Graphene Fundamentals and Emergent Applications

Transcription

1 Graphene Fundamentals and Emergent Applications Jamie H. Warner Department of Materials University of Oxford Oxford, UK Franziska Schaffel Department of Materials University of Oxford Oxford, UK Alicja Bachmatiuk IFW Dresden Helmholtzstrafte 20 Dresden, Germany Mark H. Rummeli IFW Dresden Helmholtzstrafte 20 Dresden, Germany ELSEVIER AMSTERDAM WALTHAM HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SYDNEY TOKYO

2 1. Introduction About the book The Atomic Structure of Graphene and Its Few-layer Counterparts Graphene BHayer, Trilayer and Few-layer Graphene Relationship of Graphene to Carbon Nanotubes Other Layered 2D Crystals Introduction Boron Nitride Nanosheets Transition Metal Dichalcogenides Transition Metal Oxides Silicene Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide Graphane and Fluorographene Nanostructured Graphene Introduction Patterning Graphene via Lithography Sonochemical Cutting of Graphene Crystallographically Selective Structuring of Graphene Through Anisotropic Etching Graphene Nanoribbon Formation by 'Unzipping' Carbon Nanotubes Bottom-up Fabrication of Graphene Nanostructures Properties of Graphene Electronic Properties Introduction The Band Structure of Graphene 62

3 C vi 3 Contents Transport Experiments in Graphene Chemical Properties of Graphene Introduction Covalent Functionalisation of Graphene Noncovalent Functionalisation of Graphene Summary Electron Spin Properties of Graphene Introduction Spin and Magnetism in Graphite Magnetism and Spin in Graphene Summary The Mechanical Properties of Graphene Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength Adhesion, Tearing and Cracking of Graphene The Role of Defects and Structural Modification on the Mechanical Properties Graphene Derivatives Graphene-based Composites The Thermal Properties of Graphene Thermal Conductivity Methods for Obtaining Graphene Mechanical Exfoliation Introduction to Mechanical Exfoliation Micromechanical Exfoliation Mechanical Cleavage of Graphite Mechanical Milling of Graphite Summary Chemical Exfoliation Introduction to Chemical Exfoliation Review of Chemical Exfoliation Different Types of Graphite Different Types of Solvents Different Types of Sonication How to Characterise Chemically Exfoliated Graphene Other 2D Crystals Summary

4 GD 4.3. Reduced Graphene Oxide Graphene Oxide Chemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide Heat Treatment of Graphene Oxide Electrochemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide Summary 4.4. Bottom-up Synthesis of Graphene from Molecular Precursors Introduction Solution-based approaches Sol utilisation Strategies Solvothermal Synthesis and sonication Chemothermal-based Approaches Self-assembly of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets 4.5. Chemical Vapour Deposition Using Catalytic Metals introduction CVD Basics Substrate Selection Substrate Pretreatment Graphene Over Ni and Cu Early Growth The Role of Hydrogen in The CVD Reaction Graphene-other Metals and Alloys Segregation routes 4.6. CVD Synthesis of Graphene Over Nonmetals Introduction Aspects to Consider with Nonmetal Catalysts Non-metals as Catalysts for CVD-grown Graphene Metal-assisted Routes Non-metals as Catalysts for Carbon Nanowall Fabrication (vertical graphene) The Basics of Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition Nanowall or Nanosheet Synthesis Substrate-free PECVD Synthesis of Graphene Sheets Graphene Formation from Solid-carbon Sources on Surfaces 4.7. Epitaxial Growth of Graphene on SiC Introduction Reaction Protocol Nucleation and Growth

5 C viii") Contents Epitaxial Graphene on the SiC (0001) Face Face-to-Face Growth Laser-induced Growth of Epitaxial Graphene Epitaxial Graphene on the SiC (OOOT) Face Graphene Growth by Molecular Beam Epitaxy of SiC Graphene Synthesis on Cubic SiC/Si Wafers Graphene From the Carbothermal Reduction ofsiox SiC/Metal Hybrid Systems for Graphene Formation Transfer to Arbitrary Substrates Introduction Transfer of Mechanically Exfoliated Graphene to Arbitrary Substrates Transfer of CVD-grown Graphene on Metals to Arbitrary Substrates Transfer of Graphene Grown on SiC Towards a Universal Transfer Route for Graphene Grown on Arbitrary Substrates Summary Characterisation Techniques Optical Microscopy Raman Spectroscopy Introduction Scanning Electron Microscopy Transmission Electron Microscopy Introduction Atomic Resolution Imaging (TEM/STEM) and Atomic Scale Spectroscopy (EELS) Surface Contamination Determining the Number of Layers Through (Scanning) Transmission Electron Microscopy Characterisation of Defects in Graphene Characterisation of Graphene Edges In-situ Manipulation of Graphene in a TEM Electron Diffraction Introduction Determining the Number of Layers Using Electron Diffraction 281

6 GD Determining the Graphene Topography Determination of Stacking Order and Identification of Rotational Stacking Faults Low-energy Electron Diffraction Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy Introduction to Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy STM Studies of Graphite STM of Graphene on Metals STM of Graphene on Insulators Summary AFM as a Tool for Graphene Introduction Graphene on Different Surfaces AFM Studies on GO AFM as a Tool to Investigate and Engineer Physical Properties Hall Mobility and Field-effect Mobility Introduction to the Hall Effect Measurement of the Hall Mobility on Graphene Samples Measurement of the Field-effect Mobility in Graphene Maximising Mobility Summary Applications of Graphene Electronic Devices Introduction Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) The Graphene MOSFET Opening a Band Gap Strain Engineering a Band Gap Field Induced Band Gap in Bilayer Graphene Graphene Nanoribbons Further Techniques The Optimisation of Mobility Deposition of a High-K Gate Dielectric and Low-Resistance Metal Contacts The Viability of Graphene in CMOS Radio-Frequency (RF) Electronics Novel Field Effect Transistor Designs 344

7 Gas Sensors Metrology and the Definition of the Ohm Spintronics Introduction Magnetoresistance using Carbon Nanotubes Magnetoresistance using Graphene Summary Transparent Conducting Electrodes Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) using Graphene Actuation, Detection and Quality Factor of NEMS Graphene Electromechanical Resonators Freestanding Graphene Membrances Free-Standing Graphene as the Ultimate Microscope Slide Graphene as a Template for Catalyst-Free Graphene Fabrication by Electrons Free-Standing Graphene as a Subnanometer Trans-Electrode Membrane Permeability of Free-Standing Graphene Graphene-Based Energy Application Graphene-Based Materials in Supercapacitors Graphene in Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLCs) Graphene-Based Pseudo Capacitors Graphene-Based Materials in Lithium Ion Batteries Graphene-Based Materials in Fuel Cells Graphene-Based Materials in Solar Cells Superstrong Graphene Composites Graphene-Based Composites Ex Situ Polymerisation In Situ Polymerization Index 439