Rule-Governed Behavior in Preschool Children

Transcription

1 Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Master's Theses Graduate College Rule-Governed Behavior in Preschool Children Cassandra Ann Braam Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Developmental Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Braam, Cassandra Ann, "Rule-Governed Behavior in Preschool Children" (1985). Master's Theses This Masters Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact

2 RULE-GOVERNED BEHAVIOR IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN by C assan d ra Ann Braam A T h e sis S u b m itted t o th e F a c u lty o f th e The G rad u ate C o lleg e in p a r t i a l f u lf i llm e n t o f th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r th e Degree o f M aster o f A rts D epartm ent o f P sychology W estern M ichigan U n iv e r s ity K alam azoo, M ichigan December 1985

3 RULE-GOVERNED BEHAVIOR IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN C assan d ra Ann Braam, M.A. W estern M ichigan U n iv e r s ity, 1985 The c o n tro l e x e r te d by d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f r u le s on th e b e h a v io r o f p re s c h o o l c h ild r e n was d eterm in e d. U sing a v a r ia tio n o f a m u ltie le m e n t d e s ig n, fo u r to p o g ra p h ic a lly s im i la r r u le s were p re s e n te d t o seven f o u r - y e a r - o ld c h i l d r e n. The r u le s v a r ie d in th e d e a d lin e s and d e la y o f consequences (re w a rd s) s p e c if ie d. The r e s u l t s showed t h a t : (a ) re q u e s ts o r mands s p e c ify in g only resp o n se re q u ire m e n ts g e n e r a lly e x e r te d p o o r c o n t r o l ; (b ) r u le s s p e c ify in g an im m ediate d e a d lin e and an im m ediate rew ard e x e rte d s tro n g c o n tro l; (c ) r u le s s p e c ify in g d e a d lin e s and a one-week d e la y o f th e rew ard e x e r te d good c o n t r o l ; and (d ) r u le s s p e c ify in g no d e a d lin e s f o r com p letio n and a one-w eek d e la y o f th e rew ard e x e rte d v ery l i t t l e c o n tr o l o v er b e h a v io r. D iffe re n c e s in th e c o n tro l e x e r te d by th e r u le s w ere due t o th e v a ry in g d eg rees o f developm ent o f sev en p r e r e q u i s i t e s.

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T h is re s e a rc h was supported, by th e s t a f f o f S t. Mark Is N u rsery S ch o o l, Grand R a p id s, M ichigan. My a p p r e c ia tio n goes t o Donna J a c q u ith and Suzanne Greydanus f o r t h e i r c o o p e ra tio n and f o r a llo w in g me t o conduct t h i s study in t h e i r c la ssro o m s. I w ould l i k e t o th a n k th e p a r e n t- a id e s who h e lp e d c o l l e c t d a ta f o r r e l i a b i l i t y. I would l i k e t o ex p re ss my g r a titu d e to R ic h a rd M a lo tt f o r h i s in v a lu a b le t h e o r e t i c a l and e d i t o r i a l g u id a n c e, and th e many h o u rs he has sp en t w ith me in p re p a rin g t h i s manus c r i p t. I would a ls o l i k e t o th a n k S teven Braam f o r h is p a tie n c e and s u p p o rt th ro u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h. F in a l ly, I w ould l i k e t o th a n k th e s tu d e n ts a t S t. Marks who p a r t i c i p a t e d, b o th d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y, in my s tu d y. C assan d ra Ann Braam R ep rod uced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

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7 Braam, Cassandra Ann RULE-GOVERNED BEHAVIOR IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN Western Michigan University M.A University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml R ep rod uced with perm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

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9 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i i LIST OF TABLES...'... iv CHAPTER.. I. INTRODUCTION... 1 I I. METHOD S u b je c ts S e ttin g and A p p aratu s G e n e ra l P ro c e d u re and D esign... 1^ E x p e rim e n ta l P h ases D ata C o lle c tio n a n d.i n te r o b s e r v e r Agreement I I I. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION F u tu re D ir e c tio n s i n R esearch REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHY... k2

10 LIST OF TABLES E x p erim en tal P hases Mean % T r i a ls w ith C om pletion Work P a tte rn s in No D ead lin e Phase iv

11 CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION We l i v e in an envirom ent in which im p o rta n t outcom es o f a p e r s o n 's a c tio n s o fte n f a i l to fu n c tio n as e f f e c t i v e consequences f o r th o s e b e h a v io rs. These outcom es, t h e r e f o r e, do n o t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t th e f u tu r e o c c u rre n c e s o f th e s e b e h a v io r s. T h is i s tr u e even when th e outcom es a re im p o rta n t to a p e r s o n 's w e ll-b e in g. F or exam ple, d a ily e x e r c is e can produce sm a ll e f f e c t s t h a t accum ulate and may r e s u l t in im p o rta n t h e a l t h - r e l a t e d outcom es, e.g., a lo n g e r l i f e and th e absence o f l i f e - s t y l e d is e a s e s such as a r t e r i o s c l e r o s i s. The problem w ith th e b e h a v io ra l co n tin g en cy d e s c rib e d i s t h a t, by i t s e l f, i t i s i n e f f e c t i v e in d ir e c tly c o n t r o l lin g b e h a v io r. M alo tt (198H) has su g g e ste d t h a t such a co n tin g e n c y i s i n e f f e c t i v e b ecause th e outcome i s to o d e la y e d, to o im p ro b a b le, o r to o sm a ll and o f o n ly cu m u lativ e s ig n if ic a n c e. However, in e f f e c t i v e c o n tin g e n c ie s can come t o i n d i r e c t l y c o n tro l b e h a v io r th ro u g h th e u se o f r u le s t h a t : (a ) s p e c ify th e r e la tio n s h ip o f th e outcom es to b e h a v io r, and (b ) p ro v id e a d i r e c t - a c t i n g co n tin g en cy in v o lv in g an e f f e c t i v e b e h a v io ra l consequence t h a t re in f o r c e s o r p u n ish e s th e c a u s a l resp o n se c l a s s. The b e h a v io ra l c o n cepts o f " r u le s " and " ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r" were f i r s t in tro d u c e d by B.F. S k in n e r (1953, 1969). A r u le i s a s ta te m e n t d e s c rib in g a b e h a v io ra l c o n tin g e n c y. R ules can v a ry in t h e i r fo rm al s tr u c t u r e from mands s p e c ify in g o n ly re sp o n se r e q u i r e - 1 R ep rod uced with perm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

