Matematici speciale Probleme clasice in teoria probabilitatilor

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1 Matematici speciale Probleme clasice in teoria probabilitatilor Aprilie 2018

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3 Regula : de fiecare data cand ai o sansa de sa intelegi ceva corect exista o probabilitate de 90% sa intelegi gresit. Andy Rooney 8 Probabilitati. Probleme clasice Problema intalnirii Un barbat si o femeie decid sa se intalneasca intr-un restaurant dupa ora 21. Restaurantul se inchide la ora 24. Din cauza programului incarcat al fiecaruia ei decid ca in cazul in care unul dintre ei va intarzia fiecare sa astepte dupa celalalt un anumit timp. Barbatul este dispus sa astepte o ora iar femeia doar 15 minute! Care este probabilitatea ca cei doi sa se intalneasca la acel restaurant? 1

4 Solutie: Vom modela matematic problema in felul urmator: notam cu x timpul la care soseste femeia la restaurant si cu y timpul la care soseste barbatul. Putem sa consideram ora 21 ca fiind timpul 0 si atunci 24 va fi reprezentat de 3. Asadar x, y [0, 3]. Toate posibilitatile sunt reprezentate de punctele (x, y) din interiorul patratului [0, 3] [0, 3] de mai jos. Daca barbatul soseste primul, adica y x atunci cei doi se vor intalni daca x y 1 (adica timpul la care soseste femeia este cu cel mult o ora peste cel al sosirii barbatului). Toti timpii de sosire care satisfac aceste restrictii sunt continuti in regiunea gri, din interiorul patratului, cuprinsa intre prima bisectoare y = x si dreapta x y = 1 Daca femeia soseste prima, adica x y atunci cei doi se intalnesc daca y x 1 4. Toti timpii de sosire care satisfac aceste restrictii sunt continuti in regiunea gri, din interiorul patratului, cuprinsa intre prima bisectoare y = x si dreapta y x = 1 4 Probabilitatea ca cei doi sa se intalneasca va fi: P = numar cazuri favorabile numar cazuri posibile. Evident sunt o infinitate de cazuri favorabile si o infinitatea de cazuri posibile. Putem totusi sa estimam probabilitatea fara sa numaram toate punctele (x, y) care corespund cazurilor favorabile sau posibile si anume utilizand ariile regiunilor care corespund multimii cazurilor favorabile, respectiv multimii cazurilor posibile. Probabilitatea ca cei doi sa se intalneasca : P = aria regiunii gri aria patratului = %. 2

5 Problema Monty Hall Sa presupunem ca esti la un concurs TV in fata a trei usi si trebuie sa alegi una pentru a castiga o masina. In spatele unei usi se afla masina iar in spatele celorlalte doua se afla cate o capra. Ai ales o usa, sa zicem usa nr. 1. Prezentarorul emisiunii, care stie unde se afla masina, deschide apoi una dintre usi, in spatele careia se va afla evident o capra, sa presupunem ca e vorba de usa nr. 3. Apoi prezentatorul se joaca cu mintea ta si spune: Iti voi da posibilitatea sa iti schimbi optiunea si sa alegi usa 2, daca doresti. Vei alege usa nr.2 sau vei ramane cu alegerea initial facuta ( usa nr.1)? 3

6 Tehnici de numarare: multiplication rule of counting: if a task consists of a sequence of n choices in which there are p 1 ways to make the first choice, p 2 ways to make the second, etc., then the task can be done in: p 1 p 2... p n different ways. permutations of n distinct objects taken k at a time: the number of arrangements of k objects chosen from n objects in which: the n objects are distinct repeats are not allowed order matters is given by the formula A k n! n = (n k)! combination of n distinct objects taken k at a time: the number of arrangements of n objects using k n of them, in which: the n objects are distinct repeats are not allowed order does not matter n! (n k)!k! is given by the formula Cn k = arrangements with non-distinct items (repetitions): the number of permutations of n objects, where there are n 1 of the 1st type, n 2 of the 2nd type,..., n k of k-th type is: n! n 1!n 2!... n k!, n 1 + n n k = n. In continuare vom nota prin A numarul de elemente ale multimii A. Teorema: ( Principiul incluziunii si excluziunii) For any finite sequence A 1, A 2,..., A n of subsets of a finite set X we have: n n A k = A i A i A j +...+( 1) p 1 A i1 A i2... A ip 1 i<j n ( 1) n 1 A 1 A 2... A n. The principle expressed in its complementary form: n A n k = X n A k = X A i + +( 1) p 1 i 1<i 2<...<i p n 1 i 1<i 2<...<i p n 1 i<j n A i A j +... A i1 A i2... A ip ( 1) n A 1 A 2... A n. 4

