C o r p o r a t e l i f e i n A n c i e n t I n d i a e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f
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- Millicent Nicholson
- 3 years ago
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1 C H A P T E R I G E N E S I S A N D GROWTH OF G U IL D S C o r p o r a t e l i f e i n A n c i e n t I n d i a e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f i n a v a r i e t y o f f o r m s - s o c i a l, r e l i g i o u s, p o l i t i c a l, e c o n o m i c, c i v i c, m u n i c i p a l, m i l i t a r y, e t c. We com e a c r o s s a v a r i e t y o f t e r m s l i k e P u g a, V r a t a, K u l a, S r e n I, N a n a d e s i, N i g a m a, V a l a n g a i, I d a n g a i, e t c., b o t h i n i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s. A l l t h e s e t e r m s d e n o t e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f c o r p o r a t e a c t i v i t y. B u t o f t h e s e, t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t a k e s u p o n l y t h o s e u n i t s r e f e r r e d t o a s S r e n i s ( g u i l d s ). V e r y o f t e n, t h e s o u r c e s o f o u r d a t a t r e a t d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f c o r p o r a t e l i f e t o g e t h e r a n d t h i s m a k e s i t d i f f i c u l t t o g a t h e r d a t a o n a s p e c i f i c f o r m o f c o r p o r a t e l i f e. F u r t h e r, t h e sa m e t e r m i s d e f i n e d i n v a r i o u s w a y s b y d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r i t i e s, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e l i t e r a r y t e x t s. H o w e v e r, t h i s s t u d y o n l y d e a l s w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f c o r p o r a t e u n i t s t h a t we k n o w a s ' g u i l d s '. T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l c o n s i s t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s : (a ) D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t e r m g u i l d a n d r e f e r e n c e s t o s i m i l a r b o d i e s w i t h d e f i n i t i o n s.
2 18 (b ) T h e f o r m a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s. ( c ) B r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s o f g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s. (d ) R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c a s t e a n d g u i l d. (a ) D e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t e r m g u i l d a n d r e f e r e n c e s t o s i m i l a r b o d i e s w i t h d e f i n i t i o n s. A g u i l d i s b a s i c a l l y a n e x p r e s s i o n o f o r g a n i s e d e c o n o m ic a c t i v i t y. M e n o f d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n s a n d t r a d e s c a m e t o g e t h e r t o f o r m g r o u p s, w i t h d e f i n i t e r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s t o g u i d e t h e m. T h e y s t a r t e d o u t e s s e n t i a l l y a s e c o n o m ic u n i t s t o l o o k a f t e r t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e. M e m b e r s o f a p r o f e s s i o n o r t r a d e b a n d e d t o g e t h e r a n d a c t e d a s o n e u n i t w h e n e n t e r i n g c o m m e r c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s, c a r r y i n g o u t t r a d e, r e g u l a t i n g p r i c e s, f i n d i n g m a r k e t s, e t c. G r a d u a l l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e, t h e y m u s t h a v e a d o p t e d f u n c t i o n s o t h e r t h a n e c o n o m ic. F o r we f i n d f r o m i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t g u i l d s a r e m u l t i - p u r p o s e o r g a n i s a t i o n s t h a t p e r f o r m e d a w i d e r a n g e o f f u n c t i o n s. T h e s e i n c l u d e d s o c i a l, p o l i t i c a l, j u d i c i a l, r e l i g i o u s a n d m i l i t a r y f u n c t i o n s. T h e y a c c u m u l a t e d p o w e r a n d w e a l t h a n d d e v e l o p e d i n t o b o d i e s t h a t o c c u p i e d a n i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e s o c i e t y o f t h e A n c i e n t D e c c a n.
3 19 G u i l d s, a s we w i l l s e e, w e r e i n t h e i r s i m p l e s t f o r m a s s o c i a t i o n s o r c o r p o r a t i o n s o f t r a d e r s, a r t i s a n s a n d m e r c h a n t s. T h e m a in b a s i s o f t h e s e g r o u p s w a s m u t u a l h e l p. S u c h g u i l d s se e m t o h a v e b e e n a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f e c o n o m ic l i f e i n t h e D e c c a n a s t h e y w e r e i n t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y. T h e t e r m ^ r e n l i t s e l f h a s b e e n d e f i n e d d i f f e r e n t l y b y m a n y a u t h o r i t i e s. I t m u s t b e m e n t io n e d t h a t t h e t e r m i s c o m m o n ly d e f i n e d a s a c o r p o r a t i o n o f t r a d e r s o r a r t i s a n s e n g a g e d i n t h e sa m e p r o f e s s i o n, b u t b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o s t u d y t h e v a r i o u s m e a n i n g s 1 a s c r i b e d t o t h e t e r m S r e n i. A c c o r d i n g t o M a n u, t h e S r e i j i w a s a g r o u p o f a r t i s a n s o r w o r k m e n. T h e r e i s a l s o a m e n t i o n t h a t t h e l a w s o f c a s t e o r j a t i a n d g u i l d o r S r e n i a r e r e c o g n i s e d. M e d h a t i t h i d e f i n e s t h e S r e n I a s a g u i l d o f m e r c h a n t s, a r t i s a n s, b a n k e r s o r B r a h m i n s l e a r n e d i n t h e f o u r V e d a s. T h e S r e n i w a s d e f i n e d b y P a n i n i ^ a s a n a s s e m b l a g e o f p e r s o n s f o l l o w i n g a com m on 4 c r a f t o r t r a d e o r a com m on d u t y. N a r a d a d e f i n e d t h e > _ S r e n i a s a n a s s e m b l y o f e m i n e n t m e r c h a n t s a n d a c o m p a n y o f a r t i s a n s. T h e c o d e o f Y a j n a v a l k y a ^ m e n t i o n s j a n a p a d a s, ^ _ g a n a s, S r e n i s a n d j a t i s a s u n i t s "w h o a l s o m u s t b e c o m p e l l e d t o f o l l o w t h e i r ow n l a w s. " - 6 ' A c c o r d i n g t o V i j n a n e ^ v a r a, S r e n a y a h w a s a g u i l d o f p e r s o n s e a r n i n g t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d b y t h e sa m e k i n d o f l a b o u r,
4 20 y e t b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s o r t h e sa m e c a s t e. I n h i s A r t h a s h a s t r a, K a u t i l y a h a s a s s i g n e d d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s t o t h e sa m e t e r m. A c c o r d i n g t o h im, t h e S r e i j i 7 ' - w a s a g u i l d o f w o r k m e n. T h e S r e n i h a s a l s o b e e n r e f e r r e d 8 t o a s a m i l i t a r y g r o u p. T h e S r e n i d e n o t e d c o r p o r a t i o n s t h a t s u b s i s t e d b y a g r i c u l t u r e, t r a d e a n d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e, - 9 s u c h a s t h e K h a m b o j a s, S u r a s t r a s, a n d K s a t r i y a s. J a y a s w a l h a s e x p l a i n e d t h e t e r m d i f f e r e n t l y. He s a y s t h a t t h e t e r m S r e n i l i t e r a l l y m e a n s r o w s. M e m b e r s s a t i n r o w s, a p r a c t i c e w h i c h g a v e t h i s n am e t o c o r p o r a t e b o d i e s. A c c o r d i n g t o h im, S r e n i o r i g i n a l l y r e f e r r e d " t o a l l b o d i e s w h i c h t r a n s a c t e d t h e i r b u s i n e s s i n t h e i r ' s e s s i o n ' o r b y a n a s s e m b l y s y s t e m. " H e m a i n t a i n s t h a t i n l a w b o o k s, g e n e r a l l i t e r a t u r e a n d i n s c r i p t i o n s, S r e n i h a s a c q u i r e d t h e t e c h n i c a l m e a n in g o f g u i l d. D i k s h i t a r ^ ^ ^ _ d e f i n e s S r e n i a s a n o r g a n i s a t i o n b a s e d o n p r o f e s s i o n. I t w a s a n o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p. > _ T h u s we s e e how t h e t e r m S r e n i h a s b e e n u s e d i n m o r e t h a n o n e s e n s e. B u t m o s t s c h o l a r s a g r e e t h a t t h e teonn m ay b e u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e E n g l i s h w o r d g u i l d - b e i t a g u i l d o f a r t i s a n s o r a g u i l d o f t r a d e r s. I t i s t h i s d e f i n i t i o n t h a t i s f o l l o w e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y. We d o com e a c r o s s f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o som e t e r m s l i k e p u g a, g a n a, k u l a e t c. w h i c h d e n o t e c o r p o r a t e a c t i v i t y. O f t h e s e t e r m s, we f i n d t h a t t h e t e r m p u g a
