Sex-Role Attitudes, Sex, and Logos of Control: A Study of their Interrelationships in Reference to Social Change

Transcription

1 Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College Sex-Role Attitudes, Sex, and Logos of Control: A Study of their Interrelationships in Reference to Social Change Virginia de Oliveira-Alves Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Counseling Commons Recommended Citation de Oliveira-Alves, Virginia, "Sex-Role Attitudes, Sex, and Logos of Control: A Study of their Interrelationships in Reference to Social Change" (1990). Dissertations This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact maira.bundza@wmich.edu.

2 SEX-ROLE ATTITUDES, SEX, AND LOGOS OF CONTROL: A STUDY OF THEIR INTERRELATIONSHIPS IN REFERENCE TO SOCIAL CHANGE by V ir g in ia de O liv e ira -A lv e s A D i s s e r t a t i o n S u b a itte d to th e F a c u lty o f The G rad u ate C ollege in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l a e n t o f th e r e q u ir e a e n ts f o r th e D egree o f D o cto r o f E d u catio n D epartm ent o f C ounselor E d u catio n and C o u n selin g Psychology W estern M ichigan U n iv e rs ity Kalam azoo, M ichigan A p r il 1990

3 SEX-ROLE ATTITUDES, SEX, AND LOCHS OF CONTROL: A STUDY OF THEIR INTERRELATIONSHIPS IN REFERENCE TO SOCIAL CHANGE V ir g in ia de O liv e ira -A lv e s, Ed.D. W estern M ichigan. U n iv e rs ity, 1990 The p re s e n t re s e a rc h was a p a r t i a l r e p l i c a t io n o f an e a r l i e r r e s e a rc h c o n cern in g th e d is c r im in a tio n o f s e x -ro le e g a lita r ia n is m from a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism. T h is stu d y examined th e r e l a t i o n s h ip s betw een th e s e s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s and sex, and betw een th e form er and lo c u s o f c o n tr o l, in re fe re n c e to th e s o c ia l changes o f th e l a t e 1960s and e a r l y 1970s. The s u b je c ts w ere fem ale and male c o lle g e s tu d e n ts. The r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e sam ple was a v e ra g e in s e x - r o le e g a lita r ia n is m. I t was more l i b e r a l on a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism th a n a p re v io u s r e s e a rc h sam ple. The s e x -ro le a t t i t u d e s w ere found to be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d : when s u b je c ts were e g a l i t a r i a n, th e y a ls o ten d ed to be f e m in is t, and v ic e - v e r s a. T his co h eren ce was g r e a te r among fem a le s, who w ere a ls o more l i b e r a l on b o th a t t i t u d i n a l d im e n s io n s. L ocus o f c o n t r o l was n o t a p r e d ic to r o f s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s. A p re v io u s ly r e p o r te d tre n d in lo c u s o f c o n tr o l tow ard e x te r n a l i ty was found to have le v e le d o f f. The e x t e r n a l i t y o f th e p re s e n t sam ple was a s s o c ia te d w ith i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l is s u e s. The r e s u l t s s u g g e s te d t h a t c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s may be more

4 r e c e p tiv e to sex e q u a lity o f r i g h t s, b u t a s co n c ern s in te r p e r s o n a l a s p e c ts o f r o l e s, th e y a r e n e ith e r t r a d i t i o n a l n o r n o n tr a d itio n a l. Fem ale s t u d e n t s te n d to be more r e c e p tiv e to s e x - r o le changes, p o s s ib ly because (a ) t h e i r r o l e s r e f l e c t a s u b o r d i n a te s o c i a l p o s itio n, and (b ) th e y a lr e a d y see women p e rfo rm in g n o n tr a d itio n a l r o le s. R e g a rd in g l o c u s o f c o n t r o l, c o lle g e s tu d e n ts seem to hold t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s a b o u t s u c c e s s, ev e n when th e y b e l i e v e in e x te r n a l c o n tr o l in o th e r a r e a s. T h e ir b e l i e f s p o s s ib ly r e f l e c t a more c o n s e rv a tiv e s o c ia l c lim a te and accom m odation to th e changes o f p re v io u s d ecad es. Sex i s a p r e d ic to r o f s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s, and may c o n tr ib u te to th e a s s o c ia tio n o f s e x -ro le a t t i t u d e s w ith a t h ir d v a r ia b le. Locus o f c o n tr o l i s n o t a p r e d ic to r, p e rh a p s b ecau se i t i s u n r e la te d to sex. The p re s e n t s tu d y i s r e le v a n t to th e c o u n s e lin g o f c o u p le s, women w ith p e r s o n a l - i d e n t i ty and work c o n c e rn s, and c o lle g e s tu d e n ts in g e n e ra l w ith in te r p e r s o n a l c o n c e rn s.

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7 O rd er N u m b er Sex-role attitu d es, sex, and locus o f control: A study o f their interrelationships in reference to social change de Oliveira-Alves, Virginia, Ed.D. Western Michigan University, 1990 UMI 300 N. Zeeb RA Ann Arbor, Mt 48106

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9 Copyright by Virginia de Oliveira-Alves

10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to th a n k D r. Edward Trem bley, my d o c to r a l c o m m itte e c h a i r, and t h e o t h e r c o m m itte e m em bers, D r. R o b e r t W ait and D r. R o b ert B e ts. I a ls o want to thank D r. R o b ert B ra sh e a r f o r h is a s s is ta n c e w ith th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is and h i s encouragem ent, and D r. Jody E sper o f V a lp a ra is o U n iv e rs ity f o r h e r s u p p o rt. Above a l l, I th an k my husband, Evaudro Camara, fo r h i s s u p p o rt, w ith o u t which t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n p ro c e s s would have been even more o f an o r d e a l. V irg in ia de O liv e ira -A lv e s i i

11 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES... v CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION... 1 S tatem en t o f th e Problem... 1 Im portance o f th e P re s e n t R esearch f o r C ounseling Psychology... 2 D e f in itio n o f T e rm s... 3 Background and Im portance o f th e Problem... 7 I I. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A ttitu d e s Toward F e m in ist I s s u e s and Sex R ole The Locus o f C o n tro l D i m e n s i o n I I I. METHODOLOGY R esearch D esign H y p o t h e s e s P o p u la tio n and S a m p le A ssessm ent In stru m e n ts P r o c e d u r e...49 S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly sis IV. R E SU L T S...52 V. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY D is c u ssio n o f th e R e s u l t s C onclusions iii

12 T ab le o f Concents C ontinued CHAPTER L im ita tio n s o f th e P r e s e n t R e s e a r c h Recommendations f o r F u rth e r R esearch Im p lic a tio n s f o r C ounseling APPENDICES A. P e rso n a l D ata B l a n k B. The A ttitu d e Toward F e m in ist Is s u e s S c a le C. The Scx-R ole E g a lita ria n is m S e a le... I l l D. S ex-s ole E g a lita r ia n is m S c a le (SRES), S c o rin g key E. R o tte r s I-E S c a le F. C le aran ce From th e Human S u b je c ts I n s t i t u t i o n a l Review B oards O ra l I n s t r u c t i o n s H. G e n e ral I n s t r u c t i o n s (W ritte n ) BIBLIOGRAPHY iv