7 Scheme clasice de probabilitate: Poincaré s theorem: ( n ) P E k = n 2 + n 1 n j=k+1 i=j+1 e.g. for n = 3 : n n 1 P (E k ) n j=k+1 P (E k E j )+ P (E k E j E i )... + ( 1) n 1 P (E 1 E 2... E n ) P (A B C) = P (A) + P (B) + P (C) P (A B) P (A C) P (B C) +P (A B C) the multiplication rule: ( n ) ( P E k = P (E 1 ) P (E 2 E 1 ) P (E 3 E 1 E 2 )... P E n if the events are independent: ( n ) P E k = P (E 1 ) P (E 2 )... P (E n ). n 1 E k ) the probability that an event A will occur simultaneously with one of the events H 1, H 2,..., H n forming a system of mutually exclusive events (hypotheses) is given by the total probability formula: P (A) = n P (H k )P (A H k ) where n P (H k) = 1 the probability P (H j A) of the hypothesis H j after the event A occurred is given by the Bayes formula: P (H j A) = P (H j)p (A H j ) n P (H k )P (A H k ) Experimentul binomial is a statistical experiment that has the following properties: the experiment consists of n repeated trials each trial can result in just two possible outcomes: we call one of these outcomes a success and the other, a failure the probability of success, denoted by p, is the same on every trial. the probability of failure, denoted q = 1 p, is the same on every trial 5

8 the trials are independent: the outcome on one trial does not affect the outcome on other trials. the binomial probability refers to the probability that a binomial experiment results in exactly k successes out of n trials: P = C k n p k q n k e.g.: flip a coin 6 times, the probability to get 4 heads is: P = C 4 6 ( ) ( ) is: the probability that a binomial experiment results in at least k successes k 1 P = 1 Cn i p i q n i i=0 the probability that the k-th success is obtained after exactly r trials is: P = C k 1 r 1 pk (1 p) r k, r k. Experimentul multinomial: generalizes the binomial experiment: now each trial can have k outcomes: E 1, E 2,..., E k each of these outcomes have the probabilities p 1, p 2,... p k the n trials are again independent. the multinomial probability is the probability that E 1 occurs n 1 times, E 2 occurs n 2 times,... E k occurs n k times: P = n! n 1!n 2!... n k! pn1 1 pn pn k k where n = n 1 + n n k Schema Poisson: let A 1, A 2,..., A n, be n independent events of an experiment. denote by p i the probability of A i to occur and by q i = 1 p i, i = 1, n the probability of the complementary event. the probability that k events, out of those n, occur is given by the coefficient of X k in the expression: (p 1 X + q 1 ) (p 2 X + q 2 )... (p n X + q n ) 6

9 Probleme rezolvate Problema 1. Un muncitor a lucrat n piese. Sa notăm cu A i, i = 1, n evenimentul care constă în faptul că cea de a i -a piesă lucrată este defectă. Să se descrie matematic folosind limbajul teoriei multimilor următoarele evenimente: a) Nici una dintre piesele lucrate nu este defectă, b) Cel puţin una dintre piesele lucrate este defectă, c) Numai una dintre piesele lucrate este defectă, d) Exact două piese sunt defecte, e) Cel puţin două piese nu sunt defecte, f) Cel mult două piese sunt defecte. Solutie: Fie A i evenimentul ca cea de a i -a piesă este defectă şi A i este bună. a) A 1 A 2...A n b) A 1 A 2... A n n ( ) c) A1 A 2... A i 1 A i A i+1... A n d) n ( ) A1 A 2... A i 1 A i A i+1... A j 1 A j A j+1... A n i<j e) Evenimentul cel puţin două piese nu sunt defecte este complementar evenimentului cel mult o piesă nu este defectă ( n ) [ n ] A i A 1 A 2...A i 1 A i A i+1... A n f) ( n ) [ n ( ) ] A i A1 A 2... A i 1 A i A i+1... A n n ( ) A1 A 2... A i 1 A i A i+1... A j 1 A j A j+1... A n i<j 7