5 21 d e n o t e s a f o r m o f c o r p o r a t e l i f e t h a t c o m e s c l o s e t o t h a t d e n o t e d b y t h e S r e n i. T h e p u g a w a s a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f p e r s o n s o f d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s a n d o c c u p a t i o n s w h i l e t h e S r e n i w a s a m o r e l i m i t e d g r o u p o f p e o p l e o f o n e c r a f t b u t d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s. T h e t e r m p u g a h a s a l s o b e e n d e f i n e d b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s i n v a r i o u s w a y s. 12 T h e p u g a w a s a c c o r d i n g t o M a n u, s i m p l y a n a s s o - c i a i t o n o f t r a d e r s. K a t y a y a n a ^ ^ s p e c i f i e d t h a t t h e - 14 p u g a w a s a g r o u p o f m e r c h a n t s. Y a j n a v a l k y a d e f i n e d t h e p u g a a s a l o c a l a s s e m b l y o r v i l l a g e o r to w n w h e r e m e m b e rs p r a c t i s e d d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n s. T h e y b e l o n g e d t o d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s. I n t h e j u d i c i a l s t r u c t u r e, he p l a c e d i t h i g h e r t h a n t h e K u l a a n d S r e n i. T h e p u g a h a s a l s o b e e n d e f i n e d a s a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f e l e p h a n t d r i v e r s a n d h o r s e r i d e r s ^ ^. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e M i t a k s h a r a ^ ^, t h e p u g a w a s a n a s s e m b l a g e o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f a v i l l a g e o r t o w n. T h e m e m b e rs d i f f e r e d i n c a s t e s a n d o c c u p a t i o n s. D i k s h i t a r ^ " ^ d e f i n e s t h e p u g a a s a p r o f e s s i o n a l g u i l d c o n s i s t i n g o f v a r i o u s c l a s s e s o f m e m b e r s. I t w a s a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i t i e s a n d p r o f e s s i o n s w i t h t h e a im o f a m a s s i n g w e a l t h. T h e t e r m N a g a r a i s a l s o m e n t i o n e d f r e q u e n t l y a s a c o r p o r a t e b o d y. I t i s r e f e r r e d t o a s a g u i l d c a l l e d N a r a r a m u o r P e n u g o n d a N a g a r a i n t h e E a s t e r n D e c c a n. I t i s a l s o r e f e r r e d t o a s N a k a r a. A c c o r d i n g t o D i k s h i t, N a g a r a i s a to w n
6 22 o r a to w n a s s e m b l y. B u t i t a l s o r e f e r s t o t h e m e r c h a n t a n d m e r c h a n t g u i l d. I t w a s a c c o r d i n g t o D i k s h i t a r ^ ^, a com m on f e a t u r e o f e c o n o m ic l i f e i n t h e D e c c a n a n d S o u t h I n d i a. T h e t e r m ' n a g a r a ' r e f e r r e d t o a n a s s o c i a t i o n o f m e r c h a n t s. I t s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e > _ N o r t h I n d i a n ' S r e n i ' a n d ' N a i g a m a '. N a g a r a m a s d e f i n e d 21 b y A y y a r w a s a t y p e o f l o c a l a s s e m b l y. A g r o u p o f m e r c h a n t s f u n c t i o n e d a s o n e o f t h e a s s e m b l i e s i n a n i m p o r t a n t t r a d e c e n t r e, w o r k i n g i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e s a b h a. I t w a s a c c o r d i n g t o h im t h e o n l y a s s e m b l y i n t o w n s p o p u l a t e d m a i n l y b y m e r c h a n t s. R a o d e f i n e s n a g a r a s i m i l a r l y, a s a g r o u p o f m e r c h a n t s o r a n a s s e m b l y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e m e r c h a n t c o m m u n i t y. 22 A c c o r d i n g 23 ' - t o B h a n d a r k a r n a i g a m a m e a n t a t o w n s h i p. K a t y a y a n a d e f i n e d i t a s a g r o u p o f v a r i o u s i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e sa m e 24 t o w n. F r o m t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s i t s e e m s t h a t t h e ' n i g a m a ' o r ' n a i g a m a ' o r ' n a g a r a ' w a s a m e r c a n t i l e c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h o s e t r a d e r s w ho s e t t l e d d o w n i n o r b e l o n g e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r c i t y. (b ) T h e f o r m a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f g u i l d s. I t w o u ld b e r e l e v a n t a t t h i s p o i n t t o e x a m in e t h e v a r i o u s f o r c e s t h a t m u s t h a v e m o t i v a t e d t r a d e r s, m e r c h a n t s a n d c r a f t s m e n t o f o r m g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s.
7 23 (1 ) T h e p r i m a r y a t t r a c t i o n i n f o r m i n g g u i l d s w a s t h e e n j o y m e n t o f a d v a n t a g e s e n s u i n g f r o m c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n. T r a d e r s a n d a r t i s a n s f o u n d t h a t c o - o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t p a i d r i c h d i v i d e n d s. We s e e i t r e f l e c t e d i n s e v e r a l s i t u a t i o n s. F i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t, g u i l d s e n a b l e d m e m b e r s t o f a c e com m on d a n g e r s. T h i s w a s e s p e c i a l l y s o i n t h e c a s e o f m e r c h a n t a n d t r a d e g u i l d s. F o r th e m, l o n g t r a d e r o u t e s m e a n t d a n g e r s o f w i l d a n i m a l s, b a n d i t s, h o s t i l e t r i b e s, e t c. T r a d e r s h a d t o p e r f o r c e b a n d t o g e t h e r t o p r o t e c t t h e i r l i v e s a n d t h e i r g o o d s. i n o r g a n i s e d a n d p r o t e c t e d g r o u p s. S o t h e y m o v e d R i s k s a n d i n s e c u r i t y m u s t h a v e b e e n h i g h a n d g u i l d s h e l p e d t o r e d u c e th e m t o som e e x t e n t. (2 ) G u i l d s a l s o g a v e t h e m e m b e rs a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y. T h e y e n a b l e d th e m t o e s t a b l i s h a w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e S t a t e. T h e S t a t e t o o k th e m i n t o a c c o u n t w h e n m a k i n g l a w s, i m p o s i n g t a x e s, e t c. U n i t y p r o v i d e d g u i l d m e m b e rs w i t h a c e r t a i n s t r e n g t h. T h i s c o u p l e d w i t h t h e i r v a r i e d a n d e f f i c i e n t f u n c t i o n i n g m a d e i t p o s s i b l e f o r th e m t o e n j o y c e r t a i n p r i v i l e g e s v i s - a - v i s t h e S t a t e. G u i l d s w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t. T h e y r e c e i v e d g i f t s a n d g r a n t s f r o m k i n g s, q u e e n s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s. T h e y w e r e s o m e t im e s e x e m p t e d f r o m c e r t a i n t a x e s a n d t o l l s. T h e y c o u l d r e p r e s e n t