12 2 merits t o com plete r u le s s t a t i n g th e consequence a resp o n se w ill p roduce in th e p re s e n c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r s tim u lu s. R u le- governed b e h a v io r i s, sim p ly, b e h a v io r u n d er th e c o n tro l o f such a n te c e d e n t s tim u li o r r u l e s. I t i s c o n tra s te d w ith b e h a v io r c o n tro lle d d i r e c t l y by ex p o su re t o th e consequences o r c o n tin g en cy-shaped b e h a v io r. R ules a re e f f e c t iv e in c o n t r o l lin g b e h a v io r t o th e e x te n t t h a t th e y s p e c ify re sp o n ses a lre a d y in th e p e r s o n 's r e p e r t o i r e a n d, a l s o, t o th e e x te n t t h a t b e h a v io ra l p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r c o n tr o l b y r u le s have b een d ev elo p ed. At l e a s t sev en p r e r e q u i s i t e s can be p o s tu la te d f o r e f f e c t iv e c o n tro l by r u l e s d e s c r ib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s ( M a lo tt, 198U ). The f i r s t p r e r e q u i s i te i s ad eq u a te language s k i l l s must be p r e s e n t. The second p r e r e q u i s i t e i s a la rg e numb e r o f s p e c if i c r u le s o r in s tr u c tio n s m ust c o n tr o l b e h a v io r. These ty p e o f r u le s u s u a lly d e s c rib e " d ir e c t - a c tin g " c o n tin g e n c ie s. F or exam ple, su ch r u le s as "Go g e t y o u r s h o e s," "D o n 't to u c h th e h o t s to v e, o r y o u w i l l g e t b u rn e d," e t c., m ust c o n tro l b e h a v io r. C o n tro l by such r u le s can be e s ta b lis h e d by r e in f o r c in g th e em issio n o f re sp o n ses t h a t c o rre s p o n d and p u n ish in g re sp o n se s t h a t do n o t c o rre sp o n d t o th e re s p o n ses d e s c rib e d in th e r u l e s. A d d itio n a lly, c o n tro l may be e s t a b l i s h e d by a llo w in g c o n ta c t w ith consequences t h a t n a t u r a l l y o c c u r when th e r u le i s fo llo w e d o r n o t fo llo w e d, e.g., " I f you t a s t e t h i s a p p le, you w i l l l i k e it." A t h i r d p r e r e q u i s i t e i s th e e x is te n c e o f g e n e ra liz e d r u le c o n tro l. T h a t i s, a p e rs o n em its th e b e h a v io r d e s c rib e d in n o v el

13 3 in s ta n c e s o f g e n e ra l c la s s e s o f r u l e s. P a re n ts fre q u e n tly use r u le s such as "D o n 't to u c h th e p l a n t," " D o n 't h i t y o u r s i s t e r, " e t c. They a ls o te n d to r e in f o r c e a p p ro p ria te re sp o n ses and p u n ish in a p p ro p ria te re s p o n s e s. E v e n tu a lly th e r u l e fram e " D o n 't,..." w ith a new re sp o n se s p e c if i e d, comes t o. c o n t r o l - th e - 'c h i ld 's 'b e h a v i o r, even i f th e c h ild has n e v e r h e a rd th e s p e c i f i c r u le b e fo re. The f i n a l fo u r p r e r e q u i s i te s a re r e l a t e d t o self-m anagem ent. They may be c r i t i c a l f o r c o n tr o l by r u le s d e s c r ib in g i n d i r e c t - a c tin g c o n tin g e n c ie s, b e c a u se an e x te r n a l b e h a v io r m anager is o fte n n o t p r e s e n t. A f o u r th p r e r e q u i s i t e i s : t h a t in ;th e p re se n c e o f c e r t a in cues a p e rso n s t a t e s r u le s and o th e r r e le v a n t " in s t r u c t i o n s," and asks r e le v a n t q u e s tio n s. P a re n ts can t r a i n t h i s r e p e r t o ir e by p ro b in g, p ro m p tin g, r e in f o r c in g, and m odeling r u le s ta te m e n ts, s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n s, and q u e s tio n a s k in g. F or exam ple, on g e t tin g up in th e m orning a p a re n t can a sk t h e i r c h ild to s t a t e th e r u le s r e le v a n t to g e t tin g t o sch o o l on tim e. They can prom pt and r e in f o r c e such re sp o n ses as "What tim e do I have to be a t s c h o o l? ", "What tim e i s i t now?", "How lo n g w i l l i t ta k e me t o g e t re a d y? ", "What sh o u ld I do f i r s t? ", e t c. The p a r e n t can a ls o model s im ila r sta te m e n ts o u t lo u d, in r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r own be-' h a :v io r. S e lf - e v a lu a tio n i s a p o s tu la te d f i f t h. p r e r e q u i s i t e. T o r control" by r u le s d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s. T hat i s, a p e r son sh o u ld d eterm in e th e co rresp o n d en ce o f t h e i r re sp o n se s to th e re sp o n se s d e s c rib e d in th e r u l e. P a re n ts can h e lp to develop such

14 k a r e p e r t o ir e by p ro m p tin g, r e in f o r c in g, and m odeling a c c u r a te.- s e lf - -- e v a lu a tio n s. A s ix th p r e r e q u i s i t e i s th e s e l f - d e l i v e r y b'f consequences (e.g., r e in f o r c in g o r p u n is h in g ) c o n tin g e n t on s e lf - e v a lu a tio n s. When h e lp in g t o develop such a r e p e r t o i r e, p a re n ts can r e in f o r c e t h e i r c h i ld r e n 's a p p ro p ria te s e l f - c r i t i c i s m s and s e l f - p r a i s e. In a d d itio n, a p a r e n t can m odel th e s e resp o n ses by o v e r tly p r a is i n g o r c r i t i c i z i n g, t h e i r own b e h a v io r s. The f i n a l p r e r e q u i s i t e p o s tu la te d i s th e e x is te n c e o f e f f e c t i v e b e h a v io ra l co n seq u en c es. O bviously f o r a young c h ild a wide, range o f s tim u li f u n c tio n and can come t o fu n c tio n as e f f e c t i v e conseq u en ces, e.g., fo o d, t o y s, h u g s, e t c. However, some s t i m u l i, such as p r a is e from te a c h e r s o r s e l f - p r a i s e may n eed t o become e s ta b lis h e d as e f f e c t i v e co n seq u en ces. T h is re q u ire s s p e c ia l h i s t o r i e s w herein i n e f f e c t i v e consequences a re p a ir e d w ith e f f e c t i v e consequences and th e n, become e f f e c t i v e th e m se lv e s. Assuming o p e ra tiv e p r e r e q u i s i t e s, how ever, does n o t e x p la in how r u le s c o n tr o l b e h a v io r. One a n a ly s is o f how r u le s ta te m e n t m ight c o n tro l b e h a v io r i s made (M a lo tt, 1981+).in term s o f an e s t a b l i s h i n g o p e ra tio n (M ic h a e l, ). A ccording t o such an a n a l y s i s, th e s ta te m e n t o f a r u le fu n c tio n s as a m o tiv a tin g o p e ra tio n w hich cau ses th e c o n d itio n o f noncom pliance w ith th e r u le t o become a c o n d itio n e d a v e rs iv e e v e n t, w hich th e n e s ta b l is h e s a d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c y, one t h a t p u n ish e s; such noncom pliance o r one whose te rm i n a tio n r e in f o r c e s c o m p lia n c e. F o r exam ple, a s t u d e n t 's a d v is o r.