13 LIST OF TABLES 1. C h a r a c t e r i s tic s o f th e P re s e n t Sam ple: Y ear in S ch o o l, Age, and M a rita l S t a t n s SEES Means and S ta n d ard D e v ia tio n s f o r F em ales, M ales and th e Combined G r o u p C u rre n t and 1975 ATFI Means f o r th e Combined Group C o r r e la tio n C o e f fic ie n ts f o r th e R e la tio n s h ip Between SRES and ATFI f o r th e C u rre n t R esearch G r o u p s ATFI Means and S ta n d ard D e v ia tio n s f o r th e Fem ale and th e Male G r o u p s R e l i a b i l i t y C o e f f ic ie n ts f o r th e I-E F a c t o r s P rin cip al-c o m p o n en t A n a ly sis F a c to r M a trix f o r I-E F a c to r I I I C o e f f ic ie n ts f o r th e C o r r e la tio n Between SRES and th e I-E M easures f o r th e Three R esearch G r o u p s C o e f f ic ie n ts f o r th e C o r r e la tio n Between ATFI and th e I-E M easures f o r th e Three R esearch Groups Means and S ta n d ard D e v ia tio n s on th e O r ig in a l I-E S cale f o r th e C u rre n t Sam ple, and th e 1980 and th e 1966 S a m p le s P e rc e n ta g e o f I n te r n a l and E x te rn a l R esponses on th e O r ig in a l I-E S c a le I t e m s Means and S ta n d ard D e v ia tio n s on th e M odified I-E S c a le and th e I-E F a c to rs I, I I, and I I I f o r th e T hree R e se a rc h Groups M a trix o f I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o a s o f th e I-E M easures fo r th e Combined Group (205 S u b j e c t s ) M a trix o f I n te r c o r r e l a tio n s o f th e I-E M easures fo r Fem ales (116 s u b je c ts ) M a trix o f I n te r c o r r e l a tio n s o f th e I-E M easures f o r M ales (88 S u b j e c t s ) v

14 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION S tatem en t o f th e Problem The m ajor s o c ia l e v e n ts o f th e l a t e 1960s and e a r ly 1970s in Am erican s o c ie ty have a f f e c te d s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s. I n d iv id u a ls have become more a c c e p tin g o f n o n tr a d itio n a l r o le s f o r women and men (P h a re s, 1984). The p re s e n t d i s s e r t a t i o n r e s e a r c h i s an exam in atio n o f two s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s, s e x -ro le e g a l i t a r i a n i s m an d a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism ( f e m in is t is s u e s ) in th e l i g h t o f s o c ia l change. One p u rp o se o f t h i s re s e a rc h i s to exam ine th e r e la tio n s h ip betw een th e s e two s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s, and to f in d o u t w hether two o th e r v a r i a b le s, sex and lo c u s o f c o n tr o l, a r e r e l a t e d t o, t h a t i s, a re p r e d i c t o r s o f s e x - r o le e g a lita r ia n is m (SRE) and a t t i t u d e tow ard fem in ism (ATP). The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s a p a r t i a l r e p l i c a t i o n o f Ring and R in g s (1986) r e s e a r c h on th e d is c r im in a tio n o f s e x - r o le e g a l i t a r i a n i s m from fem inism. In th e p r e s e n t re s e a rc h, th e a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism was m easured by a s c a le d i f f e r e n t from th e one used by R ing and R ing. I n a d d itio n, th e p r e s e n t stu d y in c lu d e s a more s p e c i f ic fo c u s on th e e f f e c t o f lo c u s o f c o n tr o l on th e e x p re s s io n o f s e x - r o le e g a lita r ia n is m and o f a t t i t u d e tow ard fe m in is t is s u e s. Locus o f c o n tr o l i s a p e r s o n a l i t y d im e n s io n d e s c r ib e d in J u l i a n R o t t e r 's (1966) s o c ia l le a r n in g th e o r y. T his p e r s o n a lity 1

15 dim ension i s c o n c e p tu a liz e d a s a continuum o f c o n tr o l. One end o f th e continuum co n c ern s i n t e r n a l i t y ( I n t e r n a l c o n tr o l ), and th e o th e r end c o n cern s e x te r n a l i ty ( e x te r n a l c o n tr o l ). I n t e r n a l lo c u s o f c o n t r o l h a s to do w ith th e b e l i e f t h a t th e outcom es o f o n e 's b e h a v io r a r e d eterm ined by what one d o es. E x te rn a l lo c u s o f c o n tr o l h as to do w ith th e b e l i e f t h a t b e h a v io ra l outcom es a r e c o n tr o lle d by e x te r n a l f a c to r a. The o t h e r p u rp o s e o f th e p re s e n t re s e a rc h i s to fin d o ut w hether c o lle g e s tu d e n ts a r e l i b e r a l o r becoming more l i b e r a l tow ard s e x - r o le chan g es, and more e x te r n a l i n t h e i r lo c u s o f c o n tr o l; an d, i f th e ev id e n c e 3hows t h a t l o c u s o f c o n t r o l i s becom ing m ore e x t e r n a l a s p r e v io u s f i n d i n g s i n d ic a te ( C e llin i & K antorow ski, 1 932), in what r e s p e c t t h e i r lo c u s o f c o n tr o l i3 e x te r n a l. The change in lo c u s o f c o n tr o l i s exam ined a lo n g w ith s e x -ro le change a s a way o f g a th e rin g in fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e e f f e c t o f s o c ia l f a c to r s on c o g n itiv e changes. Im portance o f th e P r e s e n t R esearch f o r C ounseling Psychology The stu d y o f s e x -ro le a t t i t u d e s i s im p o rta n t to c o u n s e lin g psychology because th e s e a t t i t u d e s a r e in c r e a s in g ly re c o g n iz e d a s c e n t r a l to p e r s o n a lity developm ent and f u n c tio n. a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e le v a n t to i d e n t i t y is s u e s. S e x -ro le a t t i t u d e s The a c q u is itio n o f s e x - r o le b e h a v io rs and a t t i t u d e s le a d s to a sen se o f s e l f (B lo ck, ). I n a d d i t i o n, th e s tu d y o f s e x - r o l e a t t i t u d e s e n a b le s c o u n s e lin g p s y c h o lo g i s ts t o ex a m in e b e h a v io r in te rm s o f th e i n t e r a c t io n betw een p e r s o n a lity p ro c e s s e s and s o c ia l f a c t o r s.

