TIPS ON HOW TO WRITE THESIS WRITING A THESIS

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1 WRITING A THESIS Hints n writing a thesis Create a time table (allcate time fr research, literature search, data entry, data analysis, actual writing, cnsulting supervisrs) Read widely (publicatins, ther theses, bks in the yur research tpic area); as yu read take ntes; keep cpies f imprtant jurnal papers (yu will need them during the writing prcess) Write as yu research writing a thesis is a cntinuus prcess frm develpment f cncept, writing f prpsal, during research t cmpletin f final draft; writing thrughut the research prcess keeps yur thught prcess active and recrds yur respnses t new ideas as they cme Develp a structured wrk plan break up the thesis int smaller cmpnents f things t d t make the prject mre manageable; the t d plan is the list f tasks (experiments t design, data t cllect, meeting with supervisrs, due dates, papers/bks/reprts yu need t read, articles yu need t find) Wrk clsely with yur supervisrs Make data cllectin sheets (tabulated frmat) and discuss them with yur supervisr Always enter yur hard cpy data int a cmputer spread sheet (preferably MS Excel) immediately after cllectin (within 2 days); the spread sheet shuld be in a frmat that can be directly cpied and pasted int a statistical analytical prgramme Always start by develping the utline f the thesis (Nte that these utlines will change as yur thinking evlves) Once yu have the utline, yu may find it easier t handle the dcument in terms f chapters rather than in terms f the whle thesis; write and edit each chapter ne at a time Open a wrd-prcessr file fr each chapter and ne fr references (Excel files fr raw and analyzed data). Make a back-up f these files and d s every time yu upgrade the cntents f the file; fr ease f reference, names f the files may include a date (when last updated) t differentiate versins f a dcument. A simple way t make a remte back-up is t send the dcument as an attachment t yurself (may send t 2-3 addresses) Have a physical filing system a cllectin f flders (raw data, analysed data, wrk plans, fficial letters cncerning yur degree prgramme). Make cpies f raw (riginal) data and keep the cpies in different lcatin D nt be upset if the draft yu submit t yur supervisr is returned cvered in red/ blue ink (r its electrnic equivalent) scientific writing takes a while t learn; the prcess f writing the thesis is like an assignment in which yu are taught but nt assesses the mre cmments yur advisr adds t the draft, the better. Read ther apprved theses Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 1

2 Making Tables Parts f a table A gd table shuld be easy t read acrss rws and dwn clumns, easy t understand, and easy t refer t in the text. Table title i) The title shuld prvide a brief descriptin f the cntents f the table; it shuld be cncise and include the key elements shwn in the table; ii) It shuld nt be mre than tw lines lng iii) Perids are left ut at the end f the table iv) The title shuld always be placed abve the table Table number i) Tables shuld be numbered in the rder they are referred t in the text (e.g. Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 etc) ii) The table number has a perid at the end and a space t separate it frm the title Headings and subheadings i) Headings and subheadings allws yu t establish an rder t the data by identifying the clumns ii) Headings and subheadings shuld be written in singular frms (e.g. Men, Wmen etc) iii) The first letter f the first wrd in a heading shuld be capitalized iv) Headings shuld be key wrds that best describe the clumns beneath them v) Where applicable, the units shuld be specified in clumn headings vi) A heading that sits abve tw r mre clumns t indicate a certain classificatin r gruping f the data is called clumn spanner; a clumn spanner may specify units, when apprpriate Table bdy is the actual data in a table ccupying the clumns Table spanner i) A table spanner is lcated in the bdy f the table in rder t divide the data in a table withut changing the clumns ii) Spanners g the entire length f the table and are ften used t cmbine tw tables int ne in rder t avid repetitin iii) A table spanner may be written in the plural frm Dividers i) Dividers are lines that frame the tp and bttm f the table and, r mark the different parts f a table ii) Dividers are ften used fr divisin r emphasis within the bdy f a table Ft nte (table ntes) i) Ft ntes are used t explain in the table that is nt self explanatry (e.g. SD fr standard deviatin, N fr sample size, LSD fr least significant difference, CV fr cefficient f variatin) ii) Symbls such as an asterisk (*) may be placed against technical terms that need further explanatin Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 2