15 5 m ight s t a t e t h i s r u l e, " I f you s t a r t w r itin g y o u r th e s i s in Septe m b e r, th e n you m ight f i n i s h i t by December and g r a d u a te. I f th e December d e a d lin e i s c r i t i c a l, such a r u le w ould p ro b a b ly g e n e ra te some " a n x ie ty " and n e g a tiv e s e lf - s ta te m e n ts a b o u t n o t g ra d u a tin g in December. In t h i s way w r itin g th e t h e s i s w i l l be d i r e c t l y rein-^ fo rc e d by an im m ediate and s iz e a b le re d u c tio n in th e a n x ie ty p ro duced by th e r u le s ta te m e n t. An a n a ly s is o f ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r w i l l n o t be com plete w ithout- knowing th e c r i t i c a l com ponents w ith in r u l e s. A th e o r e t i c a l a n a ly s is o f a d u lt ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r and self-m a n a g e ment su g g e sts t h a t one im p o rta n t is s u e t o c o n s id e r i s th e r o le o f d e a d lin e s (M a lo tt, in p r e s s ). F o r exam ple, i n a PSI c o lle g e co u rse th e g e n e ra l r u le i s, "You can ta k e th e t e s t s f o r th e co u rse w henever you w a n t." R esearch h a s shown t h a t many s tu d e n ts p r o c r a s tin a te u n t i l th e end o f th e s e m e s te r b e fo re e m ittin g th e a p p ro p ria te t e s t - ta k in g b e h a v io rs. A lso, some s tu d e n ts g e t an " in c o m p le te," b ecause th e y do n o t ta k e a l l th e r e q u ir e d t e s t s b e fo re th e end o f th e sem est e r. The r u le s com bined w ith th e c o n tin g e n c ie s d e s c rib e d c o n tro l t e s t - t a k i n g b e h a v io r much l e s s e f f e c t i v e l y b e c a u se th e y d id n o t i n v olve fre q u e n t d e a d lin e, as t r a d i t i o n a l c o lle g e c o u rse s do. I t was p re v io u s ly s u g g e s te d th a t d e la y e d outcomes make b e h a v io r a l c o n tin g e n c ie s i n e f f e c t i v e in d i r e c t l y c o n t r o l lin g b e h a v io r. C asual o b s e rv a tio n, h o w ev er, s u g g e sts t h a t f o r r u le s t h i s i s n o t th e c a s e. T hat i s, r u le s d e s c rib in g d e la y e d consequences and deadl i n e s a re e f f e c t i v e in i n d i r e c t l y c o n tro llin g b e h a v io r. F or exam ple,

16 6 th e b e h a v io r o f m ost a d u lts i s e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l le d by t h i s r u l e, " F ile y o u r income ta x by A p ril 15 in o rd e r t o g e t a re fu n d and to av o id p o s s ib le f in a n c i a l p e n a l i t i e s. " ' To d a te, l i t t l e re s e a rc h has been co n d u cted on ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r. The e x p e rim e n ta l and a p p lie d l i t e r a t u r e has has fo cu sed on " i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n t r o l," "co rresp o n d en ce t r a i n i n g, " and " s e l f - c o n tr o l" s tu d ie s. One o f th e r e l a t i v e l y few s tu d ie s p u rp o rtin g t o stu d y ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r was in th e e x p e rim e n ta l l i t e r a t u r e ( G a liz io, 1979). In a s e r i e s o f fo u r ex p e rim e n ts th e e x p e rim e n te r com pared re sp o n d in g on an avoidance sc h e d u le u n d e r th e fo llo w in g c o n d itio n s : (a ) in s tr u c tio n s v s. no i n s t r u c t i o n s ; (b ) c o n ta c t and no c o n ta c t (no p o in ts lo s s ) c o n d itio n s ; (c ) a c c u ra te v s. in a c c u ra te i n s t r u c t i o n s ;..arid (d ) a c c u ra te in s tr u c tio n s dependent upon an o b serv in g re sp o n s e. The r e s u l t s, a c c o rd in g to th e e x p e rim e n te r, in d ic a te d th a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n tro l in v o lv e s ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r, and th e r e s u l t s a ls o su g g e ste d ways in w hich th e s u b j e c t s ' re in fo rc e m e n t h i s t o r i e s in flu e n c e su b se q u en t ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r. O th er re c e n t re s e a rc h h as d e a l t w ith th e d u a l is s u e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n tro l and human s e n s i t i v i t y t o sc h e d u le s o f re in fo rc e m e n t (B u s k is t, B e n n e tt, & M ille r, 1981; S h im o ff/..c a ta n ia, & M atthew s, 1981; B radshaw, S z a b a d i, Bevan, & R uddle, 1979). The f in d in g s o f th e s e s tu d ie s in d ic a te t h a t : (a ) human sc h e d u le p erfo rm ance i s s e n s itiv e t o th e c o n tin g e n c ie s and does n o t d i f f e r from in fra -h u m a n o rg an ism s, and (b) d e v ia tio n s re p o rte d in e a r l i e r s tu d ie s w ere due t o p ro c e d u ra l v a r i a b l e s, i.e., th e i n s t r u c t i o n s. These e x p e rim e n ta l s t u d i e s, how ever,