8 24 t h e i r c a s e s t o t h e S t a t e w h e n n e e d e d. T h e S t a t e i n t u r n r e s p e c t e d t h e c u s t o m s, u s a g e s a n d w o r k i n g o f g u i l d s. T h u s i n t h e l o n g r u n, g u i l d s m u s t h a v e e n a b l e d m e m b e r s t o h o l d t h e i r ow n e v e n a g a i n s t a p o w e r f u l r u l i n g c l a s s. (3 ) A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e w a s t h a t g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s p r o t e c t e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e m e r c h a n t a n d a r t i s a n c l a s s e s. G u i l d s p r o t e c t e d th e m f r o m o t h e r c o m p e t i t o r s, f r o m e x p l o i t e r s o f t h e u p p e r c l a s s e s a s w e l l a s f r o m a t o o - p o w e r f u l S t a t e o r k i n g. T h e g u i l d s l o o k e d a f t e r t h e i r e c o n o m ic i n t e r e s t s a n d g o t th e m b e t t e r e c o n o m ic o p p o r t u n i t i e s. F o r i n s t a n c e, i f t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e g u i l d o f a k i n d i n a v i l l a g e o r t o w n, i t m u s t h a v e r e s t r i c t e d c o m p e t i t i o n o r e v e n t o t a l l y - e x c l u d e d i t. I t b r o u g h t t h e m e m b e rs o f t h e c r a f t o r p r o f e s s i o n a n e a r - m o n o p o l y p o s i t i o n i n t h e m a r k e t. O n c e a g u i l d w a s s t r o n g l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n a n a r e a, a s i n g l e m e r c h a n t o r c r a f t s m a n w o u l d h a v e f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o s u r v i v e o r e a r n o u t s i d e t h e g u i l d. (4 ) T h e h e r e d i t a r y f a c t o r w a s a n i m p o r t a n t f o r c e t h a t e n c o u r a g e d t h e g r o w t h o f g u i l d s, e s p e c i a l l y c r a f t g u i l d s. A p a r t i c u l a r s k i l l o r a r t w a s h a n d e d d o w n f r o m f a t h e r t o s o n. F o r i n s t a n c e, t h e s o n o f a b l a c k s m i t h w a s u s u a l l y e n c o u r a g e d t o t a k e u p h i s f a t h e r ' s p r o f e s s i o n. H e i n h e r i t e d t h e t o o l s, s k i l l, e t c. a n d c o n t i n u e d t h e
9 25 p r o f e s s i o n. T h e s k i l l t h u s b e c a m e r e s t r i c t e d t o a g r o u p a n d i t b e c a m e e a s i e r f o r t h i s g r o u p t o f o r m a g u i l d. A c c o r d i n g t o F i c k " t a k i n g u p o f a p r o f e s s i o n o t h e r t h a n t h e a n c e s t r a l o n e w a s m a n i f e s t l y u n h e a r d 25 o f a m o n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s..."» He h a s g i v e n e x a m p le s f r o m t h e J a t a k a s t o sh o w how a c r a f t w a s p r a c t i s e d b y a f a m i l y a n d how i t c o n t i n u e d f r o m f a t h e r t o s o n. T h e r e a r e i n s t a n c e s o f f a m i l i e s o f m e r c h a n t s ^, f a m i l i e s o f p o t t e r s ^, c a s e s w h e r e t h e s o n l e a r n t t h e p r o f e s s i o n c d o f h i s f a t h e r (a m e r c h a n t ), f a m i l y o f g r a i n m e r c h a n t s, f a m i l i e s o f c a r a v a n d r i v e r s, e t c. 2 6 A c c o r d i n g t o B u c h, t h i s h e r e d i t a r y n a t u r e o f a r t s a n d c r a f t s r e s u l t e d i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n c r y s t a l l i s i n g i n t o a g u i l d. T h e s k i l l w a s h a n d e d dow n f r o m f a t h e r t o s o n s o t h a t a p o t t e r ' s s o n b e c a m e a p o t t e r, a g r i n d e r ' s s o n a g r i n d e r, e t c. P e o p l e f o l l o w i n g t h e sa m e t r a d e o r p r o f e s s i o n w o u ld u n d e r s t a n d e a c h o t h e r w e l l. T h i s e n a b l e d th e m t o com e t o g e t h e r t o w o r k f o r a com m on p u r p o s e. (5 ) L o c a l i s a t i o n o f t r a d e a n d i n d u s t r y w a s a m a j o r f a c t o r i n t h e g r o w t h o f g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s. E a c h g r o u p o f a r t i s a n s, s a y p o t t e r s o r w e a v e r s o r m a s o n s s p e c i a l i s e d i n t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n o r t r a d e. T h e y s e t t l e d dow n i n a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a. I n t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e, t h e c r a f t o r t r a d e m u s t h a v e b e c o m e u n i q u e t o t h a t a r e a.
10 27 A c c o r d i n g t o S a m a d d a r, s u c h g e o g r a p h i c a l s p e c i a l i s a t i o n 25 o f a h a n d i c r a f t m u s t h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d g r o w t h o f t h e p a r a l l e l g u i l d. T h e f a c t t h a t s u c h l o c a l i s a t i o n e x i s t e d c a n b e s e e n i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e S t a t e r e s e r v i n g c e r t a i n a r e a s i n t h e to w n f o r p a r t i c u l a r g u i l d s a n d p r o f e s s i o n s. 2 8 I n t h e A r t h a s h a s t r a, i t w a s p r e s c r i b e d t h a t c e r t a i n a r e a s i n t h e c i t y b e r e s e r v e d f o r c e r t a i n g r o u p s. On t h e e a s t e r n s i d e, a r e a s w e r e r e s e r v e d f o r m e r c h a n t s t r a d i n g i n s c e n t s, g a r l a n d s, g r a i n s a n d l i q u i d s. O n t h e w e s t e r n s i d e, a r t i s a n s m a n u f a c t u r i n g w o r s t e d t h r e a d s, c o t t o n t h r e a d s, b a m b o o m a t s, s k i n s, a r m o u r s, w e a p o n s a n d g l o v e s w e r e a l l o w e d t o d w e l l. I n t h e s e v e r a l c o r n e r s, g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s o f w o rk m e n w e r e a l l o w e d t o r e s i d e. I n t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d d e s c r i b e d i n t h e J a t a k a s, we co m e a c r o s s v i l l a g e s o r t o w n s w h e r e e a c h c r a f t h a d a s t r e e t o f i t s o w n. We co m e a c r o s s r e f e r e n c e s t o a 29 p o t t e r ' s v i l l a g e i n a s u b u r b o f B e n a r e s, tw o v i l l a g e s o f h u n t e r s - e a c h h a v i n g f i v e h u n d r e d f a m i l i e s ^ ^ ; a v i l l a g e o f s m i t h s h a v i n g a t h o u s a n d h o u s e s ^ ^, a s t r e e t 32 o f t h e i v o r y c a r v e r s, a c a r p e n t e r ' s v i l l a g e o f a t h o u s a n d f a m i l i e s ^ ^, e t c. F r o m t h i s i t i s e v e n p o s s i b l e t o i n f e r t h a t v i l l a g e s w h e r e a c r a f t o r t r a d e w a s l o c a l i s e d m ay h a v e
11 27 a c t e d a s a n c i l l i a r y u n i t s t o l a r g e r t o w n s h i p s. O r i n som e c a s e s t h e r e m ay h a v e b e e n a c a s e o f a v i l l a g e b e c o m i n g a c e n t r e o f t r a d e f o r t h e n e a r b y a r e a s. (6 ) G u i l d s m a y h a v e b e e n f o r m e d w i t h a v i e w t o e n j o y c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s o f e c o n o m ie s o f s c a l e o r a d v a n t a g e s o f g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i o n. G u i l d s m u s t h a v e r e s u l t e d i n a b e t t e r u s e o f t h e f a c t o r s o f p r o d u c t i o n. F o r i n s t a n c e - a p o t t e r w ho m ade a n d s o l d a fe w p o t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y now b e c a m e a m em ber o f a p o t t e r ' s g u i l d. H e c o n t r i b u t e d t o a m u ch g r e a t e r p r o d u c t i o n. G u i l d s c o u l d m a k e u s e o f s p e c i a l i s a t i o n o f l a b o u r b e c a u s e o f t h e s y s t e m o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p. T h e y e n j o y e d t h e u s e o f a b e t t e r s u p p l y o f c a p i t a l b e c a u s e o f t h e i r r o l e a s b a n k s a n d b e t t e r o r g a n i s a t i o n b e c a u s e o f c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n b y t r a d e r s a n d a r t i s a n s. T h e s e w e r e a l l e c o n o m ic a d v a n t a g e s t h a t a c c r u e d t o t h e m e m b e rs o f g u i l d s. I n t h e l o n g r u n i t m u s t h a v e h a d a c o m b in e d a n d p o s i t i v e e f f e c t o n t r a d e a n d c o m m e rc e a s a w h o l e. (7 ) I n i t i a l l y, t h e tw o f u n c t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e w o r k o f o n e p e r s o n o r g r o u p. O n e m a n u f a c t u r e d a c o m m o d it y a n d s o l d i t. S o t h e d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n m u s t h a v e b e e n n o n - e x i s t e n t o r i f i t e x i s t e d, n o t v e r y m a r k e d. G r a d u a l l y, w i t h e c o n o m ic d e v e l o p m e n t a n d g r o w i n g n e e d s, t h e tw o f u n c t i o n s m u s t h a v e s e p a r a t e d.
