Contents. Foreword by Darrell H. Reneker

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1 Table of Foreword by Darrell H. Reneker Preface page xi xiii 1 Introduction How big is a nanometer? What is nanotechnology? Historical development of nanotechnology Classification of nanomaterials Nanofiber technology Unique properties of nanofibers Effect of fiber size on surface area Effect of fiber size on bioactivity Effect of fiber size on electroactivity Effect of fiber size on strength 9 References 10 2 Fundamentals of polymers Polymeric materials Polymer flow, nonlinearity and heterogeneity Linear kinetics Nonlinear behavior Viscoelastic models The basic elements: spring and dashpot Maxwell model Voigt (Kelvin) model Four-element model Intrinsic structures of polymers Molecular bondings Van der Waals forces Hydrogen bonding Configuration and conformation Configuration Conformation 25 v

2 Table of vi Other chain structures Order and disorder Amorphous and crystal structure Orientation Measurement of order and disorder Molecular weight and molecular weight distribution Thermal behavior Polymer solutions Solubility parameter Solution viscosity Intrinsic viscosity Intrinsic viscosity and molecular weight Measurement of intrinsic viscosity Fiber, plastic and elastomer Fiber formation Melt spinning Wet spinning Dry spinning Fiber properties Polymer structure and fiber mechanical properties Processing and fiber properties 42 References 43 3 Nanofiber technology Nanofiber-forming technology Conjugate spinning (island in the sea) Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) Phase separation (sol gel process) Drawing Template synthesis Self-assembly Meltblown technology Electrospinning Electrospinning process Processing parameters Spinning dope concentration and viscosity Applied voltage Spinning dope temperature Surface tension Electrical conductivity Molecular weight of polymer Spinning distance Spinning angle Orifice diameter 54

3 Table of vii Solvent boiling point Humidity Dielectric constant Feeding rate Melt electrospinning Applications of nanofibers Reinforcement fibers in composites Protective clothing Filtration Biomedical devices Wound dressing Medical prostheses Tissue scaffolds Controlled drug delivery Electrical and optical applications Nanosensors 61 References 61 4 Modeling and simulation Electrospinning mechanism Fundamentals of process modeling Newton s law Conservation laws Taylor cone Jet profile Models One-dimensional model Three-dimensional models Spivak Dzenis model Rutledge s model Wan Guo Pan model Application of models in parametric analysis Computer simulation 74 References 77 5 Mechanical properties of fibers and fiber assemblies Structure of hierarchy of textile materials Size effect on mechanical properties Theoretical modulus of a fiber Mechanical properties of nonwovens Geometry of nonwovens Deformation of nonwovens Mechanical properties of yarns Yarn geometry 87

4 Table of viii Mechanical properties of linear fiber assemblies Stress analysis Strain analysis Mechanical properties of staple yarns Mechanical properties of woven fabrics Woven fabric geometry 96 References 99 6 Characterization of nanofibers Structural characterization of nanofibers Optical microscopy (OM) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Atomic force microscopy (AFM) Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) X-ray diffraction Wide-angle X-ray diffraction Small-angle X-ray scattering Mercury porosimetry Chemical characterization of nanofibers Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR) Raman spectroscopy (RS) Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Mechanical characterization of nanofibers Microtensile testing of nanofiber nonwoven fabric Mechanical testing of a single nanofiber Thermal analysis Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) Characterization of other properties Wettability and contact angle Electrical conductivity Electrochemical properties Linear-sweep voltammetry and cyclic voltammetry Chronopotentiometry Magnetic properties 139 References Bioactive nanofibers The development of biomaterials Bioactive nanofibers Nanofibers for tissue engineering Extracellular matrices for tissue engineering Nanofiber scaffolds for tissue engineering 148

5 Table of ix Nanofibers for drug delivery Drug delivery systems Nanofibers for drug delivery Nanofibers for biosensors Biosensors Nanofiber biosensors Assessment of nanofiber bioactivity Assessment of tissue compatibility Assessment of degradation 162 References Electroactive nanofibers Introduction Conductive nanofibers Conductive polymers and fibers Fundamental principle for superior electrical conductivity Electroactive nanofibers Magnetic nanofibers Supermagnetism Supermagnetic nanofibers Photonic nanofibers Polymer photonics Fluorescent nanofibers Photo-catalytic nanofibers 185 References Nanocomposite fibers Introduction Carbon nanotubes Structure and properties Structure Mechanical properties Electrical properties Thermal properties Dispersion of carbaon nanotubes Purification Mechanical dispersion Chemical dispersion Alignment of carbon nanotubes Alignment of carbon nanotubes in solution Alignment of carbon nanotubes in matrix Carbon nanotube nanocomposite fibers Methods for producing carbon nanotube fibers Chemical vapor deposition 209

6 Table of x Dry spinning Liquid crystal spinning Wet spinning Traditional spinning Electrospinning Nanoclay Structure and properties Clay nanocomposites Nanoclay nanocomposite fibers Graphite graphenes Structure and properties Graphene nanocomposites Graphene nanocomposite nanofibers Carbon nanofibers Vapor-grown carbon nanofibers Electrospun carbon nanofibers Carbon nanofiber composites 225 References Future opportunities and challenges of electrospinning Future of nanotechnology Global challenges and nanotechnology Nanofibers in energy Electrodes and electrolytes in fuel cells or batteries Supercapacitors Dye-sensitized solar cells Power transmission lines Nanofibers in filtration Nanofibers in biomedical engineering Challenges Mechanism analysis Quality control Scale-up manufacturing Structural property improvement New frontiers 253 References 254 Appendix I Terms and unit conversion 258 Appendix II Abbreviation of polymers 260 Appendix III Classification of fibers 262 Appendix IV Polymers and solvents for electrospinning 263 Index 265

Introduction to Nanofiber Materials

Introduction to Nanofiber Materials Presenting the latest coverage of the fundamentals and applications of nanofibrous materials and their structures for graduate students and researchers, this book bridges