17 7 do n o t seem t o b e d i r e c t l y r e le v a n t t o an u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e fu n d a m ental mechanisms o r th e p r e r e q u i s i t e r e p e r t o i r e s n e c e s s a ry f o r th e c o n tro l o f b e h a v io r by r u l e s. P erhaps more r e le v a n t to t h i s a n a ly s is o f th e p r e r e q u i s i te s f o r c o n tro l by r u le s a re s tu d ie s d e a lin g w ith self-m anag em ent. P rev io u s re s e a rc h in d ic a te s t h a t b y t h e age o f fo u r th e p o s tu la t e d seven p r e r e q u i s i te s can a lre a d y be d e v e lo p e d, t o v a iy in g d e g re e s. C asu al o b se rv a tio n in d ic a te s t h a t language i s w e ll-d e v elo p ed by fo u r. B eh av io r r a t i n g s c a le s such as th e P o rta g e Guide ( S h e a re r, ), d e fin e a w ide range o f languag e s k i l l s t h a t are o b serv ed in f o u r - y e a r - o ld s. F o r exam ple, by f o u r, c h ild re n answ er sim ple q u e s tio n s, co n v erse about im m ediate e x p e rie n c e s, use some common i r r e g u l a r p l u r a l s, e t c. However, i t rem ains t o be d eterm ined w hich components w ith in a language r e p e r t o ir e a re c r i t i c a l f o r c o n tro l by r u le s d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s. C o n sid e ra b le l i t e r a t u r e has shown t h a t c h ild r e n as young as fo u r can be ta u g h t to fo llo w i n s t r u c t i o n s. In an e a r ly stu d y by B aer & Sherman (196U) i n s t r u c t i o n s were u se d w ith s o c ia l r e in f o r c e ment t o develop g e n e ra liz e d im ita tio n. The i n s t r u c t i o n was "Can. you do t h i s?, fo llo w ed b y a p u p p et m o d e llin g th e resp o n se to be im ita te d. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s stu d y d e m o n stra te d th e co n cep t o f a resp o n se c l a s s. A re sp o n se c la s s i s a group o f re sp o n se s which develop to g e th e r, even th o u g h only some o f th e re sp o n se s a re d i r e c t l y c o n seq u a te d. I t a ls o d em o n strated th a t fo u r - y e a r - o ld s can come u n d er th e c o n tro l o f g e n e r a liz e d r u l e s, in t h i s case mands s p e c ify in g th e resp o n se t h a t a c h ild s h o u ld e m it. L i t t l e,

18 i f any re s e a rc h has been done on r u le s o r d e m o n stra tin g g e n e r a liz e d c o n tro l b y r u le s u s in g th e a u t o c l i t i c fram e (S k in n e r, 1957, p. 3 6 l) o f " I f... th e n," s p e c ify in g th e resp o n se t o b e e m itte d and th e c o n seq u en c es. S e v e ra l s tu d ie s have fo c u se d on p r e s c h o o le r s ' use o f " s e l f - in s tr u c tio n s " in d ic a tin g t h a t f o u r-y e a r-o ld s can a c q u ire such a r e p e r t o ir e (B o m s te in & Q u e v illo n, 1976; M isch el & P a tte r s o n, 1976; I s r a e l & O 'L eary, 1973; L ovaas, 196U). In t h e i r s tu d y B o r s te in & Q uevillori' s u c c e s s f u lly t r a i n e d th re e h y p e ra c tiv e f o u r - y e a r - o ld boys to use s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n s t o in c re a s e t h e i r " o n -ta s k " b e h a v io r. M ischel & P a tte r s o n ta u g h t p re s c h o o l c h ild r e n t o s e l f - i n s t r u c t to r e s i s t th e te m ta tio n o f g o in g " o f f - t a s k." They found th a t th e c h ild re n who e m itte d s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n s d id n o t go " o f f - ta s k " as o f te n o r f o r as lo n g p e rio d s o f tim e as c h ild r e n who d id n o t em it s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n s. F o u r-y e a r-o ld s have a ls o been ta u g h t t o g iv e a c c u ra te r e p o r ts o f t h e i r b e h a v io r. R is le y & H art (1968) rew arded p re s c h o o le rs f o r a c c u ra te r e p o r ts on th e to y s th e y p la y e d w ith. As a r e s u l t, th e c h ild re n in c re a s e d th e accuracy o f t h e i r r e p o r t s. C h ild re n as young as fo u r y e a rs ta n g ib le re w a rd s. o f age have le a r n e d, a l s o, t o s e l f - d e l i v e r In a s tu d y by Drabman, S p i t a l n i k, & O 'L eary ( ), h y p e ra c tiv e c h ild re n w ere ta u g h t t o e f f e c t i v e l y s e l f d e l iv e r rew ards b a sed on t h e i r s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n s. The r e s u l t s o f th e stu d y showed th e m aintenance o f a c c u ra te s e lf - r e w a r d s f o r tw e lv e days a f t e r re in fo rc e m e n t h ad been rem oved. F i n a l l y, M a s te rs,

19 Furman, & B arden (1977) d em o n strated t h a t even f o r f o u r - y e a r - o ld s, s e l f - p r a i s e can "be as e f f e c t i v e a consequence as to k e n s. No r e s e a r c h, how ever, c o u ld he found in v o lv in g th e t r a i n i n g o f c h ild r e n, o f any a g e, t o s e l f - d e l i v e r p u n is h in g c o n seq u en c es, e.g., n e g a tiv e s e l f - s t a t e m e n t s. E xcept f o r s e v e r a l s tu d ie s w ith c o lle g e s tu d e n ts, th e r e has been no re s e a rc h s p e c i f i c a l l y a d d re s s in g th e is s u e o f d e a d lin e s in r u l e s. These s tu d i e s, how ev er, fo cu sed on th e e f f e c t s o f e x t e r n a lly im posed d e a d lin e s on i n t r i n s i c i n t e r e s t in a ta s k (A m abile,' D ejong, & L ep p e r, 1976; D e c i, ). Two s tu d ie s w ith p re s c h o o l c h ild r e n have exam ined th e is s u e o f rew ard d e la y and have in a d v e r te n tly e x p lo re d th e is s u e o f d eadl i n e s and ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r. In a s tu d y b y F ow ler: & B aer ( l9 8 l) " d e la y e d re in fo rc e m e n t" was p ro p o sed as an e f f e c t i v e resp o n se g e n e ra l i z a t i o n te c h n iq u e. G iven th e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s itio n p re s e n te d in t h i s p a p e r, th e r e a re s e v e r a l problem s w ith t h i s s tu d y. The te rm "d e la y e d re in fo rc e m e n t" seems in a c c u r a te, b ecause th e consequences d e liv e r e d by th e e x p e rim e n te rs w ere to o d elay ed t o d i r e c t l y a f f e c t o r " r e in f o r c e " th e c a u s a l re sp o n se s c l a s s e s. th e te rm "d e la y e d outcom e" be u sed i n s te a d. I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t The co n cept o f a re sp o n se b e in g d i r e c t l y c o n tro lle d (i.e., r e in fo rc e d ) by a d e la y e d outcom e, a l s o, does n o t f i t in w ith th e t h e o r e t i c a l view p re s e n te d in t h i s p a p e r. I n s te a d, i t i s su g g e ste d t h a t d e la y e d outcomes " i n d ir e c tly " c o n tr o l b e h a v io r. In d is c u s s in g th e r e s u l t s th e a u th o rs su g g e st t h a t th e g e n e r a liz a tio n o f rep o n ses a c ro s s s e t t i n g s