16 The p r e s e a t re s e a rc h i s e s p e c ia lly r e le v a n t to th e c o u p le s c o u n s e lin g s i t u a t i o n, a s w e ll a s to th e c o u n selin g o f women. The a p p lic a tio n o f knowledge ab o u t s e x -ro le a t t i t u d e s and th e changes in th e s e a t t i t u d e s in th e c o u p le s c o u n selin g c o n te x t may f a c i l i t a t e th e n e g o tia tio n o f m utual e x p e c ta tio n s b e tw e e n th e i n d i v i d u a l s in v o lv e d, a s w e ll a s t h e i r in te r p e r s o n a l a d ju stm e n t. T h is knowledge i s a p p lic a b le in th e c o u n se lin g o f women, e s p e c ia lly in c a s e s where th e y a re g ra p p lin g w ith q u e s tio n s r e l a te d to i d e n t ity is s u e s, such a s th e one co n c ern in g m arriag e and fa m ily, on th e one hand, and c a r e e r, on th e o t h e r. T h is knowledge i s a ls o r e le v a n t to th e c o u n s e lin g o f men when th e y a r e a l s o a tte m p t in g t o a d j u s t to s e x - r o le chan g es. The concern w ith lo c u s o f c o n tr o l i n th e p re s e n t r e s e a rc h i s a ls o r e le v a n t to in d iv id u a l c o u n s e lin g. In fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e lo c u s o f c o n tr o l o f in d iv id u a ls may r e v e a l p o s s ib le so u rc e s o f a n x ie ty, a s r e f l e c t e d by a p o s s ib ly im p aired sen se o f c o n tr o l o v er g iv en e v e n ts i n t h e i r l i v e s. D e f in itio n o f Terras There a r e te n s a in terras o r co n c ep ts r e le v a n t to t h i s r e s e a rc h. A ttitu d e A t t i t u d e s a r e g e n e r a l l y th o u g h t to be o p in io n s and longs ta n d in g judgm ents, w hich, a s M ednick, H ig g in s, and K irsc h e n b a u n (1975) in d ic a te d, o p e ra te a s p r e d is p o s itio n s fo r s p e c if ic a c tio n, and f o r resp o n d in g to som ething s p e c if ic in th e environm ent. In

17 a d d itio n to th e c o g n itiv e ( o p i n i o n / b e l i e f ) an d th e b e h a v i o r a l ( a c tio n /re s p o n s e ) a s p e c ts, a t t i t u d e s a ls o have an a f f e c tiv e compon e n t. The l a t t e r i s s tr e s s e d in Bern's (1970) d e f i n i tio n o f a t t i tu d e s a s " lik e s and d i 3 lik e 3," o r th e in d iv i d u a l 's a f f i n i t i e s f o r and a v e rs io n s to " s i t u a t i o n s, o b je c ts, p e rs o n s, group3, o r any o th e r i d e n t i f i a b l e a s p e c t o f our e n v iro n m en t, in c lu d in g a b s tr a c t id e a s and s o c ia l p o l ic ie s " (p. 1 4 ). The a s s o c ia tio n o f th e c o g n itiv e a s p e c t o f a t t i t u d e w ith b e h a v io r, t h a t i s, th e d is p o s itio n a l c h a r a c te r o f a t t i t u d e s, i s s tr e s s e d in S h e r if and S h e r i f 's (1967) d e f i n i t i o n o f a t t i t u d e a s " th e i n d i v i d u a l 's s e t o f c a te g o r ie s f o r e v a lu a tin g a stim u lu s domain (p ). As c i t e d by Greenw ald ( ), K rech, C r u tc h f ie ld, and B a lla e h y in d ic a te d t h a t such e v a lu a tio n s can be p o s itiv e o r n e g a tiv e, and th e c o rre sp o n d in g a c tio n tow ards a g iv en s tim u lu s w i l l be e i t h e r p ro o r con. The e v a lu a tio n s and th e a c tio n ta k e n r e f l e c t th e i n d iv i d u a l 's l i k e s and d i s l i k e s, o r th e a f f e c t i v e component o f a t t i t u d e s. Sex-R.ole E g a lita r ia n is m S e x - r o l e e g a lita r ia n i s m i s an a t t i t u d e tow ard th e r o le s o f women and man (K ing & K ing, ). In d iv id u a ls o f an e g a l i t a r i a n o r ie n t a t io n r e l a t e t o o th e r s im p a r tia l l y. They do n o t ju d g e o th e r s on th e b a s is o f sex. A ttitu d e Toward Feminism A ttitu d e tow ard fem inism i s an a t t i t u d e tow ard changes i n sex r o l e. T h is a t t i t u d e i s m easured by th e A ttitu d e Toward F e m in ist

18 I s s u e s S c a le. T his s c a le was v a lid a te d i n a s tu d y by E lm o re, B rodsky, and N a ffz ig e r ( ). Expectancy E xpectancy i s one o f th e c e n t r a l c o n c e p ts in R o tte r *3 s o c ia l le a r n in g th e o ry (P h a re s, 1984). I t r e f e r s to in d iv id u a ls ' e s t i m atio n, o r t h e i r a n t i c i p a t i o n, o f th e outcom es o f t h e i r b e h a v io rs. A ccording to R o tte r, In d iv id u a ls h o ld b e l i e f s about th e consequences o f t h e i r b e h a v io r, and th e s e b e l i e f s have an e f f e c t on th e freq u en cy o r lik e lih o o d o f o c c u rre n c e o f b e h a v io r. I f in d iv id u a ls b e lie v e t h a t p o s itiv e consequences w i l l fo llo w b e h a v io r, th e b e h a v io r i s l i k e l y to o c c u r. R o tte r a ls o th o u g h t t h a t e x p e c t a n c i e s c a n be g e n e ra liz e d, when th e y a p p ly to s e v e r a l s i t u a t i o n s, and s p e c i f i c, when th e y concern s p e c if ic s i t u a t i o n s (P h a re s, 1984). Locus o f C o n tro l Locus o f c o n tr o l i s a p e r s o n a lity dim ension ab o u t th e expect a n c ie s o f in d iv id u a ls ( S tr ic k la n d, 1977). I t r e f e r s to th e b e l i e f s a b o u t what c o n tr o ls th e outcome o f b e h a v io r. I t has two farm s, i n t e r n a l lo c u s o f c o n tr o l and e x te r n a l lo c u s o f c o n tr o l. I n t e r n a l lo c u s o f c o n tr o l in v o lv e s th e b e l i e f t h a t th e e v e n ts o f o n e 's l i f e a r e c o n tin g e n t upon w hat one d o es. E x te rn a l c o n tr o l has to do w ith th e b e l i e f t h a t th e s e e v e n ts a r e c o n tr o lle d by e x te r n a l f a c t o r s, such a s lu c k, chance, p o w erfu l o t h e r s, o r f o r c e s bey o n d o n e 's c o n tr o l.