12 28 We h a v e t h e e m e r g i n g g r o w t h o f c r a f t - g u i l d s l o o k i n g a f t e r p r o d u c t i o n o n o n e h a n d a n d t h e m e r c h a n t o r t r a d e g u i l d s u p e r v i s i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t h e o t h e r. U n d e r l y i n g t h i s w a s t h e b a s i c e c o n o m ic p r i n c i p l e o f d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r o r s p e c i a l i s a t i o n. E a c h g r o u p i n t h e e c o n o m y r e s t r i c t e d i t s e l f t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f o n e c o m m o d it y o r t h e p r o v i s i o n o f o n e s e r v i c e. (8 ) A f e l l o w - f e e l i n g b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l s o f t h e sam e c r a f t o r p r o f e s s i o n m u s t h a v e b r o u g h t th e m t o g e t h e r. I n i t i a l l y com m on p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r e s t s m u s t h a v e b o u n d th e m t o g e t h e r. A s t h e y g r e w a n d d e v e l o p e d, t h e i r s o c i a l a n d r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s m u s t h a v e h e l p e d th e m t o s t a y a n d w o r k t o g e t h e r a s o n e u n i t. (9 ) T r a d e r s a n d a r t i s a n s p r e f e r r e d t h e a s s i s t a n c e, g u i d a n c e a n d p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r own o r g a n i s a t i o n s - v i z. g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s, t o a n y h e l p g i v e n b y t h e s t a t e. T h e l a t t e r m e a n t h e l p b u t m u s t h a v e b r o u g h t i n a n a c c o m p a n y i n g d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l a s w e l l. H e n c e t h e n e e d t o f o r m o r g a n i s a t i o n s o f t h e i r o w n. (1 0 ) A n i n c r e a s e i n t h e v o lu m e o f i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l t r a d e g a v e r i s e t o a v a r i e t y o f n e e d s. T r a d e r s a n d m e r c h a n t s n e e d e d o r g a n i s e d p r o d u c t i o n, f i n a n c e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n. T h e s e a n d o t h e r n e e d s m u s t h a v e b e e n m e t b y g u i l d s.
13 29 (1 1 ) G u i l d s w e r e n e e d e d t o l o o k a f t e r a c c e p t e d c o n m e r - c i a l n o r m s a n d c o n v e n t i o n s, S a m a y a a n d S r e n i d h a r m a 34 T h e s e h a d t h e f o r c e o f la w a n d w e r e s a n c t i o n e d b y t h e S a s t r a s. G u i l d s w e r e f o r m e d t o p r o t e c t a n d p r a c t i s e t h e s e c o m p a c t s a n d e s t a b l i s h e d l a w s o r c u s t o m s o f g u i l d s. (1 2 ) T h e i n s t i t u t e o f A p p r e n t i c e s h i p m u s t h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d g r o w t h o f c r a f t - g u i l d s. A p p r e n t i c e s h i p l e d t o a h i g h d e g r e e o f s p e c i a l i s a t i o n o f l a b o u r. T h i s m u s t h a v e m e a n t im p r o v e m e n t i n q u a l i t y o f l a b o u r a n d g o o d s, b e t t e r w a g e s, a n d p r o t e c t i o n f r o m c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o u t s i d e r s. I t w a s b e n e f i c i a l f o r a r t i s a n s t o com e t o g e t h e r i n g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s. (1 3 ) A c c o r d i n g t o som e s c h o l a r s l i k e A g a r w a l ^ ^, i t w a s t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m ic c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e t i m e s t h a t s p e e d e d u p t h e g r o w t h o f g u i l d s. A c c o r d i n g t o h im, t h e c l a s s o f V a i s y a s w ho l i v e d b y t r a d e a n d co m m e rc e w e r e e x p l o i t e d b y t h e h i g h e r c l a s s e s o f t h e B r a h m a n a s a n d K ^ a t r i y a s. T h e V a i s y a s f e l t t h e n e e d t o com e t o g e t h e r i n g r o u p s t o p r o t e c t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s. T h i s m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e c a s e e s p e c i a l l y i n p e r i o d s a n d a r e a s w h e r e t h e r u l e s o f t h e c a s t e s y s t e m w e r e r i g i d l y f o l l o w e d. S r i v a s t a v a ^ ^ h o l d s a s i m i l a r v i e w w h e n h e s a y s t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e V a i s y a s i n t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m w a s n o t s t r o n g. I t w a s t o p r o t e c t t h e i r c l a s s i n t e r e s t s a n d b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s t h a t t h e y f o r m e d g u i l d s a n d
14 30 c o r p o r a t i o n s. T h e y w e r e i n v o l v e d i n m a n y a s p e c t s o f t h e e c o n o m y a n d t h e y f o u n d i t b e n e f i c i a l t o s p l i t i n t o u n i t s. E a c h u n i t l o o k e d a f t e r t h e i n t e r e s t s o f o n e p r o f e s s i o n o r t r a d e. I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n, V e n k a t e s v a r a ^ ^ w r i t e s t h a t i t w a s " e c o n o m i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y a n d p e r h a p s s o c i a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e t h a t t h e V a i s y a c o m m u n i t i e s o f a l o c a l i t y s h o u l d p r e s e r v e a s t h e i r e x c l u s i v e p o s s e s s i o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l s k i l l d e v e l o p e d i n e a c h g r o u p ( S r e n i ) o n a c c o u n t o f i t s p a r t i c u l a r e c o n o m ic r e s o u r c e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t. I n f a c t, s k i l l i n t e c h n i q u e a n d t r a d e s e c r e t s c o u l d b e m o n o p o l i s e d a n d h a n d e d dow n o n l y b y e x c l u s i v e n e s s. " (1 4 ) A n o t h e r p o i n t t o c o n s i d e r i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e g r o w t h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t i n a r t a n d a r c h i t e c t u r e, t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e, a g r i c u l t u r e, l i t e r a - t u r e, r e l i g i o n, e t c. i n t h e D e c c a n i n t h e p e r i o d o f o u r s t u d y. F o r i n s t a n c e t h e e v i d e n c e o f i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d l i t e r a t u r e t e l l s u s o f t h e f a b u l o u s p r o g r e s s m ade i n t h e s e f i e l d s i n t h e r u l e o f s u c h d y n a s t i e s a s t h e C h a l - u k y a s, t h e R a s h t r a k u t a s, t h e H o y s a l a s, e t c. G u i l d s c a n b e s e e n a s a n a t u r a l e x t e n s i o n o f s u c h g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t. T h e y w e r e a l o g i c a l r e s u l t o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t i n e c o n o m ic f i e l d s.