20 was due t o e i t h e r in d is c r im in a b le re in fo rc e m e n t c o n tin g e n c ie s (i.e., th e c h ild r e n co u ld n o t t a c t th e c o n tin g e n c ie s in e f f e c t ) o r t o a d v e n tito u s re in fo rc e m e n t. However, th e y a ls o p r e s e n t, and su b s e q u e n tly d is m is s, w hat may be th e a c tu a l v a r ia b le s c o n t r o l lin g th e re s p o n s e s, t h a t i s, r u l e s. The " in s t r u c t i o n a l p r o p e r tie s " o f th e d a ily t r a i n i n g s e s s io n s a re p o s tu la te d as f a c to r s in g e n e r a liz a tio n. The i n s tr u c tio n s th e y r e f e r r e d t o w ere d a ily rem inders f o r th e c h i l dren t o engage in th e t a r g e t b e h a v io rs a s p e c i f i c number o f tim e s in th e c lassro o m. These in s tr u c tio n s s p e c if ie d th e.b e h a v io rs th e c h i ld sh o u ld e m it, b u t d id n o t s p e c if y any tim e lim its o r d e a d lin e s f o r re s p o n d in g. The a u th o rs a ls o d is c u s s t h a t th e e x p e rim e n te r's feed b a ck, in some c a s e s, d e s c rib e d th e perfo rm ance re q u ir e d in l a t e r s e s s io n s an d, t h e r e f o r e, may have "ex ten d e d th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l e f f e c t. " They even e x p la in t h i s e x te n sio n in term s o f a s e t t i n g e v e n t o r w hat can now b e c o n s id e re d an e s ta b l is h in g o p e ra tio n (M ic h a e l, ). T hus, a lth o u g h th e a u th o rs d ism isse d t h e i r own e x p la n a tio n s, th e v a r ia b le s p ro b a b ly c o n tro llin g th e re sp o n ses th e y o b se rv e d w ere th e " in s tr u c t io n s " s t a t i n g th e re sp o n se s t o be e m itte d, b u t w ith o u t d e a d lin e s. From th e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s itio n and a n a ly se s p re s e n te d in t h i s p a p e r, th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r stu d y a re p r e d ic ta b le and n o tew o rth y f o r reaso n s d i f f e r e n t th a n Fow ler & B aer had a n t ic ip a te d. In th e second s tu d y M ischel & P a tte r s o n (19?6) exam ined th e r o le o f s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n s in d e la y in g g r a t i f i c a t i o n, i.e., w a itin g f o r a d e la y e d rew ard. A lthough com plete r u le s were g iv en to th e R ep rod uced with perm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

21 11 c h i ld r e n, no a tte m p t was made t o an aly ze th e e f f e c t s o f th e s e r u le s on th e b e h a v io r o f th e c h ild r e n o r to s p e c u la te on th e c r i t i c a l comp o n en ts w ith in th e r u l e s. The above r e s e a r c h, th e n, showed t h a t by th e age o f fo u r c h ild r e n can be exposed t o a b e h a v io ra l h is to r y th e y can develop a l l o f th e seven p o s tu la te d p r e r e q u i s i te s f o r c o n tro l by ru le s d e s c r ib in g b o th d i r e c t - and i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s. I t can f u r t h e r be p o s tu la te d t h a t th e r e i s a c o r r e l a tio n betw een th e e a r l y a c q u is itio n o f th e s e p r e r e q u i s i te s and c o n tr o l by ru le s d e s c r ib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s. C asu al o b s e rv a tio n s, how ev er, su g g e sts t h a t many fo u r-y e a r-o ld s a re n o t n o rm ally tr a i n e d in th e c r i t i c a l self-m anagem ent s k i l l s. T h at i s, few p a re n ts o r te a c h e rs s y s te m a tic a lly te a c h young c h ild re n t o s e l f - i n s t r u c t, s e l f - e v a l u a t e, o r s e l f - d e l i v e r co n seq u en ces. C asual o b s e rv a tio n s a ls o s u g g e s t t h a t th e b e h a v io r o f many a d u lts i s n o t e f f e c t i v e l y c o n tr o lle d by some r u le s d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s, i.e., r u le s d e s c rib in g no d e a d lin e s. T h e re fo re, a te c h n o lo g y needs to be d ev elo p ed f o r e f f e c t i v e l y tr a i n i n g th e p r e r e q u i s i te s and b r in g i n g 't h e b e h a v io r o f young c h ild re n u n d er th e 'c o n tr o l 'o f r u le s d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s. B efore t h i s te c h n o lo g y can be d e v e lo p e d, how ever, more re s e a rc h on ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r needs to be co n d u cted. The re s e a rc h p re s e n te d in t h i s p a p e r i s a b e g in n in g e f f o r t to s y s te m a tic a lly o b serv e and d e s c rib e th e a c q u is itio n o f ru le -g o v e rn e d b e h a v io r i n young c h ild r e n. In a d d itio n, i t p ro v id e s an ex p erim en -

22 12 t a l a n a ly s is o f v a rio u s ty p e s o f r u le s th ro u g h th e m a n ip u la tio n o f v a rio u s components w ith in th e r u l e s. S p e c i f i c a l l y, t h i s r e s e a rc h in v e s t ig a t e s : (a ) w h eth er fo u r - y e a r - o ld s can come under th e cont r o l o f n o v el r u le s d e s c rib in g d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s (i.e., i s th e r e g e n e ra liz e d c o n tr o l by r u le s d e s c r ib in g d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s? ; (b) w h eth er a wide v a r i a b i l i t y i s o b serv ed among fo u r-y e a r-o ld s in th e developm ent o f g e n e r a liz e d c o n tr o l by m ands, i.e., r u le s d e s c rib in g o n ly re sp o n se re q u ire m e n ts and im ply in g s o c ia l co n sequences; (c ) w h eth er a w ide v a r i a b i l i t y i s o b serv ed in th e e x te n t to w hich th e b e h a v io r o f f o u r - y e a r - o ld s comes under th e c o n tr o l o f some r u ie s d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s, e.g., ru le s d e s c rib in g no d e a d lin e and d e la y e d consequences (re w a rd s ); and (d ) w h eth er th e r e is le s s v a r i a b i l i t y and b e t t e r c o n tro l e x e rte d by o th e r r u le s d e s c r ib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s, e.g., r u le s d e s c rib in g im m ediate d e a d lin e s and d elay ed consequences (re w a rd s).