19 C o n stru c t A c o n s t r u c t i s t h e c o n c e p t u a l t a r g e t a t w h ich m easu ring o p e ra tio n s a re aim ed. I t i3 a l a b e l, a word t h a t r e f e r s to a domain o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l (b e h a v io ra l, c o g n itiv e, a n d /o r a f f e c tiv e ) e v e n ts. V a lid ity V a lid ity i s d e fin e d a s an in d ic a tio n o f th e degree to w hich a m easure does what I t i s in te n d e d to do. Thus, i t c o n c e rn s th e s c i e n t i f i c adequacy o f m easuring in s tru m e n ts. Cook and Cam pbell (1979) contended t h a t v a l i d i t y and i n v a l id i t y " r e f e r to th e b e s t a v a ila b le ap p ro x im atio n o f th e t r u t h o r f a l s i t y o f p r o p o s itio n s " ( p. 3 7 ). V a lid ity d e n o te s adequacy o f g iv en o p e ra tio n a l re p re s e n t a t i o n s. C o n stru c t V a lid ity The d e te rm in a tio n o f c o n s tr u c t v a l i d i t y answ ers th e q u e s tio n o f w hether o p e ra tio n s do r e p r e s e n t a p a r t i c u l a r c o n s tr u c t. I t i s a ls o c a l l e d t r a i t v a l i d i t y (C am pbell & Cook, 1979). N unnally (1967) in d ic a te d t h a t t h i s ty p e o f v a l i d i t y co n cern s th e m easurem ent o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l t r a i t s. D is c rim in a n t V a lid ity D i s c r im in a n t v a l i d i t y r e f e r s to th e e x t e n t to w hich one c o n s tr u c t d i f f e r s from a n o th e r. I t i s an e s tim a te o f th e deg ree o f "independence" o f th e c o n s tr u c t. O p e r a tio n a lly, i t r e f e r s to th e

20 deg ree to w hich v a r ia tio n in th e m easurem ents r e p r e s e n ts v a r ia tio n s in th e c o n s tr u c t. C onvergent V a lid ity C onvergent v a l i d i t y (co n v erg en ce) i s a ty p e o f v a l i d i t y found when d i f f e r e n t m easures o f th e same t r a i t c o r r e la t e w ith on a n o th e r. Background and Im portance o f th e Problem S o c ia l Changes W ithin th e l a s t two and a h a lf decades th e co n cern w ith s o c ia l in flu e n c e s on b e h a v io r h as i n t e n s i f i e d among c o u n se lin g p sycholog i s t s. The im portance o f s o c ia l f a c to r s in p e r s o n a lity and b e h a v io r i s acknow ledged in th e e n t i r e f i e l d o f psychology, a s in d ic a te d by t h e r e c e n t r e s o lu tio n s o f th e Am erican P sy c h o lo g ic a l A s s o c ia tio n (1937) about g ra d u a te e d u c a t i o n. T h ese r e s o l u t i o n s i n c l u d e a d i r e c tiv e f o r th e stu d y o f th e r o le o f s o c ia l p ro c e s s e s and s o c ia l change in b e h a v io r and p e r s o n a l i t y f u n c t i o n i n g. T h is g ro w in g aw areness a p p e a rs to be a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f th e im pact o f s o c ia l and c u l t u r a l e v e n ts o f th e l a s t two d e cad es. These in c lu d e th e c i v i l r i g h t s movement and su b seq u ent in c re a s e in th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f e t h n i c / r a c i a l m in o r itie s in Am erican s o c ie ty ; economic f lu c tu a tio n s s e e n i n r e c e s s io n, h ig h i n f l a t i o n, th e energy c r i s i s ; p o l i t i c a l e v e n ts such a s th e V ie tn a m W ar, an d W a te r g a te ; i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s ; th e l i b e r a l i z a t i o n o f s o c ia l a c tio n, a s m a n ife ste d in changes in th e se x u a l m ores a n d d r e s s c o d e s ; an d th e w om en's l i b e r a t i o n movement an d w om en's g r e a te r p a r t i c i p a tio n i n a re a s

21 p re v io u s ly h e ld to be th e domain o f men. The s o c ia l, p o l i t i c a l, and economic e v e n ts o f r e c e n t h is to r y 3eem to have a f f e c te d th e way in d iv id u a ls behave and th e way th ey th in k a b o u t th e m s e lv e s an d o t h e r s. These e v e n ts have a ls o a f f e c te d th e way psychology and o th e r d i s c i p lin e s conduct in q u iry in fo human b e h a v io r. Sex R ole and Sex R o le Changes The s o c io c u ltu r a l tra n s fo rm a tio n undergone by Am erican s o c ie ty in c lu d e s a change in sex r o le s and in a t t i t u d e s tow ards sex r o le s, an a re a o f in q u iry o f s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t to p s y c h o lo g is ts. M cc lelland (1975) in d ic a te d t h a t 3ex r o le i s a n im p o r ta n t d e te r m in a n t o f b e h a v io r. B lock (1973) s tr e s s e d th e im portance o f sex r o le f o r th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f p e r s o n a lity f u n c tio n in g. F o r B lo c k, s e x - ty p e d b e h a v io r o r se x u a l i d e n t i t y r e s u l t s in more th a n th e achievem ent o f m a s c u lin ity o r fe m in in ity. I t le a d s to a 3ense o f s e l f. T h is c la im g iv e3 su p p o rt to th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t th e stu d y o f sex r o le is s u e s i s im p o rta n t to th e a re a s o f p sy ch o th erap y and c o u n s e lin g. A ttitu d e and Sex-R ole A ttitu d e The s tu d y o f a t t i t u d e s a ls o enhances th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f p e r s o n a lity and b e h a v io r. T h is stu d y has g ra d u a lly come to th e fo re in th e a re a s o f c o u n s e lin g and c l i n i c a l psychology, a s th e em phasis s h if te d from c l a s s i c a l p s y c h o a n a ly sis to ego a n a ly s is, a n d a s a g e n e r a l c o g n itiv e tre n d em erged in psychology. K aren Hom ey i s among th e p e r s o n a lity t h e o r i s t s who f i r s t fo cu sed on th e r o le o f a t t i t u d e s. A c c o rd in g to Ford and Urban ( ), Hom ey d e fin e d