10 Problema 2. Dintre studenţii prezenti la un curs de MS se alege la intâmplare unul. Să notăm cu: A - evenimentul că studentul ales este băiat, B - evenimentul că studentul ales este nefumător, C - evenimentul că studentul ales locuieşte în cămin. Se cer următoarele: a) Să se descrie evenimentul A B C, b) În ce condiţii are loc identitatea A B C = A? c) Când este adevarată relaţia C B? d) Când va putea avea loc egalitatea A = B? Solutie: a) A fost ales un băiat care nu fumează şi care nu locuieşte în cămin. b) Când toţi băieţii locuiesc în cămin şi nici unul nu fumează. c) Când toţi studenţii care nu stau în cămin sunt nefumători. d) Are loc dacă nicio fată nu fumeaza şi în acelaşi timp toti baieţii fumează. Problema 3. Într-o societate compusă din n perechi (soţ şi soţie) se dansează (se presupune că formarea perechilor la dans este egal probabilă). Care este probabilitatea ca la un moment dat fiecare bărbat să nu danseze cu soţia sa? Să se calculeze limita acestei probabilităţi când n. Soluţie: Fie A evenimentul că fiecare bărbat nu dansează cu soţia sa şi fie A k evenimentul ca la un moment dat să se formeze perechea k dacă am numerotat perechile soţ - soţie de la 1 la n. Se vede că (n k)! P (A i1 A i2... A ik ) = n! deoarece dacă s-au format k perechi soţ-soţie, atunci celelalte (n k) perechi barbat-femeie se pot forma în (n k)! moduri. Fie A evenimentul că la un moment dar s-a format cel puţin o pereche. Evident P ( A ) = 1 P (A). Evenimentele A 1, A 2,..., A n sunt compatibile şi dependente, iar A = A 1 A 2... A n. Conform formulei lui Poincare, avem: P ( A ) ( n n n ) = P (A i ) P (A i A j ) ( 1) n 1 P A i i,j=1 i<j P ( A ) ( n ) = CnP 1 (A i ) CnP 2 (A i A j ) ( 1) n 1 CnP n A i = n! (n 1)! n! (n 2)! ( 1) n 1 1 1! (n 1)! n! 2! (n 2)! n! n! P ( A ) = 1 1! 1 2! + 1 3! 1 4! ( 1)n 1 n! P (A) = 1 P ( A ) ( 1 = 1 1! 1 2! + 1 3! 1 ) 4! ( 1)n 1 n! 8

11 de unde rezultă lim P (A) = 1 n e. Problema 4. În două grupe, aşezate în aceeaşi sală, formate din 22 respectiv 24 studenţi avem: 14 studenţi buni, 6 mediocri, 2 slabi în prima grupă şi 12 buni, 4 mediocrişi 8 slabi, respectiv în a doua grupă. a) Fiind ascultat un student, care este probabilitatea ca studentul să fie unul mediocru? b) Ascultând un student bun, care este probabilitatea ca să fie din a doua grupă? Soluţie: Fie B 1 evenimentul de a alege studentul din prima grupă şi B 2 evenimentul de a alege studentul din a doua grupă. a) Fie A evenimentul ca studentul ascultat să fie mediocru. Atunci avem: P (B 1 ) = = 11 23, P (B 2) = = 12 23, P B1 (A) = 6 22 = 3 11, P B 2 (A) = 4 24 = 1 6. Formula probablilităţii totale implică P (A) = P (B 1 ) P B1 (A) + P (B 2 ) P B2 (A) = = sau direct P (A) = = b) Fie A evenimentul ca studentul ascultat să fie bun. Folosim formula lui Bayes şi avem unde si rezultă sau direct P A (B 2 ) = P (B 2 ) P B2 (A) P (B 1 ) P B1 (A) + P (B 2 ) P B2 (A) P B1 (A) = = 7 11 ; P B 2 (A) = = 1 2 P A (B 2 ) = = P A (B 2 ) = = Problema 5. Problema Monty Hall Solutie: Conform informatiilor de la inceputul fisierului concurentul a ales usa 1 iar gazda emisiunii a deschis usa 3. Ce ne propunem sa calculam este probabilitatea ca masina sa se afle in spatele usii 2 daca gazda a deschis usa 3 9