23 CHAPTER I I METHOD S u b je c ts The c h ild r e n in t h i s stu d y were s tu d e n ts a t S t. Mark s N ursery School in Grand R a p id s, M ichigan. from th r e e - a n d - a - h a lf t o fo u r y e a rs o f a g e. They ran g ed in age A t o t a l o f e ig h t c h ild re n ( f o u r boys and fo u r g i r l s ) w ere r e c r u i te d ; two from one c la s s and s i x from a n o th e r. The c h ild re n w ere chosen b a sed on o b s e rv a tio n s o f t h e i r co m p letio n o f ta s k s as re q u e s te d by th e te a c h e r. Three c h ild r e n w ere chosen b ecause o f t h e i r h ig h f r e quency o f com p letin g c le a n -u p t a s k s. T hree c h ild re n were chosen b ecause th e y com pleted few o f th e ta s k s th e te a c h e r re q u e s te d. Two c h ild r e n s e l f - r e c r u i t e d, t h a t i s, ask ed t o jo i n th e stu d y a f t e r i t was in p r o g r e s s. S e ttin g and A pparatus The sc h o o l i s a co-op p re s c h o o l f o r norm al c h ild r e n. Each c la s s t y p i c a l l y c o n ta in s c h ild r e n. One te a c h e r runs each c l a s s, w ith th e h e lp o f th r e e p a r e n t - a id e s. The e x p e rim e n te r cond u c te d th e stu d y in fo u r c la ssro o m s. A box c a l le d th e "Magic Box" was u se d ; i t c o n ta in e d th e fo llo w in g ite m s : s t i c k e r s, sta m p e rs, to p s, m agnets, b a llo o n s, s k in d e c a ls, c ra y o n s, l i t t l e d in o sau rs and c a r s, a V iew m aster (to y s l i d e 13

24 lu v iew er), and a to y movie v iew er. A d d itio n a lly, th e experim en ter used a v a rie ty o f to y s found in th e p re sch o o l. were p ick ed up. I n i t i a l l y, to y s s c a tte r e d around th e classroom s In th e l a t e r phases fo u r s p e c if ic ty p es o f to y s were used: wooden p u zzles by F is h e r-p ric e ; a p l a s t i c shape p u z z le ; a to y c a lle d "B u tt on-ups'1 by F is h e r-p ric e, c o n s is tin g o f foam p ieces and p l a s t i c b u tto n s to a tta c h th e p ieces to g e th e r; and a s e t o f sm all co lo re d pegs and p egboard s. These to y s were chosen because th e c h ild re n in th e study d id n ot norm ally s e le c t them during p la y. General Procedure and D esign The c h ild re n p a r tic ip a te d in th e study durin g a h a lf-h o u r f r e e - p lay p e rio d at th e b e g in n in g o f th e school day. Feedback and r e ward sessio n s a lso o ccu rred a t v a ria b le tim es during th e day. Sessions were conducted Monday and Wednesday in th e morning and Tuesday and Thursday in th e a fte rn o o n. The c h ild re n were allow ed to choose one to y o r a c tiv ity from th e Magic Box a t p redeterm ined p e rio d s. The g e n eral pro ced u re c o n sis te d o f th e experim en ter approaching a c h ild and p re s e n tin g a re q u e st o r r u l e. Then th e experim en ter went to th e o th e r sid e o f th e room and observed and recorded th e c h ild 's resp o n ses. D uring l a t e r phases th e procedure was expanded to in clu d e feedback and rew ard s, when a p p ro p ria te, fo llo w in g th e c h ild re n 's responding by v a ria b le p erio d s o f tim e. For exam ple, i f a c h ild follow ed th e ru le d e sc rib in g a d ead lin e and immediate

25 15 rew ard, th e e x p e rim e n te r im m ediately gave feed b ack and le d th e c h ild t o th e room w ith th e Magic Box. The c h i ld co u ld th e n choose an a c t i v i t y o r to y from th e box. A v a r ia tio n o f a m u ltie le m e n t d e sig n was u t i l i z e d in th e stu d y (H artm an, ShigetonriL, & B a r r io s, 1978). The elem en ts m a n ip u la te d were d i f f e r e n t ru le s and re q u e s ts (see T able l ). The i n i t i a l phase i n volved th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f sim ple re q u e s ts (mands) t o p ic k up to y s. The n e x t phase in v o lv e d a m u ltip le s c h e d u le ro f rew ard v e rsu s no rew ard, w ith tw o random ly a l t e r n a t i n g r u le c o n d itio n s. D uring one c o n d itio n a r u le d e s c rib in g d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s was p r e s e n te d. That i s, th e r u le s p e c if i e d b o th an im m ediate d e a d lin e f o r s t a r t i n g and f in is h in g a ta s k and an im m ediate rew ard. The a l t e r n a t e c o n d i t i o n c o n s is te d o f th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a s i m i l a r r u le s t a t i n g t h a t no rew ard would o c c u r. In th e t h i r d p h ase a r u le d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s was p re s e n te d. T h is r u le s p e c if i e d th a t th e re was no d e a d lin e f o r s t a r t i n g o f f in i s h i n g a t a s k ; i t a ls o s p e c if ie d a one-week d e la y o f th e rew ard. A d d itio n a lly, d u rin g th e t h i r d phase a r u le d e s c rib in g a d i r e c t - a c t i n g co n tin g e n c y was o c c a s io n a lly p re s e n te d t o some o f th e c h ild r e n. The f i n a l phase o f th e stu d y in v o lv e d th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f a n o th e r r u le d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s ; a r u le t h a t s p e c if i e d an immed- d ia te d e a d lin e f o r ta s k c o m p le tio n, b u t w ith a one-w eek d e la y o f th e rew ard.