3 Rules fr tabular presentatin i) Be certain that yur table can stand alne withut any explanatin. ii) Make sure that yur table is supplementary t yur text and des nt replicate it. iii) Refer t all tables by numbers in yur text, e.g., Table 1, 2, 3... iv) Describe r discuss nly the table's highlights in yur text. v) Always give units f measurement in table headings. vi) Align decimal places. vii) Rund numbers as much as pssible. Try t rund t a maximum f tw decimal places unless mre decimals are needed. viii) Unless using a specific frmat style that requires that yu place tables separately at the end f the reprt, place the tables near the text that refers t them. ix) D nt use a table if yu nly have tw r fewer clumns and rws. In such cases, a textual descriptin is enugh. x) Organize yur tables neatly s that the meaning f the table is bvius at first glance. If the reader spends t much time deciphering yur table, then it is t cmplicated and nt efficient. Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 3

4 xi) Remember that t many rws r clumns culd make it difficult fr the reader t understand the data. Yu may need t reduce the amunt f data, r separate the data int additinal tables. xii) If yu have identical clumns r rws f data in tw r mre tables, cmbine the tables. xiii) Prvide clumn/rw ttals r ther numerical summaries (e.g. means) that can make it easier t understand the data. xiv) Be cnsistent with yur tabular presentatin. Use cnsistent table, title, and heading frmats. Types f tables Textual (wrd) Tables i) Textual tables have text in the bdy ii) Textual tables are used in presenting qualitative data Statistical Table Statistical tables present descriptive (mean, standard deviatin, mde, range, r frequency) r inferential (statistical tests) statistics r bth Numerical Table i) Are the mst cmmn types f data ii) Numerical tables typically represent quantitative data, but smetimes may present a cmbinatin f quantitative and qualitative data Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 4

5 iii) The bdy f the table cnsists f specific number values Best practices in tabular presentatin Cntrast Make key elements f the table stand ut frm ne anther; grup r distinguish data frm each ther, fr example: i) Bld the title ii) Use f dividers r headings iii) Use f different fnt sizes, styles, r letter cases fr different elements iv) Use f clur t emphasize backgrunds r text Gd Practice Pr Practice Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 5

6 Alignment i) All numbers in the clumns shuld line up with each ther and with their headings ii) Structure the table s that all elements seem t be prperly aligned with each ther titles, headings, data, dividers, ntes Ordering i) Grup items that are similar t give a sense f structure and meaning t the table, r ii) Indent subrdinate data when it falls belw specific clumn data Spacing i) Manipulate the white areas arund the tables t clarify and rganize the table, fr example, always have enugh space arund and between text s that it stands ut ii) Use space t separate grups r emphasize them Gd Practice Pr Practice Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 6

7 Thesis frmats i) General frmat Title page Signature page Dedicatin Acknwledgements Table f cntents List f tables List f figures List f abbreviatins Abstract Intrductin Literature review Materials and methds Results Discussin Cnclusins and recmmendatins References Appendices Chapter Five: Discussin 5.1 Subheading 5.2 Subheading 5.3 Subheading Chapter Six: Cnclusins and recmmendatins 6.1 Cnclusins 6.2 Recmmendatins References Appendices ii) Traditinal frmat Chapter One: Intrductin 1.1 Backgrund (apprpriate title) 1.2 Prblem statement and justificatin 1.3 Objectives Chapter Tw: Literature review 2.1 Subheading 2.2 Subheading Etc Chapter Three: Materials and Methds 3.1 Subheading 3.2 Subheading 3.3 Subheading Etc (each subheading may have sub-subheadings) Chapter Fur: Results 4.1. Subheading 4.2 Subheading 4.3 Subheading 4.4 Subheading Each subheading may have subsubheadings; the number f majr subheading shuld crrespnd t the number f bjectives Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 7

