Atomic Layer Deposition of Nanostructured Materials

Transcription

1 Edited by Nicola Pinna and Mato Knez Atomic Layer Deposition of Nanostructured Materials WILEY- VCH WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH gc. Co. KGaA

2 Contents Foreword V Preface XV/I Introduction XXI List of Contributors )0(XI// Part One introduction to ALD 1 1 Theoretical Modeling of ALD Processes 3 Charles B. Musgrave 1.1 Introduction Overview of Atomistic Simulations Quantum Simulations Wave Function-Based Quantum Simulations Density Functional-Based Quantum Simulations Finite and Extended Quantum Simulations Basis Set Expansions Calculation of Properties Using Quantum Simulations Calculation of Transition States and Activation Barriers Calculation of Rates of Reaction Prediction of ALD Chernical Mechanisms Gas-Phase Reactions in ALD Surface Reactions in ALD Adsorption Reactions in ALD Ligand Exchange Reactions Example of a Calculated ALD Mechanism: ALD of Al203 Using TMA and Water 16 References 20 2 Step Coverage in ALD 23 Sovan Kumar Panda and Hyunjung Shin 2.1 Introduction Growth Techniques Step Coverage Models in ALD 28

3 Xi Contents Gordon's Model for Step Coverage 28 Parameters for Step Coverage 28 Kim's Model for Step Coverage 31 Experimental Verifications of Step Coverage Models 34 Summary 38 References 38 3 Precursors for ALD Processes 41 Matti Putkonen 3.1 Introduction General Requirements for ALD Precursors Metallic Precursors for ALD Inorganic Precursors Elemental Precursors Halides Oxygen-Coordinated Compounds Nitrogen-Coordinated Precursors Precursors Coordinated through Other Inorganic Elements Organometallic ALD Precursors Metal Alkyls Cyclopentadienyl-Type Compounds Other Organometallic Precursors Nonmetal Precursors for ALD Reducing Agents Oxygen Sources Nitrogen Sources Sulfur ant Other Chalcogenide Precursors Conclusions 50 References 51 4 Sol Cel Chemistry and Atomic Layer Deposition 61 Guyihaine Clavel, Catherine Marichy, and Nicola Pinna 4.1 Aqueous and Nonaqueous Sol Gel in Solution Aqueous Sol Gel Introduction Development of Sol Gel Chemistry Nonaqueous Sol Gel Introduction Synthesis of Nanomaterials Sol Gel and ALD: An Overview Metal Oxide Formation via Hydrolytic Routes Reaction with Metal Halides Reaction with Metal Alkoxide Reaction with Organometallic Compounds Metal Oxide Deposition under Nonaqueous Conditions 67

4 Contents I XI Alkyl Halide Elimination Ether Elimination Ester Elimination Other Reactions Concluding Remarks Mechanistic and In Situ Studies General Considerations Differences between Sol Gel in Solution and in ALD Reaction Mechanism Study Comparison of Selected Reactions Case of the Silica Deposition Case of Alkyl Halide Condensation Conclusions 76 References 76 5 Molecular Layer Deposition of Hybrid Organic lnorganic Films 83 Steven M. George, B. Yoon, Robert A. Hall, Aziz I. Abdulagatov, Zachary M. Gibbs, Younghee Lee, Dragos Seghete, and Byoung H. Lee 5.1 Introduction General Issues for MLD of Hybrid Organic Inorganic Films MLD Using Trimethylaluminum and Ethylene Glycol in an AB Process Expansion to an ABC Process Using Heterobifunctional and Ring-Opening Precursors Use of a Homotrifunctional Precursor to Promote Cross-Linking in an AB Process Use of a Heterobifunctional Precursor in an ABC Process MLD of Hybrid Alumina Siloxane Films Using an ABCD Process Future Prospects for MLD of Hybrid Organic Inorganic Films 103 References Low-Temperature Atomic Layer Deposition 109 Jens Meyer and Thomas Ried! 6.1 Introduction Challenges of LT-ALD Materials and Processes Toward Novel LT-ALD Processes Thin Film Gas Diffusion Barriers Encapsulation of Organic Electronics Encapsulation of Organic Light Emitting Diodes Encapsulation of Organic Solar Cells Conclusions 125 References 125

5 XIII Contents 7 Plasma Atomic Layer Deposition 131 Erwin Kessels, Harald Profijt, Stephen Potts, and Richard yan de Sanden 7.1 Introducfion Plasma Basics Plasma ALD Configurations Merits of Plasma ALD Challenges for Plasma ALD Concluding Remarks and Outlook 153 References 154 Part Two Nanostructures by ALD Atomic Layer Deposition for Microelectronic Applications 161 Cheol Seong Hwang 8.1 Introduction ALD Layers for Memory Devices Mass Production Level Memories Dynamic Random Access Memory Flash Memory Phase Change Memory Emerging Memories Ferroelectric Memory Magnetic Random Access Memory Resistive Random Access Memory Three-Dimensional Stacked Memories ALD for Logic Devices Front End of the Line Process Back End of the Line Process Conduding Remarks 187 References Nanopatterning by Area-Selective Atomic Layer Deposition 193 Han-Bo-Ram Lee and Stacey F. Bent 9.1 Concept of Area-Selective Atomic Layer Deposition Change of Surface Properties Self-Assembled Monolayers Polymers Inherent Surface Reactivity Vapor-Phase Deposition Patteming Surface Modification without Patterning Microcontact Printing Photolithography Nanotemplating Scanning Probe Microscopy 213