12 Pentru a aborda problema folosind formule de tip Bayes va trebui sa definim ipotezele: H 1 : masina se afla in spatele usii 1 H 2 : masina se afla in spatele usii 2 H 3 : masina se afla in spatele usii 3 Definim evenimentul: E : moderatorul emisiunii deschide usa 3 Acum evenimentul a carui probabilitate dorim sa o calculam este: H 2 conditionat de aparitia lui E!! = p(h 2 E) asadar probabilitatea unei ipoteze in conditiile in care evenimentul a avut loc. Prin definitie: p(h 2 E) = p(h 2 )p(e H 2 ) p(h 1 )p(e H 1 ) + p(h 2 )p(e H 2 ) + p(h 3 )p(e H 3 ) Va trebui sa discutam semnificatia fiecarei probabilitati din formula de mai sus: P (H 1 ) : probabilitatea ca masina sa fie in spatele usii 1 = P (H 1 ) = 1 3 P (H 2 ) : probabilitatea ca masina sa fie in spatele usii 2 = P (H 2 ) = 1 3 P (H 3 ) : probabilitatea ca masina sa fie in spatele usii 3 = P (H 3 ) = 1 3 Apoi probabilitatile conditionate: p(e H 1 ): probabilitatea ca gazda sa deschida usa 3 daca masina este in spatele usii 1 = atunci gazda stie ca in spatele usii 2 si 3 este o capra deci poate deschide pe oricare dintre acestea, din moment ce concurentul a ales usa 1 = p(e H 1 ) = 1 2 p(e H 2 ): probabilitatea ca gazda sa deschida usa 2 daca masina este in spatele usii 2 = gazda poate acum sa deschida doar usa 3 din moment ce masina este in spatele usii 2 si concurentul a ales usa 1 = p(e H 1 ) = 1 p(e H 3 ): probabilitatea ca gazda sa deschida usa 3 daca masina este in spatele usii 3 este evdident nula = p(e H 1 ) = 0 Inlocuind aceste informatii in formula se obtine: p(h 2 E) = 2 = 66% 3 Sansa de castig prin alegerea usii 2 este surprinzator de mare, insusi marele matematician Pal Erdos nu a fost convins de exactitatea acestui rezultat pana in momentul in care a vazut o simulare pe calculator a problemei. 10

13 Probleme propuse Problema 1. Fiind date numerele 1, 2, 3,..., n scrise într-o anumită ordine, care este probabilitatea ca numerele 1 şi 2 să fie consecutive? Problema 2. Într-un lot pus în vânzare la un magazin se află produsele a trei fabrici F i, i = 1, 2, 3, în cantităţile 300, 420, 540 produse şi se ştie din verificările statistice că fiecare dintre fabrici livrează produse defecte în proporţie de 1%, 2% şi 2, 5% respectiv. O cantitate de produse în valoare de 6000 lei a fost restituita magazinului de către cumpărători în cadrul convenţiei de garanţie ca fiind inutilizabile. Să se determine sumele ce trebuie imputate fabricilor, dacă nu se ştie de la care dintre fabrici au provenit produsele defecte. Problema 3. De pe un submarin se lansează asupra unui distrugător 4 torpile. Probabilitatea ca o torpilă să lovească distrugătorul este 0, 3. Pentru scufundarea distrugătorului sunt suficiente două torpile, iar dacă o singură torpilă loveşte distrigătorul el se scufundă cu probabilitatea 0, 6. Să se găsească probabilitatea ca distrugătorul să se scufunde. Problema 4. Gasiti probabilitatea ca printre 7 persoane: a) Sa nu existe doua nascute in aceeasi zi a saptamanii b) Cel putin doua sa fie nascute in aceeasi zi c) Doua persoane sa fie nascute duminica si doua martea Problema 5. Popescu stie raspunsurile la una dintre cele 10 intrebari cu raspunsuri multile ale examenului de MS. El a absentat la multe dintre cursuri si va trebui sa ghiceasca raspunsurile la celelalte 9 intrebari. Presupunand ca fiecare intrebare are patru rapsunsuri care este probabilitatea ca el sa nimereasca 7 raspunsuri corecte? Fiecare raspuns valoreaza un punct si este nevoie de 5 puncte pentru a promova examenul. Care este probabilitatea ca Popescu sa promoveze examenul? Problema 6. Suppose you re a volleyball tournament organizer. There are 10 teams signed up for the tournament, and it seems like a good idea for each team to play every other team in a round robin setting, before advancing to the playoffs. How many games are possible if each team plays every other team once? Problema 7. Eight students are to be put up in a student residence in three rooms, two of which have three beds and one has two beds. In how many ways can the students be distributed over the three rooms? 11

