would represent himself as being a fie ld supervisor for the company. The individual, acting as a fie ld supervisor, would ask customers questions regarding the sales presentation and th e ir impression of the salesman who had called the day before. In order to determine the existence of a primacy e ffe c t, the questions on the questionnaire would need to be keyed to the behavioral and sales presentation of the salesman. That is, some of the questions would need to be oriented toward both the salesmen's behavior during the i n i t i a l part of the presentation while other questions would be oriented toward his behavior during the la tte r portion of his presentation. By analyzing the respondent's answers for accuracy, the researcher should be able to determine whether the behavior and information presented to the buyer by the salesman during the i n i t i a l part of the presentation is more dominant than that presented in the la tte r p art of the presentation. A major problem with this type of fie ld study is the maintenance of consistency on the part of the salesman. Even though the sa le s man's behavioral program may be highly structured, he may experience d iffic u lty in exhibiting the same behavior to a ll customers. Personality Inferences as a Function of the S e lle r's Facial Features As indicated in the section which dealt with the perception of physical c h a ra c te ristic s, em pirical re su lts indicate that an individual makes inferences regarding another person's personality based upon the

226 2 1 1 facial features of the person. Based upon these findings the question may arise that if a buyer knows that an individual is a s e lle r, does such knowledge affect the buyer's impression of the s e ll e r 's personality when the impression is based upon observation of the s e ll e r 's facial fe a tu re s. The specific hypothesis to be tested is if the buyer is aware that an individual is a s e lle r, the buyer, before verbally in teractin g with the s e lle r, makes p ersonality inferences based upon observation of the fa c ia l features of the s e lle r, and such inferences are d iffere n t from those made when the buyer is not aware that the individual is a se lle r (A.4.1). To te s t th is hypothesis one possible approach is to perform the research in a behavioral laboratory. A fter selectin g the subjects on a probability basis, the subjects are divided into two groups. The settin g for the experiment is two rooms separated by a common p a rtitio n with a one-way m irror. On one side of the m irror is a male accomplice s ittin g in a chair. From the other side of the p a rtitio n only the face of the accomplice is v is ib le. Subjects in both the experimental group and control group are individually instructed to go into the room one at a time and to look at the man's face through the one-way m irror. A fter observing the man's face, each subject is asked to go into a third room and w rite out a b rief character sketch of the man. Subjects in the experimental group are told that the man is a salesman w aiting to see a faculty member. Subje cts in the control group are told that the man has an appointment and is w aiting to see a faculty member. A fter collecting the data the content of each character sketch

227 2 1 2 should be analyzed for terms which are descriptive of personality. The frequency of terms which describe personality should be recorded and tabulated w ithin groups. Upon completion of the within group tabulations, the terms and frequencies of use should be compared between the groups to determine if there are differences between the two groups. A ttrib u tio n of A ttitudes and the S e lle r's Expression of Personal Involvement with the Product In Chapter IV in the section dealing with the a ttrib u tio n of a ttitu d e s, em pirical re su lts suggested that when an individual does not exhibit personal commitment or involvement in performing his ro le, the perceiver of this person w ill a ttrib u te to him an attitu d e (or a t t i tudes) which is in opposition to the p o sition dictated by his role. The hypothesis to be tested by the methodology which follows is if the s e lle r does not indicate personal involvement with the product which he is promoting, the buyer a ttrib u te s to the s e lle r an attitu d e regarding the product which is less favorable than if the s e lle r does indicate personal involvement with the product (A.5.3). With the cooperation and assistance of the management of a r e t a i l home furnishings store th is hypothesis may be tested in a fie ld experiment. Through an agreement with a carpet salesman, the researcher would have the salesman u tiliz e two types of sales presentations. For approximately h alf of the customers, the control group, the sa le s man would make a sales presentation in which he would indicate a strong amount of personal involvement with the product. For example, he might indicate that he uses that p a rtic u la r type of carpeting in his own home and from that point, elaborate fu rth er regarding his personal experiences