6 Contents I XIII 9.4 Applications of AS-ALD Current Challenges 216 References Coatings on High Aspect Ratio Structures 227 Jeffrey W. Elam 10.1 Introduction Models and Analysis Analytical Method Monte Carlo Simulations Characterization Methods for ALD Coatings in High Aspect Ratio Structures Examples of ALD in High Aspect Ratio Structures Aspect Ratio of Trenches MEMS Aspect Ratio of Anodic Aluminum Oxide Inverse Opals Aspect Ratio of 1000 and Beyond Silica gel Aerogels Nonideal Behavior during ALD in High Aspect Ratios Conclusions and Future Outlook 245 References Coatings of Nanoparticies and Nanowires 251 Hongfin Fan and Kornelius Nielsch 11.1 ALD on Nanoparticles Vapor Liquid Solid Growth of Nanowires by ALD Atomic Layer Epitaxy on Nanowires ALD on Semiconductor NWs for Surface Passivation ALD-Assisted Formation of Nanopeapods Photocorrosion of Semiconductor Nanowires Capped by ALD Shell Interface Reaction of Nanowires with ALD Shell ZnO Al ZnO Ti Zn0-5i Mg0 Al ALD ZnO on NWs/Tubes as Seed Layer for Growth of Hyperbranch Conclusions 267 References 268

7 XIVI Contents 12 Atomic Layer Deposition on Soft Materials 271 Gregor), N. Parsons 12.1 Introduction ALD on Polymers for Passivation, Encapsulation, and Surface Modification ALD for Bulk Modification of Natural and Synthetic Polymers and Molecules ALD for Polymer Sacrificial Templating: Membranes, Fibers, and Biological and Optical Structures ALD Nudeation on Pattemed and Planar SAMs and Surface Oligomers Reactions during Al203 ALD on Representative Polymer Materials Al203 ALD on Polypropylene Al203 ALD on Polyvinyl Alcohol Al203 ALD on Polyamide Mechanisms for Al203 ALD on PP, PVA, and PA Summary 291 References Application of ALD to Biomaterials and Biocompatible Coatings 301 Mato Knez 13.1 Application of ALD to Biomaterials Protein-Based Nanostructures Tobacco Mosaic Virus Ferritin and Apoferritin S-Layers Peptide Assemblies Natural Fibers DNA Collagen Spider Silk Cellulose Fibers from Paper Cotton Fibers Sea Mouse Bristles Patterned Biomaterials Butterfly Wings Fly Eyes Legumes Water Strider Legs Biomineralized Structures Biocompatible Coatings Biocompatibility of Alumina Biocompatibility of Titania Biocompatibility of Hydroxyapatite 318

8 Biocompatibility of Pt-, Ti02-, or ZnO-Coated Porous Alumina Biocompatibility of TiN-Coated Cotton Fabrics Summary 320 References 321 Contents I XV 14 Coating of Carbon Nanotubes 327 Catherine Marichy, Andrea Pucci, Marc-Georg Willinger, and Nicola Pinna 14.1 Introduction Purification and Surface Functionalization of Carbon Nanotubes Decoration/Coating of Carbon Nanotubes by Solution Routes In Situ Coating Attachment of Preformed Nanobuilding Blocks Decoration/Coating of Carbon Nanotubes by Gas-Phase Techniques Atomic Layer Deposition on Carbon Nanotubes Coating of Large Quantity of CNTs by ALD ALD Coating of Other sp2-bonded Carbon Materials Conclusions 340 References Inverse Opal Photonics 345 Davy P. Gaillot and Christopherf Summers 15.1 Introduction and Background Properties of Three-Dimensional Photonic Band Structures Synthetic Opals and Inverse Opals Large-Pore and Non-Close-Packed Inverse Opals Experimental Studies Inversion of Opal Structures Atomic Layer Deposition Multilayer Fabrication Steps for Advanced Photonic Crystals Tunable PC Structures Summary 369 References Nanolaminates 377 Adriana V. Szeghalmi and Mato Knez 16.1 Introduction Optical Applications Interference Optics Diffractive Optical Elements Thin Film Encapsulation Applications in Electronics Dielectric Properties of Inorganic Nanolaminates Dielectric Properties of Organic Inorganic Nanolaminates 390

9 XVI Contents Applications for Memories Copper Electroplating Applications Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Complex Nanostructures Summary 395 References Challenges in Atomic Layer Deposition 401 Markku Leskelä 17.1 Introduction Metals Nonmetal Elements Binary Compounds Oxides Nitrides Other III V Compounds Carbides Silicides and Borides Halides Compounds with Oxoanions Ternary and Quaternary Compounds Nucleation Conclusions 416 References 417 Index 423