26 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. R eq u ests T ab le 1 E x p e rim e n ta l P hases Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase U No d e a d lin e s t a t e d No consequence s t a t e d Ex: Would you f»ick»up th o s e to y s? R ules d e s c rib in g d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s Im m ediate d e a d lin e Im m ediate consequence Ex: " I f you p ic k th e to y s now, you can go t o th e Magic Box when you a re f in i s h e d." No rew ard Ex: " I f you p ic k up th e to y s now, you won t go t o th e Magic Box when you a re f in is h e d." T ask: P ic k -u p to y s T ask: P ick -u p to y s R u les d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s Im m ediate d e a d lin e One-week d e la y o f rew ard Ex: "W henever you do th e p u z z le, one week a f t e r you f i n i s h, you can go t o th e Magic B ox." R e p lic a tio n o f r u le d e s c r ib in g im m ediate rew ard E x : " I f you do th e p u z z le now, you can go t o th e Magic Box when you a re f i n i s h e d.' T ask: Assem ble to y s R ules d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s Im m ediate d e a d lin e One-week d e la y o f rew ard Ex: " I f you do th e p u z z le now, one week a f t e r you.f in is h, you can go t o th e Magic B ox." T ask: Assem ble to y s

27 IT E x p erim en tal P hases Phase 1: R e q u e sts. S e ssio n s d u rin g th e re q u e s t p h ase cons i s t e d o f th e e x p e rim e n te r a sk in g a c h i l d t o p ic k up some to y s. T h is ta s k re q u ire d about f iv e m inutes to c o m p lete. These re q u e s ts were w orded t o resem ble t y p i c a l te a c h e r re q u e s ts o r mands. T hat i s, th e to y s to p ic k up were s p e c i f i e d, b u t no rew ard o r d e a d lin e was m entioned. F or exam ple, th e e x p e rim e n te r approached a c h ild and s a i d, " N ic o le, w ould y ou p ic k up th e s e tru c k? " A f te r th e re q u e s t was made th e e x p e rim e n te r fo llo w ed th e g e n e r a l p ro c e d u re d e s c rib e d above. She i n i t i a t e d no o th e r c o n ta c t w ith th e c h i l d, u n t i l th e n e x t re q u e s t was m ade; and she ig n o re d a tte m p ts a t c o n ta c t by th e c h ild. She made su b se q u en t re q u e s ts f iv e m in u tes a f t e r th e to y s were p ic k e d up o r a f t e r f iv e m inutes h ad e la p s e d w ith o u t th e to y s b e in g p ic k e d u p. An av erage o f one t o th r e e re q u e s t t r i a l s w ere run w ith each c h ild p e r s e s s io n. Phase 2: R ules D e sc rib in g D ire c t-a c tin g C o n tin g e n c ie s. The second phase u t i l i z e d th e same p ic k -u p ta s k s as in th e f i r s t p h a se. However, in s te a d o f a r e q u e s t, th e e x p e rim e n te r p re s e n te d a r u le d e s c r ib in g d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s. In a d d i tio n, a random ly a l t e r n a tin g m u ltip le sc h e d u le o f rew ard v e rs u s no rew ard was in tro d u c e d (se e T ab le l ). The m u ltip le sc h e d u le was u se d t o d eterm in e w h eth er th e c h i ld r e n 's b e h a v io r was u n d e r th e s tim u lu s c o n tr o l o f th e r u l e 's d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e c o n tin g e n c ie s. A ls o, th e p h r a s e, " I d o n 't c a re i f you p ic k them up o r n o t, " was in tro d u c e d. These changes were

28 18 "because th e e x p e rim e n te r was concerned t h a t th e rew ards f o r fo llo w in g th e r u le s in t h i s phase m ight he overshadow ed by s o c i a l consequences p o t e n t i a l l y im p lie d in th e re q u e s t (mand) fo rm a t. By th e age o f fo u r m ost c h ild r e n p ro b a b ly have a b e h a v io ra l h is to r y o f r e i n f o r c e ment f o r fo llo w in g re q u e s ts and punishm ent f o r n o t fo llo w in g r e q u e s ts. T h e re fo re, th e re q u e s t fo rm at m ight e x e r t c o n s id e ra b le g e n e r a liz e d stim u lu s c o n tro l o v er th e c h ild r e n, even th o u g h J th e e x p e rim e n te r was n o t, in f a c t, u sip g s o c ia l re in fo rc e m e n t o r p u n ish m ent. The m u ltip le sc h e d u le o f a l t e r n a t i n g c o n d itio n s was d ete rm in e d by a random numbers t a b l e, f o r each c h ild on a s e s s i o n - to - s e s s i o n b a s i s. T h e re fo re, d i f f e r e n t c h ild r e n w ere in d i f f e r e n t c o n d tio n s ( i. e., rew ard o r no rew ard) on th e same day. However, o n ly one c o n d itio n was in e f f e c t p e r day. D uring th e rew ard c o n d itio n th e fo llo w in g r u le was p r e s e n te d : "Here a re some to y s t o p ic k up. I d o n 't c a re i f you p ic k them up o r n o t, b u t h e r e 's th e r u l e : I f you p ic k up th e to y s now, you can go t o th e Magic Box when you a re f in is h e d." I t sh o u ld be n o te d t h a t d u rin g th e rew ard c o n d itio n th e r u le s t a t e d an im m ediate d e a d lin e f o r th e ta s k ("now ") and a rew ard im m ediately a f t e r a t a s k was comp le te d. D uring th e no rew ard c o n d itio n a s i m i l a r r u le was p r e s e n te d : "Here a re some to y s t o p ic k up. I d o n 't c a re i f you p ic k them up o r n o t, b u t h e r e 's th e r u l e : I f you p ic k up th e to y s now, you w o n 't go t o th e Magic Box when you a re f in is h e d." A f te r e i t h e r r u le was p r e s e n te d, th e e x p e rim e n te r fo llo w ed th e g e n e ra l p ro c e d u re o f o b s e rv in g and re c o rd in g d a ta.