22 a t t i t u d e s a s "com plex p a tte r n s o f p e rc e iv in g, th in k lu g, and f e e lin g t h a t th e p e rso n h as a c q u ire d tow ards v a rio u s p e o p le and th in g s " (p ). Thus, a t t i t u d e s r e p r e s e n t fundam ental a s p e c ts o f co g n i t i o n and p e r s o n a lity. The s t r e s s on a t t i t u d e s and a t t i t u d e change a ls o a p p e a rs in a more r e c e n t s o c ia l - p s y c h o lo g i c a l p a ra d ig m in c o u n s e lin g psychology. T h is paradigm in v o lv e s th e a p p lic a tio n o f c o n c e p ts from s o c ia l psychology to problem s in c o u n s e lin g psychology (D ora, 1934a; F r ie d la n d e r & S chw artz, 1985; S tro n g, 1968, 1982). The em phasis o s a t t i t u d e w ith in t h i s framework becomes a p p a re n t in t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o g n itiv e d isso n a n c e th e o ry, w hich ha3 been used a s an e x p la n a tio n o f change in th e ra p y (D orn, 1984a, 1984b; S tr o n g, , ). A t t i t u d e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r y u s e f u l in th e a ssessm en t o f th e e f f e c t s o f s o c ia l in flu e n c e s on b e h a v io r, cogn i t i o n, and a f f e c t. The stu d y o f c u r r e n t sex r o le s and 3 e x -ro le a t t i t u d e s, f o r exam ple, in v o lv e s th e ex am in atio n o f th e e f f e c t s o f th e changes t h a t have o c c u rre d i n women's r o le s a s a r e s u l t o f th e s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l e v e n ts o f th e l a t e 1960s and e a r l y s, p a r t i c u l a r l y th e women's movement o f th a t tim e. The Im pact o f S o c ia l Change on Sex-R ole A ttitu d e s In th e U n ited S ta te s th e women's movement em erged in th e l a t e 1960s a m id st a g r e a t d e a l o f p o l i t i c a l a c tiv is m. At th e tim e, women became in v o lv e d w ith th e c i v i l r i g h t s movement and o th e r p o l i t i c a l movements. T h is involvem ent h e lp e d r a i s e t h e i r c o n s c io u s n e ss ab o u t sex i n e q u a lity, a s w e ll a s develop th e s k i l l s n e c e s s a ry to a d d re ss i n s t i t u t i o n a l in e q u a lity a f f e c t i n g women (A ndersen, 1983). A nother

23 s ig n i f ic a n t f a c t o r in th e developm ent o f th e women's movement was th e ex p an sio n o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n fo llo w in g th e second W orld War. The grow th o f e d u c a tio n gave women in c re a s e d e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r t u n ity. As a r e s u l t o f becom ing b e t t e r e d u c a te d, a g r e a te r number o f women became more aw are o f t h e i r s ta n d in g i n s o c ie ty and began to g e t p o l i t i c a l l y in v o lv e d (A n d ersen, 1983; C hafe, 1977). Chafe co ntended t h a t th e movement tow ard r a c i a l e q u a lity and th e women's movement were th e two s o c ia l e v e n ts o f g r e a t e s t im pact on norms and i n s t i t u t i o n s in Am erican s o c ie ty. The women's movement soon had an e f f e c t on s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s. Survey r e s u l t s showed fem ale and male c o lle g e s tu d e n ts becoming more l i b e r a l tow ards sex r o le d u rin g th e p e rio d betw een 1970 and 1975 (C h afe, 1977). An e v e n t o f g r e a t s ig n if ic a n c e in th e tra n s fo r m a tio n o f sex r o l e was th e in c re a s e in women's p a r t i c i p a tio n i n th e la b o r f o rc e. In 1900 o n ly 1/5 o f a l l women worked f o r wages (M acio n is, 1989). By th e mid 1900s more th an 40% o f th e t o t a l c i v i l i a n la b o r fo rc e was fem ale (B e n o k ra iti3 & F e a g in, 1986; S a p iro, 1936). I n % of th e Am erican women were p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e work f o rc e (M acio n is, 1 989). A lthough a la r g e p e rc e n ta g e o f th e s e women w ere l i k e l y to h a v e c h i l d r e n t h a t c o u ld be a s young a s s i x y e a rs o ld (62.4%, a c c o rd in g to M a c io n is), f a c t o r s such a s low f e r t i l i t y r a t e s owing, f o r e x a m p le, t o a d v a n c e s i n c o n t r a c e p t i v e te c h n o lo g y, d elay ed c h i l d b e a r i n g, d e la y e d m a r r ia g e, a n d c h i l d l e s s m a r r ia g e s, a r e th o u g h t to have c o n tr ib u te d to th e g r e a te r p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f woman in th e jo b m arket (C h afe, 1977; M acio n is, 1989; R e sc ro a t & S h eh an, 1984). A ccording to th e 1987 Bureau o f th e Census R e p o rt, in 1986

24 27.3% o f women aged betw een 25 and 29 were c h i l d l e s s, in c o n tr a s t w ith 1960 when o n ly 12.6% o f women in t h a t age b ra c k e t were in th e same s i t u a t i o n ( M a c io n is, ). O th e r c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s in c lu d e d th e ex p an sio n o f th e economy and consequent demand f o r a g r e a te r number o f w orkers (S a p iro, 1986), a s w e ll a s problem s o f th e economy, such a s h ig h i n f l a t i o n. The problem s made i t d i f f i c u l t fo r co u p le s to manage on o n ly one incom e. A ll th e a fo rem en tio n ed s o c ia l movements had a s i g n i f i c a n t im pact on th e l i v e s o f women, and on p e o p le 's b e l i e f s ab o u t th e r o le o f women. The Study o f Sex-R ole A ttitu d e s in Psychology P s y c h o lo g is ts have been tr y in g to sy s te m a tiz e th e in fo rm a tio n ab o u t s e x -ro le a t t i t u d e change. S e v e ra l s e x - r o le is s u e s have become th e fo cu s o f a t t e n t i o n. Two o f th e s e a re th e a t t i t u d e to w a rd s f e m i n i s t i s s u e s a n d s e x - r o l e e g a l i t a r i a n i s m. S e x -ro le e g a lita r ia n is m i s an a t t i t u d i n a l dim ension co n c ern in g a d is p o s itio n to respond to in d iv id u a ls w ith o u t b e in g in flu e n c e d by t h e i r se x (B e e re, K ing, B eere, & K ing, 1984; King & K ing, 1983). In d iv id u a ls o f an e g a l i t a r i a n o r ie n t a t io n tow ard se x r o le a re s a id to r e l a t e to o th e r s i m p a r t i a l l y, r e g a r d l e s s o f th e o t h e r p e r s o n 's 3 e x. S e x - r o l e e g a lita r ia n is m i s th e r e f o r e a n o n - s e x is t a t t i t u d e tow ard women and men. S g a lita r ia n s do n o t u se se x a s a c r i t e r i o n f o r ju d g in g th e b e h a v io r o f o th e r in d iv id u a ls. S e x -ro le e g a lita r ia n is m has been c o n c e p tu a liz e d a s a t r a i t d i s t i n c t fro m fe m in is m o r a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism. The Sex-R ole E g a lita r ia n is m S c a le (SRES), a m easure o f " a t t i