15 31 (1 5 ) Y e t a n o t h e r f a c t o r t h a t p o s s i b l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e g r o w t h o f g u i l d s i s t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r. T h e m y t h o l o g i c a l o r i g i n o f t h e g u i l d s m u s t h a v e c a u g h t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e. T h i s w i l l b e s e e n i n t h e 38 c a s e o f t h e A y y a v o l e g u i l d i n a s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r P e o p l e b e l i e v e d i n t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s a n d s t o r i e s. T h e y t r a c e d t h e o r i g i n o f g u i l d s w i t h t h e h e l p o f r e l i g i o u s a n d m y t h o l o g i c a l l e g e n d s. 39 A c c o r d i n g t o J h a, s u c h a p r a c t i c e o n l y h e l p e d g u i l d s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e m s e l v e s f i r m l y. T h e s e c o m m e r c i a l c o m m u n i t i e s now b e g a n t o c l a i m a n a n c i e n t l i n e a g e. S o f a r t h i s h a d b e e n t h e m o n o p o ly o f t h e p r i e s t l y c l a s s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r h o l d o n t h e a n c i e n t l o r e. Now t h e t r a d e r s a n d a r t i s a n s w ho h a d g a i n e d i n e c o n o m ic s t a t u s, a l s o a d o p t e d t h i s m y t h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t (1 6 ) S c h o l a r s l i k e S a m m a d a r a n d G h o s h a l h a v e c i t e d a n i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t o r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e g r o w t h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f g u i l d s. T h i s r e l a t e s t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f B u d d h is m a n d J a i n i s m. A c c o r d i n g t o S a m m a d a r, t h e r e l i g i o u s r e v o l u t i o n s c a u s e d b y B u d d h is m a n d J a i n i s m h a d e c o n o m ic a n d s o c i a l r e p e r c u s s i o n s a s w e l l. W i t h b o t h t h e s e r e l i g i o n s, t h e i r p o p u l a r d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s b e c a m e m o r e p o p u l a r w i t h t h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s a s w e l l a s w i t h t h e K s a t r i y a s - b o t h o f whom d i d n o t h a v e t o o f a v o u r a b l e a p o s i t i o n i n t h e B r a h m a n i c a l r e l i g i o n. T h e
16 32 i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l a n d m e r c a n t i l e c l a s s e s g o t a g r e a t b o o s t. T h e y b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t p a t r o n s o f t h e tw o r e l i g i o n s a n d m ade g e n e r o u s g r a n t s t o m o n a s t e r i e s a n d m o n k s. T h e r e w a s t h u s a r e m a r k a b l e g r o w t h o f g u i l d s i n t h e B u d d h i s t p e r i o d. G u i l d s w e r e t h e m e t h o d o f r e s i s t i n g t h e s u p r e m a c y o f t h e B r a h m i n s a n d t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n. 41 A c c o r d i n g t o G h o s h a l, c o n t e m p o r a r y r e l i g i o u s m o v e m e n ts se e m t o h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e e c o n o m ic s y s t e m. T h e e f f e c t o f t h e tw o r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e s o f B u d d h is m a n d J a i n i s m m ay h a v e a c c e l e r a t e d t h e g r o w t h o f g u i l d s. P r o b a b l y t h e s e e d s o f g u i l d o r g a n i s a t i o n m ay b e f o u n d i n t h e s y s t e m o f t h e S a r t h a v a h a s. T h i s f o r m o f c o r p o r a t e a c t i v i t y h a s b e e n d e a l t w i t h a t l e n g t h b y M o t i c h a n d r a. S a r t h a r e f e r r e d t o m e r c h a n t s w ho i n v e s t e d t h e i r ow n c a p i t a l a n d c a r r i e d o n t r a d e w i t h o u t s i d e m a r k e t s, t r a v e l l i n g i n a c a r a v a n. T h e i r l e a d e r w a s t h e S a r t h a v a h a, a t e r m t h e n e a r e s t E n g l i s h e q u i v a l e n t o f w h i c h i s c a r a v a n l e a d e r. We com e a c r o s s f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e S a r t h a v a h a i n t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e D e c c a n a s w e l l a s i n t h e J a t a k a s. T h e S a r t h a v a h a h e l d a n i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n a s h e w a s t h e c a p t a i n o r c h i e f o f t h e t r a v e l l i n g m e r c h a n t s. k n o w le d g e o f t r a d e r o u t e s. He h a d t o h a v e a g o o d He d e c i d e d o n s u c h t h i n g s a s s t a g e s o f t h e j o u r n e y, h a l t s, r o u t e s, m e a s u r e s o f
17 33 s e c u r i t y a n d p r o t e c t i o n, t h e u s e o f w a t e r a n d f o o d i f s c a r c e, e t c. M e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p w e r e e x p e c t e d t o o b e y t h e d e c i s i o n s t a k e n b y t h e S a r t h a v a h a. He w a s a n i n t e l l i g e n t o r g a n i s e r w ho h a d t o e n s u r e t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e c a r a v a n s a n d l e a d th e m t o t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n. T h e o f f i c e o f t h e S a r t h a v a h a a s d e s c r i b e d i n 43 t h e J a t a k a s, s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n h e r e d i t a r y. T h e S a r t h a v a h a i s a l s o m e n t io n e d a s a n i m p o r t a n t o f f i c i a l i n t h e A n d h r a s o c i e t y, i n t h e r u l e o f t h e S u n g a s a n d 44 K a n v a s. T h i s i s r e f e r r e d t o b y S m i t h i n h i s d e c r i p - t i o n o f t h e c l a s s e s o f p e o p l e. We a l s o com e a c r o s s i n s t a n c e s o f t h e g e n e r o u s d o n a t i o n s m a de b y t h e S a r t h a v a h a s. T h e r e i s a r e f e r e n c e t o a g i f t o f a c a v e m ade b y a S a r t h a v a h a a l o n g w i t h 45 o t h e r s i n a K u d a B u d d h i s t c a v e i n s c r i p t i o n. A n o t h e r c a v e i s s a i d t o h a v e b e e n t h e g i f t m ade b y S i v a d a t a, t h e w i f e o f a S a r t h a v a h a n am ed V e h a m i t a i n a K u d a B u d d h i s t 46 c a v e i n s c r i p t i o n. S i m i l a r l y, a c a v e f o r B u d d h i s t m o n k s w a s t h e g i f t g i v e n b y A s a l a m i t a, t h e s o n o f t h e S a r t h a v a h a A c h a d a s a. T h e s y s t e m o f t h e S a r t h a v a h a s w o r k e d a s a m o b i l e c o r p o r a t i o n t h a t w a s m ade u p o f t r a d e r s. T h e a im o f s u c h a n a s s o c i a t i o n w a s t o e n s u r e p r o t e c t i o n on t h e l o n g j o u r n e y s u n d e r t a k e n f o r t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e. T h e h a z a r d s f a c e d b y t h e m e r c h a n t s w e r e m a n y s u c h a s w i l d