29 N e u tra l p erfo rm ance feed b ack and a rew ard w ere p ro v id e d immed ia te ly a f t e r a c h ild p ic k e d up th e to y s in th e rew ard c o n d itio n. I f a c h ild d id n o t f i n i s h p ic k in g up th e to y s by th e end o f s i x m inutes a f t e r a r u le p r e s e n ta tio n o r f iv e m inutes h ad e la p s e d and a c h ild had n o t s t a r t e d t o p ic k up th e t o y s, n e u t r a l fe e d b a c k, b u t no rew ard from th e Magic Box was g iv e n. F or exam ple, i f th e c h i ld p ic k e d up th e to y s th e e x p e rim e n te r s a i d, "Jo h n, you fo llo w e d th e ru le about p ic k in g up th e to y s r i g h t away, now you can go t o th e Magic B ox." I f th e c h i ld d id n o t p ic k up th e to y s th e e x p e rim e n te r s a i d, "Jo h n, you d i d n 't fo llo w th e r u le about p ic k in g up th e to y s r i g h t away, so now you c a n 't go t o th e Magic B ox." Feedback b u t no rew ard fo llo w e d p ic k in g up o r n o t p ic k in g up th e to y s d u rin g th e no rew ard c o n d itio n. F o r exam ple, " N ic o le, you p ic k e d up th e to y s r ig h t away, b u t rem em ber, we c a n 't go to th e Magic Box to d a y " o r " N ic o le, you d i d n 't p ic k up th e to y s r ig h t away, remember we c a n 't go to th e Magic Box to d a y." F ive m inutes a f t e r feed b ack was given a n o th e r r u l e co u ld be p re s e n te d. Phase 3: R ules D e sc rib in g I n d ir e c t- A c tin g C o n tin g e n c ie s. In th e t h i r d p h ase a r u le was p re s e n te d d e s c rib in g an i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c y. T hat i s, th e r u le s p e c if ie d no d e a d lin e f o r... ta s k com p letio n and a one-w eek d elay o f rew ard. T hree to y assem bly ta s k s w ere in tro d u c e d b ecu a se o f th e c o n s tr a in ts o f th e s e t t i n g and a ls o, t o d e m o n stra te r e p l i c a t i o n a c ro ss ta s k s (Sidm an, I9 6 0, p. 8 5 ) As p re v io u s ly d e s c rib e d th e s e to y s were pegs and p e g b o a rd s, p u z z le s

30 20 and "B u tto n -U p s." The le n g th o f tim e re q u ir e d t o assem ble th e s e to y s was c a l ib r a t e d by th e e x p e rim e n te r t o allo w a c h ild th e o p p o r t u n i ty t o com plete a t a s k in ab o u t t h i r t y m in u te s, o r one s e s s i o n, i f th e c h ild d id n o t ta k e a b re a k from th e t a s k. The same g e n e ra l p ro c e d u re f o r o b se rv in g and re c o rd in g d a t a, as in th e o th e r p h a s e s, was fo llo w e d ; w ith th e r u l e d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t- a c t in g c o n tin g e n c ie s p r e s e n te d o n ly a t th e b e g in n in g o f a s e s s io n. Such a r u le as t h i s was p r e s e n te d, " H e re 's a p u z z le you can do. I d o n 't c a re i f y ou do i t o r n o t, b u t h e r e 's th e r u l e : Whenever you do th e p u z z le i s f i n e ; one week a f t e r you f i n i s h th e p u z z le, you can go to th e Magic B ox." I f a c h ild began a t a s k d u rin g a s e s s io n, b u t d id n o t com plete th e t a s k, i t was p re s e n te d a g a in, along w ith th e r u l e, in th e n e x t s e s s io n. The c h ild was e x p e c te d to s t a r t th e ta s k where he o r she h ad l e f t o f f d u rin g th e p re v io u s s e s s io n. In a d d itio n, a c h ild was allo w ed to le a v e a t a s k and r e tu r n t o th e ta s k a t any tim e. As p re v io u s ly s t a t e d, th e r e was no d e a d lin e f o r c o m p letio n. One week fo llo w in g com p letio n th e feed b ack and rew ard was g iv e n, even i f s e v e r a l s e s s io n s w ere re q u ire d f o r c o m p letio n. B efore th e one-w eek d e la y was o v e r, th e e x p e rim e n te r d id n o t i n i t i a t e c o n ta c t w ith th e c h i ld and ig n o re d any a tte m p ts by th e c h ild r e n t o evoke s o c i a l rew ards f o r com p letin g th e ta s k s. F or exam ple, one week fo llo w in g c o m p letio n th e e x p e r i m enter s a i d, "Jo h n, remember you fo llo w e d th e r u l e and f in is h e d th e p u z z le l a s t w eek, now you can go t o th e Magic B ox." The r u le d e s c rib in g i n d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s c o u ld be p r e s e n te d, a g a in,

31 i n th e n e x t s e s s io n fo llo w in g th e feedback and rew ard s e s s io n. I f a c h ild d id n o t com plete a ta s k by th e end o f t h i s phase no fe e d b ack s e s s io n o c c u rre d. A ls o, i f a c h i ld d id n o t s t a r t a ta s k f o r th r e e c o n s e c u tiv e s e s s io n s a noncom pletion was re c o rd e d and a n o th e r ty p e o f ta s k was s p e c if i e d in th e n e x t r u le p r e s e n ta tio n. A lth o u g h, t h i s i s c l e a r ly a d e a d lin e, i t was n o t s t a t e d to th e c h ild r e n. T his a r b i t r a i y d e a d lin e was u sed so t h a t a n o th e r ta s k co u ld be p re s e n te d and i t co u ld be d eterm in e d i f th e p o o r perform ance o b serv ed was due to th e d i f f i c u l t y o f th e t a s k. A r u le d e s c rib in g d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s, t h a t i s, immed ia te ta s k d e a d lin e and im m ediate rew ard, was p re s e n te d to s e v e r a l o f th e c h ild r e n. T his was done i n an e f f o r t to determ in e i f th e c h i l d r e n 's ta s k in c o m p le tio n s w ere due to th e d i f f i c u l t y o f th e ta s k s o r t o th e la c k o f d i r e c t - a c t i n g c o n tin g e n c ie s s p e c if ie d in th e r u l e. In a d d i tio n, t h i s p ro v id e d a d em o n stra tio n o f r e p lic a t io n a c ro s s t a s k s. An exam ple o f t h i s r u le w as, " H e re 's a p u z z le you can d o. I d o n 't c a re i f you do i t o f n o t, b u t h e r e 's th e r u l e : I f you do th e p u z z le, now, when you a re f in is h e d you can go to th e Magic B ox." S im ila r to th e a l t e r n a t i n g r u le s in phase 2, p e r f o r mance feed b ack and a re w a rd, when a p p r o p r ia te, were p ro v id e d immed i a t e l y fo llo w in g ta s k c o m p le tio n. Only one ty p e o f r u le ( e. g., d i r e c t - a c t i n g o r in d i r e c t - a c t i n g ) was p re s e n te d in any one s e s s io n. T h e re fo re, i f th e c o n d itio n w ith a r u le d e s c rib in g d ir e c t- a c t in g c o n tin g e n c ie s was in e f f e c t, th e n t h a t ty p e o f r u le co u ld be p r e s e n te d s e v e r a l tim e s d u rin g th e s e s s io n. I f th e c o n d itio n w ith