228 213 with that type of carpeting. For the other customers, the experimental group, the salesman would make a sim ilar presentation but would not indicate any personal involvement with the product. Using the customer's names collected by the salesman, the r e searcher would adm inister a questionnaire to each of the subjects in th e ir own homes. Although the questionnaire might be disguised by containing a number of d iffere n t types of questions regarding the r e ta il store and the salesman, the researcher would include several questions regarding the salesman's attitu d e s toward the product. By comparing the means of the product a ttitu d e scores of the two groups through the use of a s t a t i s t i c a l te s t such as a t- t e s t, the researcher could determine if there is a sig n ific a n t difference in the a ttrib u tio n of product a ttitu d e s to the salesman due to the differences in the two sales presentations. Personality S im ilarity and S eller A ttractiveness As discussed in Chapter IV there is strong em pirical support for the proposition that persons with sim ilar a ttitu d e s are attra c te d to each other. Even though not as strong, em pirical findings suggest that persons with sim ilar p erso n alitie s tend to find each other a ttra c tiv e. The hypothesis to be tested by the following methodology is that an extroverted buyer is a ttra c te d to an extroverted s e lle r, while an in tro verted buyer is attra c te d to an introverted s e lle r (B.I.7.). A methodology to te st this hypothesis could be conducted in a classroom se ttin g. The researcher on a certain day would schedule two "outside" speakers to come into the class to make sales presentations. Although accomplices of the researcher, each speaker would be represented

229 214 us.i salesman from a new firm which is marketing a business news magazine. In addition the researcher would explain, prior to the arriv al of the speakers, th at the students would have an. opportunity to evaluate each salesman on his sales presentation. One or two class meetings prior to the appearances of the guest speakers, the researcher, under the guise of illu s tra tin g a personality te s t, would adm inister to the class the Mandsley Personality Inventory (MPI), a scale that measures the degree to which a subject is extroverted or introverted. One of the accomplices as he speaks to the class would portray an extroverted salesman while the other would behave in a rath er in tro verted manner. A fter the speakers have made th e ir presentations and have le ft the room, each student would be given two evaluation forms on which he would rank the salesmen. Each form would be a ratin g scale which would deal not only with the salesman's presentation but would also pertain to the attractiv en ess of the salesman to the evaluator. In order to analyze the re s u lts the students, based upon the MPI scores, could be divided into two groups, namely extroverts and in tro v erts. Based upon the a ttra c tio n questions on the evaluation forms, an a ttra c tio n score for each salesman could be determined for each subje c t. Using analysis of variance the researcher could determine whether there is a sig n ifican t difference between the two groups as to the a ttra c tio n scores assigned to both salesmen. The Effects of an In g ratiatio n Tactic on A ttraction Even though there is an old saying that " fla tte ry w ill get you

230 215 nowhere," maybe it will. At times a seller may use an ingratiation tactic in order to gain support from the buyer. The proposed hypothesis to be tested is that the buyer does not totally discount the seller's ingratiating messages, and thus is attracted to the seller to a greater extent than if the seller does not use an ingratiation tactic (B.3.I.). This hypothesis may be tested through a fie ld experiment. The researcher, through a special purchase agreement with a manufacturer, would buy one hundred manually operated food choppers to be sold on a door-to-door basis. He would also develop a "canned" sales presentation in which the salesman would periodically ask the customer to express an opinion. «The researcher would send two persons into the fie ld. One of the persons would attempt to s e ll the food choppers house-to-house using the sales presentation prepared by the researcher. Although the s a le s man would use the same sales presentation for a ll customers, at half of the houses when he asked for the housewife's opinion, he would agree outwardly with a ll of her opinions. When asking for the opinions of the other half of the housewives contacted, he would neither agree nor d isagree. Thus, for half of the customers, the salesman would use the in g ratiatio n ta c tic of opinion conformity. This group of customers would be the experimental group. The remainder of the customers would be the control group. Approximately twenty-four hours a fte r the salesman had called, the second person acting as a fie ld supervisor would call on the housewife and ask her to answer a few questions regarding the salesman who had called the day before. The questionnaire used by the fie ld representativ e would consist of both questions pertaining to the sales