18 34 a n i m a l s, b a n d s o f r o b b e r s, w i l d t r i b e s, e t c. S i n c e t h e r e w a s n o a g e n c y t o p r o t e c t th e m, t h e t r a d e r s t o o k i t u p o n t h e m s e l v e s a n d f o r m e d g r o u p s o r g u i l d s. T h i s m ay h a v e b e e n a r o u g h f o r m o f c o r p o r a t e l i f e b u t t h e t r a d e r s w e r e p a r t o f a g r o u p, w i t h r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s a n d t h e S a r t h a v a h a a s t h e i r c h i e f. (c ) B r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s o f g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s i n t h e D e c c a n 48 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o e x a m in e t h e v a r i e t y o f f u n c t i o n s p e r f o r m e d b y g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s. D a t a g a t h e r e d f r o m i n s c r i p t i o n s c l e a r l y s h o w s t h a t g u i l d s w e r e n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o j u s t t h e e c o n o m ic s p h e r e o f t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e. T h e i r w o r k i n g i n c l u d e d s o c i a l, j u d i c i a l, a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n s a s w e l l. (a ) T h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f g u i l d s w a s a n e c o n o m ic o n e. T h e y w e r e f o r m e d b y t r a d e r s a n d a r t i s a n s t o b a s i c a l l y r e g u l a t e t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e. G u i l d s o f c r a f t s m e n w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s T h e y r e g u l a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n t i n s t i t u t i o n o f a p p r e n t i c e s h i p, w h e r e b y t h e y t r a i n e d y o u n g m en i n t h e v a r i o u s a r t s a n d c r a f t s. T h e y t h u s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s p e c i a l i s a t i o n o f l a b o u r. G u i l d s l o o k e d a f t e r w a g e s, r u l e s o f w o r k, m a r k e t s, e t c. T r a d e a n d m e r c h a n t g u i l d s w e r e m a i n l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s a l e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g o o d s. G u i l d s p r o v i d e d p r o t e c t i o n a n d s e c u r i t y t o
19 35 m e r c h a n t s a n d t h e i r m e r c h a n d i s e o n l o n g t r a d e r o u t e s. T h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t r a d e a n d c r a f t g u i l d s c o n t r i b u t e d t o e c o n o m ic p r o g r e s s a s a w h o l e. (b ) G u i l d s a l s o c a r r i e d o u t t h e i m p o r t a n t e c o n o m ic f u n c t i o n o f b a n k i n g. G u i l d s, a s we w i l l s e e, a c c e p t e d d e p o s i t s o f m o n ey a n d l a n d f r o m t h e k i n g a n d p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s. T h e y p a i d o u t i n t e r e s t o n t h e s e su m s t o t h e d e p o s i t o r s l i k e a n y m o d e r n b a n k. B u t i n a d d i t i o n t h e y t o o k o n t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f c a r r y i n g o u t t h e v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s s p e c i f i e d b y t h e d o n o r s. D o n o r s o f t e n s t i p u l a t e d t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t b e u s e d t o m a i n t a i n a la m p, f e e d B r a h m i n s, o f f e r f l o w e r s t o a d e i t y, p r o v i d e c l o t h e s f o r m o n k s, e t c. G u i l d s u n d e r t o o k t o s a t i s f y s u c h s p e c i f i c a t i o n s. w e l l - d e f i n e d, A l l b a n k i n g t r a n s a c t i o n s w e r e m ade u s i n g c l e a r p r o c e d u r e s d e v e l o p e d b y t h e g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s. G u i l d s m u s t h a v e i n v e s t e d t h e su m s t h e y r e c e i v e d a s d e p o s i t s, i n a r e a s o f t r a d e a n d c o m m e r c e, t h e r e b y g a i n i n g p r o f i t s. (c ) T h e s o c i o - r e l i g i o u s f u n c t i o n o f g u i l d s w a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n g. G u i l d s, g u i l d - c h i e f s, g u i l d - m e m b e r s m ade l a v i s h g r a n t s f o r r e l i g i o u s a n d s e c u l a r p u r p o s e s u s u a l l y i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f l a r g e a s s e m b l i e s. T h e y m ade g r a n t s f o r t e m p l e s a n d s h r i n e s, t h e y b u i l t a n d r e p a i r e d t a n k s, a r r a n g e d t e m p le p r o c e s s i o n s
20 35 a n d f e s t i v a l - c e l e b r a t i o n s, e t c. S u c h f u n c t i o n s a r e a m p ly p r o v e d i n i n s c r i p t i o n a l e v i d e n c e. (d ) G u i l d s o c c u p i e d a d e f i n i t e p o s i t i o n i n t h e j u d i c i a l h i e r a r c h y. T h e y h a d t h e p o w e r t o l e g i s l a t e, a r b i t r a t e a n d p u n i s h g u i l d m e m b e r s. G u i l d s g o v e r n e d t h e i r m e m b e r s b y a s e t o f w e l l - d e f i n e d r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s. T h e y c o u l d s e t t l e d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n m e m b e r s, b e t w e e n t h e g u i l d a n d a m e m b e r, d e c i d e p u n i s h m e n t f o r v a r i o u s o f f e n c e s a n d s o o n. T h e k i n g o r t h e S t a t e u p h e l d t h e u s a g e s a n d j u d g e m e n t s o f g u i l d s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s. (e ) I n a d d i t i o n, g u i l d s a l s o c a r r i e d o u t a m i l i t a r y f u n c t i o n i n t h a t t h e y l o o k e d a f t e r p r o t e c t i o n a n d s e c u r i t y. I n o r d e r t o d o s o, m a n y i m p o r t a n t a n d w e a l t h y g u i l d s m a i n t a i n e d m i l i t a r y u n i t s o f t h e i r o w n. T h e g u a r d s o r s o l d i e r s t h e y h i r e d m u s t h a v e e n s u r e d t h e s a f e t y o f g o o d s, e s p e c i a l l y i n t r a n s i t. We w i l l a l s o s e e how t h e m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h o f g u i l d s h e l p e d t h e S t a t e i n t i m e s o f n e e d. I n a n e m e r g e n c y, t h e S t a t e c o u l d t a k e t h e h e l p o f t h e s e m i l i t a r y g u i l d s r a t h e r t h a n a p p e a l t o a n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r y o r r u l e r. ( f ) G u i l d s w e r e i m p o r t a n t a n d w e a l t h y b o d i e s t h a t c o m m a n d e d a g o o d p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y. T h e i r s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e, t h e i r e f f i c i e n t f u n c t i o n i n g, t h e i r w e a l t h a n d s t a t u s o f t e n e a r n e d th e m a v o i c e i n l o c a l a f f a i r s.
21 37 G u i l d s w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t. T h e y a r e m e n t i o n e d a s c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e l o c a l a s s e m b l i e s i n e p i g r a p h s. T h e S t a t e o f t e n t o o k t h e i r v i e w s i n t o a c c o u n t i n m a t t e r s o f t a x a t i o n, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n, e t c. G u i l d s r e c e i v e d g i f t s a n d g r a n t s, e x e m p t i o n f r o m c e r t a i n p a y m e n t s, e t c. T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f g u i l d s t h e r e f o r e n e e d s t o b e e x a m in e d. (g ) On t h e w h o l e, g u i l d s h e l p e d t r a d e r s a n d a r t i s a n s t o f a c e p r o b l e m s a n d c o m p l e x i t i e s o f w o r k. T h e y l o o k e d a f t e r t h e i r i n t e r e s t s b y r e s t r i c t i n g c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m o u t s i d e. T h e y m a n a g e d t o g e t f a v o u r s f r o m t h e S t a t e. G u i l d s w e r e w e l l - e q u i p p e d t o s o l v e p r o b l e m s, b e t h e y r e l a t e d t o t r a d e, f i n a n c e, j u s t i c e o r s e c u r i t y. I n a l l t h i s, g u i l d s w e r e h e l p e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y e n j o y e d a g o o d d e a l o f a u t o n o m y i n t h e i r w o r k i n g. T h e y w e r e e x t r e m e l y w e l l - o r g a n i s e d a n d w e r e h a r d l y h a m p e r e d b y s t a t e - i n t e r f e r e n c e. b e t t e r l i v e l i h o o d, T h i s e n a b l e d th e m t o p r o v i d e a b e t t e r p r o s p e c t s a n d p r i v i l e g e s t o m e m b e r s. T h e v e r y f a c t t h a t g u i l d s c a r r i e d o u t s u c h a w i d e r a n g e o f f u n c t i o n s i s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n t h e y o c c u p i e d i n s o c i e t y. T h e y se e m t o h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d i n a l l a s p e c t s o f l i f e - e c o n o m ic, s o c i a l, a d m i n i s t r a t i v e, r e l i g i o u s a n d m i l i t a r y, a f a c t t h a t i s b o r n e o u t i n e a c h o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r s.