25 tu d e tow ard th e e q u a lity o f m ale s a n d fe m a le s " (K in g & K in g, 1983, p ), was developed a s a s te p tow ards th e c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e c o g n itiv e p ro c e s s e s h a v in g to do w ith sex r o l e. In h e r c r i t i cism o f many 3 c a le s and m easures o f g e n d e r-re la te d c o n s tr u c ts, Beere (1979) a d d re sse d th e la c k o f c l a r i t y in th e d e f i n i tio n o r i d e n t i f i c a tio n o f g e n d e r-re la te d t r a i t s o r c o n c e p ts. A ccording to B eere, t e s t d e v e lo p e rs in t h i s a re a o f in q u ir y do n o t a lw a y s s p e c i f y c le a r l y th e domain to be m easured by t h e i r t e s t s. The d e v e lo p e rs o f th e SRES t r i e d to a c h ie v e g r e a t e r p r e c is io n, a s w e ll a s to av o id o th e r t e 3 t c o n s tr u c tio n problem s (B eere e t a l., 1984). In a stu d y o f th e d is c rim in a n t v a l i d i t y o f th e SEES, K ing and King (1986) t e s t e d th e h y p o th e s is t h a t fem inism r e f l e c t s fa v o ra b le o p in io n s tow ard women o n ly, w hereas e g a lita r ia n is m i s an a t t i t u d e tow ards th e sex r o le o f women and men. High e g a lita r ia n is m (SRES) s c o re s r e f l e c t i m p a r tia l i ty tow ards women and men, n o t a fa v o ra b le a t t i t u d e tow ard women o r men. As w ith a l l th e 3 tu d ie s on s e x -ro le e g a lita r ia n is m, th e s e r e s e a r c h e r s used a sample o f fem ale and male s u b je c ts. King and King found t h a t th e r e la tio n s h ip betw een e g a l i t a r i anism and fem inism was c u r v i l in e a r. The r e l a tio n s h ip betw een th e two t r a i t s was a ls o re p o r te d to be l i n e a r. A ccording to King and K ing, l i n e a r i t y was e x p e c te d b e c au se, a s m easured, th e t r a i t s in q u e s tio n and one a s p e c t in common: tow ards women in n c n tr a d itio n a l r o le s. th ey b o th r e f l e c t e d a t t i t u d e s C u r v llin e a r ity co ncerned th e d iffe re n c e betw een e g a lita r ia n is m and fem inism. A ccording to King and K ing, o n ly th e e g a lita r ia n is m m easure (SRES) a d d r e s s e d th e

26 a t t i t u d e s to w a rd s men i n n o n t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s. T h e re fo re, as c o n c e p tu a liz e d, h ig h e r S&ES s c o re s r e f l e c t e d eudorseiseaf o f non- t r a d i t i o n a l r o le s f o r b o th women and men, and n o t o n ly f o r women, a s was th e c a se w ith th e fem inism m easure employed by S in g and S in g. Hence, when th e r e l a tio n s h ip betw een SSES and th e fem inism measure in v o lv e d th e upper end o f SSES s c o re s, "th e r e l a tio n s h ip betw een th e two a t t i t u d i n a l m easures... [became] l e s s p o s itiv e o r ' [ f l a t te n e d ] o u t '" (p ). King and King re p o rte d a b i v a r i a t e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f ic i e n t o f.7 1, an in d ic a tio n t h a t th e l i n e a r component o f th e r e la tio n s h ip re p re s e n te d a 50% s h a rin g o f v a ria n c e. They a ls o re p o rte d a m u ltlp le - c o r r e la tio n c o e f f ic i e n t o f.7 3 f o r th e c u r v i l in e a r component o f th e r e l a tio n s h ip, in d ic a tin g t h a t in th e c a se o f c u r v i l i n e a r i t y th e r e was a 53% s h a rin g o f v a ria n c e betw een th e two a t t i t u d i n a l m easures. A3 in d ic a te d, King and S in g e x p la in e d t h a t o n ly th e SRES concern ed a t t i t u d e s tow ards women and men. T h e ir f i n d i n g s a s w e l l a s t h e i r r a t i o n a l e f o r th e d is c r im in a tio n o f s e x -ro le e g a lita r ia n is m w ere dependent on th e way a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism was m easured and d e fin e d. They used th e A ttitu d e Toward Women S c a le (AWS) (Spence & H elm reich, 1972), w hich i s view ed a s a m easure o f a t t i t u d e tow ard women's r o le o n ly. K ing and S ing d e fin e d th e a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism a s th e a t t i t u d e tow ard woman's r o le s and s e x - r o le e g a lita r ia n is m a s th e a t t i t u d e tow ard th e r o le s o f women an d man. A n o th e r a s p e c t i n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een s e x - r o le e g a lita r ia n is m and a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism comes to th e fo re i f a n o th e r m easure o f a t t i t u d e to w ard s fem inism, nam ely, th e A ttitu d e Toward

27 F e m in ist Is s u e s S e a le (ATFI) (Elm ore e t a l., 1975), i s c o n s id e re d. A rev iew o f th e ATFI ite m s in d ic a te s t h a t, a lth o u g h s im ila r to th e AffS, th e ATFI I s more com prehensive. More im p o rta n tly, th e ATFI r e p r e s e n ts a view o f fem inism t h a t in v o lv e s l a r g e - s c a le changes in se x r o l e. These changes in sex r o le in v o lv e th e s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e. F u rth erm o re, a lth o u g h r e f e re n c e s to women a r e more fre q u e n t in b o th ATFI and AWS, ATFI i m p l ic i tly and e x p l i c i t l y a d d re s s e s n o n - tr a d i- t i o n a l r o le s f o r men a s w e ll a s f o r women. F i r s t o f a l l, b ein g la r g e in s c a le, th e changes in sex r o le n e c e s s a r ily in v o lv e th e p o s itio n and b e h a v io r o f men a s w e ll. More s p e c i f i c a l l y, item s 3uch a s number 40 " th e work week sh o u ld be sh o rte n e d to open more jo b s f o r women and t o a llo w men more tim e to spend in t h e i r homes" and number 53 "C are o f c h ild r e n s h o u ld be s h a r e d e q u a l l y by b o th sp o u ses" a d d re s s n o n - tr a d itio n a l r o le s f o r men d i r e c t l y. A ll th r e e s c a le s (SRES, AWS, and ATFI) m easure th e e x te n t to w h ich i n d i v i d u a l s h o ld n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l view s ab o u t sex r o le s. However, th e AWS i s more s im ila r to th e SRES i n t h a t b o th a d d re ss sex r o le s in th e c o n te x t o f in te r in d iv id u a l r e l a tio n s h ip s. A lthough th e ATFI a ls o d e a ls w ith in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s, i f goes beyond t h i s concern and in c lu d e s n o n - tr a d itio n a l view s o r b e l i e f s ab o u t sex r o le a t th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l l e v e l, and in th e c o n te x t o f e q u a l r ig h t s and s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l s tr u c tu r e. In t h i s r e s p e c t, i t r e f l e c t s b e l i e f s ab o u t th e l a r g e r group o r a b o u t' s o c i e t a l f a c t o r s. I t a d d re s s e s th e c o l l e c t i v i t y, and n o t o n ly p e rs o n -to -p e rs o n is s u e s. The ATFI a d d re s s e s th e fo llo w in g is s u e s : th e e lim in a tio n o f sex b ia s l a th e E n g lish lan g u a g e, th e e lim in a tio n o f sex d is c r im in a tio n and