231 216 presentation as well as questions relating to the seller's attractiveness. The questions regarding the seller's attractiveness would be so designed that the customer's answers could be converted into an attraction socre. To test for significance the researcher could use either a t-test or a one-way analysis of variance. A ttraction Toward the S eller and the Buyer's Compliance A discussion of the effects of a ttra c tio n in Chapter VI indicated that a ttra c tio n toward an individual tends to cause a person to be more compliant regarding the requests of that individual. The hypothesis to be tested is that a ttra c tio n toward the s e lle r causes the buyer to be more compliant regarding the s e ll e r 's requests (C.1.5). This hypothesis may be tested by using a fie ld experiment. The experiment would require the cooperation of management of an automobile agency. At times when one is looking at new automobiles, the salesmen w ill request him to take a te s t drive. In order to conduct this experiment the researcher would ask th a t the management (1) make a l i s t of persons' names who are requested to take te st drives and (2) record which persons comply with such requests and which persons do not comply. In addition the researcher would ask that the salesman not go with the customers on the te st drive. The researcher would design a questionnaire which would consist of questions regarding the buyer's attitu d e s about the product, the agency, and the salesman. Some of the questions pertaining to the salesman would deal sp e c ific a lly with measuring the buyer's a ttra c tio n toward the salesman. This questionnaire would be administered through personal interviews to both "compliant" and "non

232 217 comp I I.-mt" customers approximately twenty-tour hours a fte r the customers appeared at the automobile agency. The data could be analyzed by separating the subjects' responses into a "compliant group" and a "non-compliant group" and performing a statistical test of significance. A ttraction Toward the S eller and the Buyer's A ttribution of A ttitudes As pointed out in Chapter V there is strong em pirical support for the proposition that interpersonal a ttra c tio n is, to some extent, a function of a ttitu d e sim ila rity. The re su lts of several empirical studies discussed in Chapter VI suggest th at if a person is attracted to a certain individual, the person tends to a ttrib u te attitu d e s to that individual which are sim ilar to his own. The specific hypothesis to be tested by the methodology which follows is if the buyer is a t tr a c t ed to the s e lle r, the buyer is more lik ely to perceive the s e lle r to have a ttitu d es which are sim ilar to his own a ttitu d e s than if the buyer is not a ttracted to the s e lle r (C.2.5). A fie ld survey method could be used to te s t th is hypothesis. The researcher would need to gain the cooperation of the management of a firm which markets industrial goods through the use of field salesmen. Through personal interviewing the researcher would need to survey a salesman's customers who had been customers for at least one year. (The research could be expanded to survey the customers of several of the firm's salesmen). The instrument used in the personal interviews should have three purposes including (1) the measurement of the degree to which the buyer is attracted to the salesman who calls on him, (2) the measurement of selected attitudes which the buyer perceives the

233 2 1 8 salesman to possess, and (3) the measurement of selected attitudes of the buyer. Based upon the a ttra c tio n questions, each buyer's a ttra c tio n for the salesman could be established and expressed In an a ttra c tio n score. A measurement of sim ila rity of the buyer's a ttitu d e s and the a ttitu d e s he a ttrib u te s to the s e lle r could be performed through co rrelatio n analy sis. The determ ination of the degree to which a ttra c tio n and perceived a ttitu d e sim ila rity are related could be determined by attempting to co rrelate a ttra c tio n scores with the measures of perceived a ttitu d e sim ilarity. Conclusions The in teractio n model of buyer behavior was developed to deal with an area of consumer behavior which has been neglected in other buyer behavior models. Based upon the analyses of th is research, several conclusions may be set forth. F irs t, the models of buyer behavior, which have been presented in the past do not adequately focus upon the variab les which are unique to on-going buy er-seller in teractio n s. Second, the em pirical findings in the areas of psychology, social psychology, sociology, and anthropology are sig n ific a n t enough, in terms of quantity and q u ality, to provide ten tativ e support for the interaction model of buyer behavior. Third, the in teractio n model of buyer behavior, by iso la tin g and in te rre la tin g the variables which are determinants of the buyer's behavio ral payoff, provides a th e o re tic a l base from which a number of hypotheses may be derived for fu rth er research.

234 219 The goal of the researcher has been to develop a model which deals sp e c ific a lly with the variables and relationships of b uyer-seller in teractio n. I t is hoped that further research w ill be performed which focuses upon the hypotheses set forth in this chapter as well as other hypotheses which may be derived from the in teractio n model of buyer behavior.

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