22 38 (d) R e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n G u i l d a n d C a s t e. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o o b s e r v e how th e c a s t e i n f l u e n c e d t h e g u i l d and w as i n f l u e n c e d by g u i l d s s y s t e m i n t u r n. The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n g u i l d an d c a s t e m u st be e x a m in e d fro m tw o a n g l e s. (1) The c a s t e s y s t e m may h a v e i t s e l f been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f o r m a t io n and g r o w t h o f g u i l d s. To t a k e th e e x a m p le o f t h e p o t t e r ' s c a s t e - t h e s o n o f a p o t t e r w as e n c o u r a g e d t o an d u s u a l l y d i d t a k e up th e p r o f e s s i o n o f h i s f a t h e r. He c o n t i n u e d t o be a p o t t e r, u s i n g th e t o o l s an d s k i l l s i n h e r i t e d fro m h i s f o r e f a t h e r s. The s k i l l o r th e p r o f e s s i o n becam e l i m i t e d t o a s m a l l g r o u p a n d th e m em bers o f th e g r o u p te n d e d t o fo rm a g u i l d. T h i s w as e s p e c i a l l y so i n th e c a s e o f c r a f t - g u i l d s, The h e r e d i t a r y n a t u r e o f t h e d i f f e r e n t a r t s and c r a f t s was l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e f o r m a t i o n a n d f u r t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f g u i l d s. I n s u c h c a s e s t h e r e f o r e, t h e c a s t e d e c id e d w h ic h g u i l d a p e r s o n j o i n e d. O r i n o t h e r w o r d s, th e c a s t e i n f l u e n c e d a p e r s o n ' s c h o i c e o f p r o f e s s i o n w h ic h i n t u r n i n f l u e n c e d m e m b e rsh ip o f a g u i l d w i t h th e r e s u l t t h a t m em bers o f a p a r t i c u l a r g u i l d a l l b e lo n g e d t o one c a s t e.
23 39 (2) On t h e o t h e r h a n d we f i n d t h a t g u i l d s o f t e n i n c l u d e d m em bers o f d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s b u t f o l l o w i n g th e same p r o f e s s i o n. I n f a c t one o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e te rm S r e n i i s t h a t i t w a s a c o r p o r a t i o n o f t r a d e r s e n g a g e d i n t h e same p r o f e s s i o n, t h o u g h b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t 4 9 c a s t e s. T h i s h a s b e en d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r. Due t o m e a g re i n s c r i p t i o n a l e v i d e n c e, i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o s a y w h ic h o f t h e s e tw o f a c t o r s w a s s t r o n g e r. We h a v e a few e x a m p le s t h a t p o i n t t o b o t h. C a s t e w a s no d o u b t an i m p o r t a n t f o r c e i n s o c i e t y. A c c o r d i n g t o A p p a d o r a i ^ ^, " c a s t e h a s b een t h e s o c i a l m edium t h r o u g h w h ic h th e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e p e o p le w ere f o r a l o n g t im e a n d s t i l l a r e t o a l a r g e e x t e n t, r e g u l a t e d. The g u i l d w as t h e r e f o r e i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h c a s t e, i t w as p a r t l y a r e l i g i o u s f e l l o w s h i p an d p a r t l y a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c i n s t i t u t i o n. " W here t h e c a s t e s y s t e m w as r i g i d, g u i l d s and c o r p o r a t i o n s m u s t h a v e b e e n g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y c a s t e r u l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s. The r e s u l t w as t h a t a man b e l o n g i n g t o a w e a v e r 's c a s t e u s u a l l y j o i n e d a w e a v e r 's g u i l d, a p o t t e r ' s c a s t e a p o t t e r ' s g u i l d a n d so o n. T h u s t h e y c o n t i n u e d th e p r o f e s s i o n a n d c a s t e c o i n c i d e d w i t h th e g u i l d. G u i l d s i n t h e l o n g r u n m u st h a v e s t r e n g t h e n e d
24 40 c a s t e and c a s t e - d i v i s i o n s. S u c h a t r e n d seem s t o h av e been a f e a t u r e o f c r a f t - g u i l d s i n p a r t i c u l a r. A c c o r d i n g t o C o o m arasw am y ^ ^, " c a s t e m eans a t o n ce h i s p r i d e a n d h i s d u t y ( d h a r m a ). C a s t e i s a s y s t e m o f n o b l e s s e o b l i g e ; e a c h man i s b o r n t o h i s o r d a i n e d w o rk, t h r o u g h w h ic h he c a n s p i r i t u a l l y p r o g r e s s. " Th I t i s e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t t o e x am in e th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t c a s t e may n o t h a v e b e en th e a l l - d e c i d i n g f a c t o r. O t h e r f a c t o r s l i k e common i n t e r e s t s, r e s i d e n c e i n a l o c a l a r e a, common o c c u p a t i o n o r t r a d e, a l s o c o u n t e d. W here c a s t e w as n o t th e s o l e - d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r o f g u i l d - m e m b e rsh ip, we h av e m em bers o f d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s c o m in g t o g e t h e r t o fo rm a g u i l d. T h i s m u st h a v e been a common p r a c t i c e e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e c a s e o f m e r c h a n t an d t r a d e g u i l d s. T hey w ere n o t u s u a l l y b a s e d on h e r e d i t y o f p r o f e s s i o n n e i t h e r d i d t h e y h a v e a p e rm a n e n t b a s e l i k e c r a f t - g u i l d s. The t r a d e r s w ere a lw a y s on th e m ove. I n th e c a s e o f s u c h g u i l d s, c a s t e c o u l d n o t h a v e been th e p r im e c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r m e m b e rsh ip. An i n s c r i p t i o n o f t h e H o y s a l a r u l e r V i r a - B a l l a l a - 52 D e v a I I, d a t e d 1188 A. D. r e f e r s t o a m e r c h a n t Kammata C h a t t i S e t t i. The p o i n t t o be n o t e d i s t h a t he i s d e s - c r i b e d a s a B r a h m in m e r c h a n t. The f a c t t h a t he b e lo n g e d t o t h e c l a s s o f th e B r a h m in s d i d n o t p r e v e n t him fro m "rii. 70
25 b e c o m in g a m e r c h a n t. He i s s a i d t o h a v e im p o r t e d p e a r l s, h o r s e s, e l e p h a n t s, e t c. i n s h i p s a n d s o l d them t o k i n g s. A r e c o r d d a t e d 1176 A. D. ^ ^, fro m th e r e i g n o f t h e K a l a c h u r i r u l e r R a y a m u r t i S o v id e v a r e f e r s t o one S o v i s e t t i. H e re t o o, we a r e t o l d t h a t he w as th e so n o f a B r a h m in m e r c h a n t B a m m i s e t t i o f K o n a f i g e r i. He h ad s e t o u t f o r t r a d e a n d when he r e a c h e d a f i e l d i n A n n i g e r e, a few r o b b e r s a t t a c k e d h im. S o v i s e t t i i s s a i d to h av e k i l l e d many o f them. G u i l d s d i d c r o s s c a s t e d i v i s i o n s when th e y i n c l u d e d m em bers o f d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s. T h ey c u t a c r o s s d i v i d i n g l i n e s o f c a s t e an d c r e e d. We a l s o se e t h a t a member o f one c a s t e c o u l d c h a n g e h i s p r o f e s s i o n a n d y e t n o t l o s e h i s c a s t e. He s t i l l s t a y e d w i t h i n i t. I n t h i s 54 c o n n e c t i o n, O ld e n b e r g w r i t e s, " t h e B r a h m in m ig h t, a s e c o n o m ic n e c e s s i t y o f t e n e n o u gh made h im, c a r r y on o t h e r t h a n a p r i e s t l y p r o f e s s i o n ; he m i g h t becom e a c u l t i v a t o r, a b u t c h e r o r a t h i e f ; th e n he w a s p e r h a p s t r e a t e d w i t h c o n te m p t, b u t he r e m a in e d a B r a h m i n. " D i k s h i t a r ^ ^ t a k e s b o t h a s p e c t s o f th e g u i l d - c a s t e r e l a t i o n s h i p when c o m m e n tin g on i t. A c c o r d i n g t o him, p r o f e s s i o n an d c a s t e w ere c l o s e l y l i n k e d. A t th e same t im e, a man h ad a c h o i c e o f f o l l o w i n g a p r o f e s s i o n o t h e r t h a n t h e one d i c t a t e d by h i s c a s t e. C a s t e, i n h i s o p i n i o n.