28 o f f i c i a l enforcem ent o f e g a l i t a r i a n m easures in a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s, a t th e l o c a l, n a tio n a l, and even in te r n a t io n a l l e v e l. Item s such a s number 38 "Government lo a n s and c o n tr a c ts a v a ila b le to m in o r ity b u s in e s s e s s h o n ld b e a v a i l a b l e to b u s in e s s e s run and owned by women" and number 56 "The s te r e o ty p e s and l a b e l s w hich women a re s o c ia liz e d to a c c e p t in o u r s o c ie ty must be exam ined and overcome" a re two exam ples o f ATFI item s t h a t r e f l e c t a view o f fem inism th a t em phasizes r i g h t s, group Issu e s and e x te r n a l f a c t o r s. On th e o th e r hand, th e m a jo rity o f th e is s u e s re p re s e n te d in th e SRES a re a t th e p e rs o n a l o r in te r p e r s o n a l l e v e l, a s d em onstrated by item no. 65 "A m arria g e i s more l i k e l y to be s u c c e s s fu l i f th e w if e 's n eed s a re c o n s id e re d a f t e r th e h u sb a n d 's n e e d s." Some item s r e f e r to b ro a d e r is s u e s, a s in number 18 "Men a n d women a r e e q u a lly q u a lif ie d f o r law enforcem ent jo b s" b u t n o t in a c le a r l y p o l i t i c a l way. G e n e ra lly, th e c o n c e r n i s n o t w ith th e s o c i a l s tr u c tu r e. Item number 69 " Q u a lity e d u c a tio n b e n e f its b o th men and women" may be an exam ple o f a b e l i e f ab o u t e x te r n a l, o r b r o a d, i s s u e s. H ow ever, in t h i s ite m le g is la tiv e /g o v e r n m e n ta l i n t e r v e n tio n, th e concern w ith th e s o c ia l c o n te x t, doe3 n o t seem to be a s s tro n g a s i t i s in th e ATFI. The m ajor t h r u s t in th e AWS i s a ls o in te r p e r s o n a l o r i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c, a s shown in ite m number 5 "Under o r d in a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s, men should be e x p e c te d to pay a l l th e ex penses w h ile th e y a r e o u t on a d a te." The s i m i l a r i t y betw een AWS a a d SRES r e g a r d in g t h i s p e r s o n a l su g g e ste d in Ring and R in g 's (1986) ( i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c ) elem ent i s sta te m e n t t h a t "p erso n s w ith l i b e r a l s e x - r o l e a t t i t u d e s [a re ] more i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c and s e l f -

29 r e l i a n t... and more i n te r n a l [em phasis added] w ith re g a rd to t h e i r achievem ent a s p ir a tio n s " (p ). T h e ir c o n c lu sio n was based on th e c o r r e la t io n s o f SRES and AWS w ith e ig h t p e r s o n a lity t r a i t sc o re s (su c h a s need f o r dom inance). King and King re p o rte d th a t when SRES was r e l a te d to a p e r s o n a lity t r a i t so was AWS. A ccording to th e s e r e s e a r c h e r s, th e ev id ence was "m odestly s u p p o rtiv e o f th e converg ent v a l i d i t y o f th e two a t t i t u d i n a l c o n s tr u c ts " (p. 211). I n th e p r e s e n t d i s s e r t a t i o n r e s e a rc h and in l i g h t o f th e r e l a t i v e f e a tu r e s o f th e th re e in stru m e n ts d is c u s s e d, ATFI was used in s te a d o f AWS. In a d d itio n, one o f th e v a r ia b le s in c lu d e d in th e p re s e n t a n a ly s is was sex. W ith r e s p e c t to t h i s v a r ia b le, re s e a rc h r e s u l t s have shown men to be s u p p o rtiv e o f n o n tr a d ltio n a l sex r o le s f o r women (C h afe, 1977). However, s e n 's a c c e p ta n c e o f s e x - r o l e change h a s been found to in v o lv e g e n e ra l p r in c i p le s, r a t h e r th an s p e c if ic a s p e c ts o f e q u a lity (T hornton & Freedm an, 1979). F in d in g s a ls o in d ic a te t h a t, w ith r e s p e c t to sex r o le and s e x -ro le a t t i t u d e s, women have changed more th an men (Goode, 1932). Even when men en d o rse th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women in th e la b o r f o rc e, th e y r e s i s t changes in t h e i r own r o le (Komarovsky, 1976; H a c io n is, 1989). In l i g h t o f th e s e f in d in g s, i t becomes im p o rta n t to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e way fem ales and m ales d i f f e r in t h e i r b e l i e f s ab o u t sex r o le s. A n o th e r o b j e c t i v e o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s to fin d o u t w hether SRES i s a s s o c ia te d w ith one ty p e o f lo c u s o f c o n tr o l, and ATFI w ith a d i f f e r e n t ty p e o f lo c u s o f c o n tr o l. F in d in g s from King and K in g 's (1986) stu d y o f th e d is c rim in a n t v a l i d i t y o f s e x -ro le

30 e g a lita r ia n is m shows lo c u s o f c o n tr o l to be a f a c t o r in th e d is c rim in a tio n betw een e g a lita r ia n is m and fem inism. I n S in g and S in g 's stu d y th e a n a ly s is in c lu d e d th e c o r r e la t io n o f SRES, and o f AWS, w ith L e fc o u rt, Von B ayer, Ware, and C o x 's (1979) M u ltid im e n sio n a l- M u ltia t tr i b u tio n a l C a u s a lity S c a le ( th e MMCS m easu res), a m easure th a t a s s e s s e s th e lo c u s o f c o n tr o l f o r a f f i l i a t i o n and achievem ent. SRES was found to c o n tr ib u te "an indep en d en t p o r tio n o f th e v a ria n c e t o a c h iev em en t lo c u s o f c o n tr o l beyond t h a t c o n tr ib u te d by AWS" (S in g 6 S in g, 1986, p ). T h is fin d in g was th o u g h t to le n d su p p o rt to th e h y p o th e s is t h a t SRES and AWS m easure d i s t i n c t t r a i t s. As I n d ic a te d, in th e p re s e n t r e s e a rc h th e r e la tio n s h ip betw een lo c u s o f c o n t r o l a n d s e x - r o l e a t t i t u d e s i s exam ined. In t h i s r e s e a rc h, lo c u s o f c o n tr o l was m easured by R o t t e r 's I n te r n a l- E x te r n a l S c a le (I-E ) ( R o tte r, 1966). T h is s c a le i s a m easure o f lo c u s o f c o n tr o l, o r ig i n a lly used a s a u n id im en sio n a l s c a le. I t has a ls o been used a s a m u ltid im e n sio n a l v a r ia b le in f a c t o r - a n a l y t ic s tu d ie s o f I-E e x p e c ta n c ie s. The I-E dim ensions o r f a c t o r s w ere found to be u s e fu l in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f lo c u s o f c o n tr o l s ty l e s o f in d i v id u a ls who en d o rse d n o n t r a d i t i o n a l v ie w s ( G u r in, G u r in, L ao, & B e a ttie, 1969). In th e p re s e n t r e s e a rc h b o th th e u n id im en sio n a l and th e m u ltid im e n sio n a l m easures were u sed. I n th e m a jo rity o f s tu d ie s, lo c u s o f c o n tr o l h as been used a s a p r e d i c to r, t h a t i s, a s an indep en d en t v a r ia b le. R e se a rc h e rs h a v e a l s o f o c u s e d on i t s o p e r a t i o n a s a d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e. R egarding i t s o p e ra tio n a s a dependent v a r ia b le, o b s e rv a tio n s and r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s in d ic a te t h a t in d iv id u a ls ' p e rc e iv e d lo c u s o f