8 iii) Paper frmat Chapter One: Intrductin 1.4 Backgrund (apprpriate title) 1.5 Prblem statement and justificatin 1.6 Objectives (Brad and specific bjectives; the number f specific bjectives will determine the number f results-based chapters) Chapter Tw: Literature review 2.1 Subheading 2.2 Subheading Etc Chapter Three: (Chapter heading crrespnding t bjective1) 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Intrductin 3.3 Materials and methds 3.4 Results 3.5 Discussin References Each subheading may have subsubheadings Chapter Fur: (Chapter heading crrespnding t bjective 2) 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Intrductin 4.3 Materials and methds 4.4 Results 4.5 Discussin References Each subheading may have subsubheadings Chapter Five: (Chapter heading crrespnding t bjective 3) 5.1 Abstract 5.2 Intrductin 5.3 Materials and methds 5.4 Results 5.5 Discussin References Each subheading may have subsubheadings Chapter Six: General Cnclusins and Recmmendatins 6.1 General Cnclusins 6.2 Recmmendatins References Appendices Title page Use yur full, legal name; d nt use initials. The name must match the name n the signature page and must match yur name in University recrds Use the fficial and cmplete name f the degree and degree prgramme The date at the bttm f the title page is the mnth and the year in which the Degree is awarded (r date f submissin) Table f cntents The table f cntents is ften single-spaced List the preliminary sectin, chapters, main sectins and subsectins f the chapters There shuld be separate pages fr LIST OF FIGURES, LIST OF TABLES The list shuld cntain enugh f the titles r descriptins s that readers can lcate items using the list; it may nt be necessary t include the entire figure/ table captins The list shuld cntain the page number n which each heading, figure, r table is fund Abstract An abstract is best written twards the end, after cmpleting all the ther chapters It is a distillatin f the thesis (self-cntained) highlighting: i) A cncise descriptin f the research prblem addressed ii) Objective (s) f the study iii) Methdlgy iv) Results f the study v) Cnclusins and recmmendatin An abstract shuld nt cntain any references Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 8

9 Acknwledgements Used t thank thse wh helped directly r indirectly (educatin, fd, mney, genes, help, friendship etc) If the research was cllabrative, indicate wh did what Intrductin What is the tpic and why is it imprtant? Backgrund literature t what is knwn n the subject cite thse wh had the idea ideas(s) first and thse wh have dne the mst recent and relevant wrk n the subject State the research prblems - What is nt knwn n the tpic (r the need fr carrying ut the research)?; why mre wrk was necessary Explain the scpe f yur wrk, what will and will nt be included State the brad and specific bjectives Break up the intrductin int lgical segments by using subheadings Literature review Purpse f literature review T refine the research prblem T seek new lines f inquiry T create up-t-date awareness f the relevant wrk by thers T help avid fruitless appraches T gain new perspective T identify the research gaps distinguishing what has been dne frm what needs t be dne Enhancing and acquiring the subject vcabulary T help understand the structure f the subject Relating ideas and thery t applicatin Identifying the main methdlgies and research techniques that have been used T place the research in a histrical cntext t shw familiarity with state-f-the-art develpments Writing the literature review Clear bjectives f the research Cmpile a list f the main areas and questins invlved Gather a representative cllectin f the mst pertinent material Read t find ut answers t the questins Make ntes and cmments frm the readings summarize the main results f the study in a single sentence Cnsistently reference the literature referred t Ways f finding relevant literature: i) Electrnic surces data bases ii) References f references checking thrugh reference lists f very gd surces iii) Hand searching f jurnals Materials and methds The materials and methds describes what was exactly dne Descriptin f the when, where and hw the research was dne Details f the prcedures, techniques, experimental designs, measurements, equipment, data/ infrmatin cllected Descriptin f analytical methds, including reference t any specialized statistical sftware Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 9