26 42 m u st h a v e go n e a l o n g way " t o p r e v e n t p a r t y f e e l i n g s, c o n f l i c t o f l a b o u r and c a p i t a l, c u t - t h r o a t c o m p e t i t i o n. I t a l s o h e lp e d t o c r e a t e p e a c e a n d g o o d w i l l i n s o c i e t y. " Some i n t e r e s t i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s a r i s i n g fro m th e g u i l d - c a s t e r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e e x a m in e d b e lo w. (1) I n c a s e s w h e re th e g u i l d c o i n c i d e d w i t h th e c a s t e, o s t r a c i s m m u st h a v e b e en a s p e c i a l l y e f f e c t i v e p u n i s h m ent f o r e r r i n g m em bers. The c a s t e o r g u i l d w as a m a n 's c l u b, h i s u n io n, h i s w o r k - p l a c e, h i s m ean s o f s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s i d e n t i t y, e t c. I t p r o v id e d h im w i t h a p o s i t i o n i n th e s o c i a l o r d e r. I t lo o k e d a f t e r h i s n e e d s. I n su c h a s i t u a t i o n, i f a g u i l d o s t r a c i s e d a member f o r an o f f e n c e, he m u st h ave fo u n d i t n i g h i m p o s s i b l e t o s u r v i v e o u t s i d e t h e g u i l d. I t a f f e c t e d him s o c i a l l y a s w e l l a s e c o n o m i c a l l y. S u c h o s t r a c i s m a s a m eans o f p u n is h m e n t seem s t o h a v e been common, e s p e c i a l l y i n t im e s when c a s t e - r u l e s w ere r i g i d. E ve n a s l a t e a s th e s e v e n t e e n t h and e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s, g u i l d s i n Ahm edabad^^ f o l l o w e d t h i s p r a c t i c e. I f t h e m em bers o f th e g u i l d a l l b e lo n g e d t o on e c a s t e, t h e o f f e n d i n g member w a s e x p e l l e d fro m th e c a s t e. I f th e g u i l d i n c l u d e d m em bers o f d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s, th e g u i l d th e n u s e d i t s i n f l u e n c e w i t h o t h e r g u i l d s t o p r e v e n t t h e member fro m g e t t i n g w o rk.
27 43 (2) Some s c h o l a r s b e l i e v e t h a t i n i t i a l l y g u i l d s may h a v e i n c l u d e d m em bers o f d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s. B u t g r a d u a l l y g u i l d s e v o lv e d i n t o s u b - c a s t e s l i k e t h e c a s t e o f p o t t e r s, w e a v e r s, b l a c k - s m i t h s, g o l d - s m i t h s, m a s o n s, e t c. T h i s w as p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e S m r t i r u l e s p l a c e d c a s t e - r u l e s and c r a f t - r u l e s on t h e same l e v e l. F u r t h e r, i t w as p r e s c r i b e d t h a t th e k i n g s h o u ld make la w s o n l y a f t e r t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t th e u s a g e s a n d c u s t o m s o f t h e c a s t e s, t h e S r e n i s, t h e f a m i l i e s, e t c. So g r a d u a l l y, o v e r a p e r i o d o f tim e g u i l d s o r p r o f e s s i o n s e v o lv e d i n t o s u b - c a s t e s. I n t h i s r e g a r d, J ain ^ '^ s a y s t h a t on a c c o u n t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n t h e y h a d, c e r t a i n r u l e s and c u s t o m s o f t h e i r own. g u i l d s d e v e lo p e d So t h e y te n d e d t o fo rm a d i s t i n c t o r d e r i n s o c i e t y. G r a d u a l l y th e y gre w o r e v o lv e d i n t o s u b - c a s t e s. 5 8 ^ (3) A c c o r d i n g t o A p p a d o r a i, th e m ore t h e S r e n i o r g u i l d c o i n c i d e d w i t h th e c a s t e, t h e g r e a t e r w as th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m e m b e rsh ip e x p a n d in g b e y o n d th e b o u n d s o f t h e tow n o r v i l l a g e. We h a v e t h u s se e n how th e two f o r c e s o f c a s t e and g u i l d i n f l u e n c e d one a n o t h e r. On th e one h an d we h av e t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t th e f a c t t h a t c a s t e w as a s t r o n g f a c t o r t h a t d e t e r m in e d g u i l d m e m b e r sh ip. On t h e o t h e r h a n d, t h e f a c t r e m a in s t h a t th e c o n n e c t i o n b e tw e e n c a s t e
28 44 and o c c u p a t io n w a s n o t u n a l t e r a b l e. We do h av e c a s e s o f g u i l d s i n c l u d i n g m em bers o f d i f f e r e n t c a s t e s, y e t f o l l o w i n g a s i n g l e t r a d e o r p r o f e s s i o n. I t seem s t h a t t h e f a c t o r s o f c a s t e, p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n v e n ie n c e, p e r s o n a l c h o ic e and r e s i d e n c e m u st h av e been th e v a r i o u s f o r c e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e d g u i l d - m e m b e r s h i p. I n c o n c l u s i o n, we se e t h a t i n g e n e r a l th e E n g l i s h w ord ' g u i l d ' h a s been t h e n e a r e s t e q u i v a l e n t o f th e term ' S r e n i '. T h i s h a s been u s e d t o d e n o te th e t r a d e and c r a f t g u i l d s t h a t w ere an i m p o r t a n t c o n s t i t u e n t o f l i f e i n t h e D e c c a n. I t h a s b e en fo u n d t h a t g u i l d s w ere b a s i c a l l y e c o n o m ic u n i t s t h a t lo o k e d a f t e r t r a d e and commerce y e t th e y w ere n o t m ere a s s o c i a t i o n s o f c a p i t a l. T h e i r i n t e r e s t s a n d t h e i r f u n c t i o n s h ad a w id e r s c o p e. G u i l d s w ere w e l l o r g a n i s e d b o d i e s t h a t w ere known f o r t h e i r e f f e c t i v e and e f f i c i e n t f u n c t i o n i n g. h ad a d e f i n i t e r o l e t o p l a y i n e c o n o m ic f i e l d s, T hey s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s f i e l d s, j u d i c i a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f i e l d s. A l l t h e s e a s p e c t s w ere c l o s e l y r e l a t e d and h e lp e d g u i l d s t o e v o lv e i n t o s t r o n g b o d i e s t h a t e n jo y e d th e s u p p o r t o f th e S t a t e and s o c i e t y. Common o c c u p a t io n, common i n t e r e s t s and p r o b a b l y a common f a i t h h e l d t h e s e g r o u p s o f a r t i s a n s an d t r a d e r s t o g e t h e r. The u n i t y a m o n g st t h e s e t r a d i n g an d m a n u f a c t u r i n g
29 45 c l a s s e s b r o u g h t them d e f i n i t e a d v a n t a g e s. I m p o r t a n t a m o n g s t t h e s e w e re b e t t e r a n d e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r m em bers, a b e t t e r l i v e l i h o o d o r m ean s o f s u b s i s t e n c e, p r i v i l e g e s fr o m t h e S t a t e, e t c. A l l t h i s c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e s u c c e s s o f g u i l d s an d t h u s t o t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e econom y a s a w h o le. G u i l d s, t h r o u g h t h e a g e s h e l d a r e s p o n s i b l e p o s i t i o n i n s o c i e t y.
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