31 c o n tr o l h as changed s in c e S p e c if i c a l ly, c o lle g e s tu d e n ts a re r e p o r t e d l y becom ing more e x te r n a l ( C e llin i & K antorow ski, 1982;? h a re s, 1984; R o tte r, 1966); t h a t i s, in th e 1980s c o lle g e s tu d e n ts were found to be l e s s l i k e l y to view th em se lv e s in c o n tr o l o f th e e v e n ts in t h e i r l i v e s. In l i g h t o f t h i s change, i t a p p e a rs t h a t th e r e a s s e s s m e n t o f c o l l e g e s tu d e n ts " p e r c e iv e d lo c u s o f c o n tr o l p ro v id e s f u r t h e r ev id e n c e fo r th e n o tio n t h a t c o g n itiv e v a r ia b le s c h a n g e i n r e s p o n s e t o s o c i a l e v e n ts. In com bination w ith th e a n a ly s is o f s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e change, th e stu d y o f lo c u s o f c o n tr o l p ro v id e s e v id e n c e o f th e c o g n itiv e p ro c e s s in g o f s o c ia l in flu e n c e s. The p r e s e n t re s e a rc h exam ines th e q u e s tio n o f c o lle g e s t u d e n t s ' in c re a s e d e x t e r n a l i t y. T h is ex am in atio n i s r e le v a n t to th e stu d y o f s e x -ro le a t t i t u d e s. T h is c o n n e c tio n i s p la u s ib le in th e se n se th a t th e f a c t o r s w h ic h c o n tr ib u te d to th e movement tow ards sex (and r a c i a l ) e q u a lity may have a ls o c o n tr ib u te d to a c o n scio u sn e ss o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e te rm in a n ts o f b e h a v io r, and th e r e f o r e, to th e s h i f t in c o lle g e s tu d e n ts ' o u tlo o k from i n t e r n a l to e x te r n a l c o n tr o l o f b e h a v io ra l outcom es.

32 CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The p r e s e n t r e s e a rc h In v o lv e s th e r e l a tio n s h ip s among fo u r main v a r i a b l e s : s e x, s e x - r o l e e g a lita r ia n is m (SRES), a t t i t u d e tow ard fem inism o r fe m in is t is s u e s (ATFI), and lo c u s o f c o n tr o l ( I - E ). The review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e p re s e n te d h e re a d d re s s e s th e s e v a r ia b le s. The two s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e v a r ia b le s, SELES and ATFI, a r e p re se n te d j o i n t l y. Sex i s a d d re s s e d in th e c o n te x t o f th e d is c u s s io n about th e o th e r th r e e v a r ia b le s. A ttitu d e s Toward F e m in ist I s s u e s and Sex R oles In th e b e g in n in g o f th e 1970s p s y c h o l o g i s t s d e v e lo p e d a num ber o f m e a s u re s o f a t t i t u d e s to w a rd women's is s u e s. Beere (1979) i d e n t i f i e d 41 in stru m e n ts fo r th e a sse ssm e n t o f a t t i t u d e s tow ards v a rio u s s e x - r o le is s u e s, such a s m a rria g e, s e x -ro le e q u a lit y, s e x u a lity, th e f e m in is t m ovem ent. B e e re n o t e d t h a t t h e s e a t t i t u d e s s c a le s a r e s im i la r, n o t o n ly b ecau se th e y have a s im ila r p u rp o se, b u t a ls o b ecau se many o f them s h a re a common p o o l o f ite m s. The B e l i e f P a t t e r n s S c a le f o r M e a s u rin g A ttitu d e s Toward Fem inism, a 1936 s c a le, I s th e p ro to ty p e f o r th e s e s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e t e s t s ( B e e r e, ). T h is m e a su re h a s se rv e d a s a b a s is fo r su b seq u ent s c a le s, n o te d ly th e A ttitu d e Toward Women S c a le (AWS), which i s th e m ost w id e ly used in stru m e n t o f i t s k in d (B e e re, 1979). 19

33 O ther a ttitu d e - to w a r d women s c a l e s a r e e x e m p lif ie d by A t t i t u d e Toward W orking M others S c a le (Tetenbaum, L ig h te r, & T ra v is, 1983) and th e S c a le f o r M easuring M a n a g e ria l A t t i t u d e s Tow ard Women E x e c u tiv e s (Dubno, C o sta s, Cannon, W ankel, & S a in, 1979). These m easures c l a r i f y new c o n c ep ts about a t t i t u d e s tow ard sex r o le s. V ario u s s tu d ie s have e x p lo re d th e r e l a tio n s h ip betw een a t t i tu d e s tow ards f e m i n i s t i s s u e s an d s p e c i f i c p ro b le m s, su c h a s le a d e rs h ip ( B r itto n & Elm ore, 1976) and th e e f f e c t o f c u ltu r e in a t t i t u d i n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n (B raun & Cheno, 1978). In th e stu d y o f g e n d e r-re la te d is s u e s, th e a t t i t u d e s c a le s have a ls o been used to a s s e s s a t t i t u d i n a l change in re sp o n se t o c u l t u r a l t r a n s f o r m ation o v e r tim e and to e x p e rim e n ta l m a n ip u la tio n. As re p o rte d by P h ares ( ), th e fin d in g s from G oldberg s 1968 stu d y and from th e 1971 r e s e a rc h by P h e te rs o n, K ie s le r, and G oldberg showed t h a t, a s a w hole, c o lle g e woman e v a lu a te d c r e a tiv e work ( w r itin g in Goldb e r g s, an d p a i n t i n g i n P h e te r s o n e t a l. ' s ) done by men more p o s itiv e l y th a n th e y e v a lu a te d s im ila r work by women. However, as r e p o r t e d b y R a p in a n d C ooper ( ), t h e s e f in d in g s were n o t r e p lic a te d in su b seq u en t r e s e a rc h. P h a r e s ( ) r e p o r te d t h a t r e s e a rc h r e s u l t s in d ic a te t h a t a t t i t u d e s tow ard sex r o le (and women) have becom e i n c r e a s i n g l y l i b e r a l. E apin and C o o p e r's (1980) stu d y, f o r exam ple, f a i l e d to show d if f e r e n c e s In th e way f e m in is ts and n o n fe m in is ts (tw o c a te g o r ie s d eterm in ed th ro u g h th e use o f Dem pewolff s 1973 Feminism I I S c a le ) e v a lu a te e i t h e r f e m a le - s t e r e o t y p e d o r m a le - s te r e o ty p e d t r a i t s. A ccording to Etaugh and Spandikow 's (1981) lo n g itu d in a l