14 Problema 8. How many full houses are possible in poker? Problema 9. A straight consists of five cards with values forming a string of five consecutive values (with no wrap around). For example, 45678, A2345 and 10JQKA are considered straights, but KQA23 is not (suits are immaterial for straights.) How many different straights are there in poker? Problema 10. How many of the integers 1, 2, 3,..., 2017 are not divisible by any of the numbers 4, 5, 6? Problema 11. How many rectangles are contained in an m n checkerboard? Start with the normal chess board. Problema 12. a) An experiment of drawing a random card from an ordinary playing cards deck is done with replacing it back. This was done ten times. Find the probability of getting 2 spades, 3 diamonds, 3 clubs and 2 hearts. b) The numbers 1, 2, 3,... n are written in random order. What is the probability of having 1 and 2 on consecutive positions? Problema 13. At some moment in a backgammon game you have to roll a 6 or the sum of the two numbers to be 6 to put your opponent s rear checker on the bar. What is the probability of hitting your opponent s checker? What is the probability of hitting at least twice in 4 attempts? Problema 14. Ten shots are fired at a target consisting of an inner circle and two concentric annuli. The probabilities of hitting these regions in one shot are 0.15, 0.20 and 0.25, respectively. Find the probability that there will be three hits in the circle, two in the first annulus and two in the second annulus. Problema 15. A question posed in the mid-17th century to Blaise Pascal by a French nobleman and inveterate gambler, the Chevalier de Méré, which marked the birth of probability theory. One of de Méré s favorite bets was that at least one six would appear during a total of four rolls of a die. From past experience, he knew that this gamble paid off more often than not. Then, for a change, he started betting that he would get a double-six on 24 rolls of two dice. However, he soon realized that his old approach to the game was more profitable. He asked his friend Pascal why. Can you give him the answer? 12

15 Problema 16. a) A single card is chosen at random from a standard deck of 52 playing cards. What is the probability of choosing a king (K) or a club ( )? b) A professor gives only two types of exams, easy and hard. You will get a hard exam with probability The probability that the first question on the exam will be marked as difficult is 0.90 if the exam is hard and is 0.15 otherwise. What is the probability that the first question on your exam is marked as difficult? What is the probability that your exam is hard given that the first question on the exam is marked as difficult? Problema 17. Two friends decide to meet at 21 : 00 pm in a restaurant. They decided that who ever reaches the restaurant earlier will wait for the other person for 20 minutes. The restaurant closes at 23 : 00 pm. What s the probability that those friends do meet? Problema 18. A person wrote 5 letters, sealed them in envelopes and wrote the different addresses randomly on each of them. Find the probability that at least one of the envelopes has the correct address. Problema 19. Find the probability of drawing a king, a queen, a king and a knave in this order, from a deck of 52 cards, in four consecutive draws. The cards drawn are not replaced. Problema 20. In USA 40% of the registered voters are Republicans, 45% are Democrats and 15% are Independent. When the voters were asked about increasing military spending 20% of the Republicans opposed it, 65% of the Democrats opposed it and 55% of the Independents opposed it. What is the probability that a randomly selected voter opposes increased military spending? Problema 21. A telegraphic communications system transmits the signals dot and dash. Assume that the statistical properties of the obstacles are such that an average of 0.4 of the dots and 0.25 of the dashes are changed. Suppose that the ratio between the transmitted dots and the transmitted dashes is 5 : 3. What is the probability that a received signal will be the same as the transmitted signal if: a) the received signal is a dot. b) the received signal is a dash. 13

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