10 Citatins in this sectin shuld be limited t data surces and references f where t find mre cmplete descriptins f the prcedures Results Steps in writing the results sectin Break up the results chapter int lgical segments by using subheadings and subsubheadings that relate directly t the bjectives and materials and methds After cllecting data fr each experiment, cnduct statistical analyses Make tables and figures (graphs/ charts) these will help visualize trends and the data and see t gaps in yur data cllectin; if pssible fill up the gaps Arrange the final tables/ figures in a lgical rder crrespnding t subheadings and subsubheadings Write the table/ figure captins; the captins shuld stand alne in explaining the cntents f the tables/ figures Once the tables and figures are cmplete, write the results The results are actual statements f bservatins, including statistics, tables and graphs Mentin negative results as well as psitive (d nt interpret the results save that fr the discussin) Key results shuld be stated in clear sentences at the beginning f paragraphs. It is better t write X had significant psitive relatinship with Y (linear regressin p<0.01, r 2 =0.79) than t start with a less infrmative statement like there was a significant relatinship between X and Y. Describe the nature f the findings; d nt just say whether r nt they were significant. Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W etc) Use apprpriate statistical analyses Use apprpriate statistical tests Where applicable, indicate the level f significance Shw measurement f errr, standard errrs r least significant difference (LSD) n the graphs Shw errr bars n the figures Discussin Start with a few sentences that summarize the mst imprtant results the majr patterns in the bservatins; describe the relatinships, trends and generalizatins amng the results; what were the exceptins t these patterns r generalizatins Describe the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns based n yur deductins and literature (cite references); there are usually several pssible explanatins fr results cnsider all these rather than simply pushing yur favurite ne D the yur results agree r disagree with previus wrk? (cite the references; d nt merely say the results agree/ disagree briefly state what thers fund & cite references) Describe the implicatin f the results fr ther unanswered questins What is new infrmatin/ knwledge that we did nt have befre the present wrk? Describe the significance f the results (r why shuld we care?) The discussin shuld be rich in references t similar wrk and backgrund needed t interpret the results; include up-t-date (mst recent) references Cnclusins and recmmendatins Summarize the new findings, new interpretatins, new insights that have resulted frm the present wrk Include the brader implicatins f yur results Further research t fill in gaps in the current study Indicate the remedial actin t slve the research prblem Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 10

11 Directins fr future investigatin n this r related tpic Hw the results culd be put int practical use Fnts Standard fnts such as Times New Rman and Arial are recmmended Size 12 fnt is recmmended, except fr headings The fnt must be cnsistent thrughut the dcument Italics shuld nly be used when apprpriate (scientific text, titles f wrks) Fnt clur must be black fr all main text; clured fnt may be used fr charts, graphs, maps etc Margins All margins must measure a minimum f 1 inch (r 2.54 cm); the pages are trimmed during binding and it is therefre imprtant t adhere t these specificatins The right-hand margin f the text may be justified r ragged Avid ending with ne-line paragraphs r with nly the first line f text frm a paragraph cntinuing n the fllwing page ( rphans ) New pages f text must nt begin with the last line f paragraph carried ver frm previus pages ( widws ) Tables and figures, including their captins must cnfrm t margin requirements Spacing and indentatins The text shuld be duble spaced Text fr figures and table captins, ftntes, items within tables and lists in appendices are single spaced The first line f each paragraph shuld be indented using a standard tab indent The first line f the text f each chapter r majr divisin shuld be abut 2 duble spaces belw the last line f the chapter title r sectin heading, r may be began n a new page The table f cntents is ften single-spaced Paginatin and numbering f tables/figures Preliminary pages are numbered in lwer-case Rman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv etc) at the bttm centre; All preliminary pages are numbered except the title page The main bdy f text is numbered in Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 etc) beginning with 1 n the first page f the first chapter Every page in the main bdy must be cnsecutively numbered in Arabic numerals centred at the bttm f the page Phtgraphic paper des nt have t be numbered, but must be cunted Tables and figures shuld be cnsecutively numbered Figures and tables Figures and tables shuld be placed as clse as pssible t their first mentin in the text If a figure r table is placed directly int the text, it must be placed either at the tp r bttm f page with n text wrap arund the figure/table Figure/ table numbering shuld be either cntinuus thrughut the thesis (e.g. Figure 1, Figure 2), r be numbered by chapter (e.g. Figure 1.1, Figure 1.2 etc); the wrd Figure r Table must be spelt (nt abbreviated), and the first letter must be capitalized The captin fr a figure shuld be placed at the bttm f the figure A captin fr a table must be placed abve the table Phtgraphs shuld be treated as figures Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 11

12 Referencing Give reference t all ideas, cncepts, text and data that are nt yur wn If yu make a statement, back it up with yur wn data r a reference All references cited in the text must be listed and all references listed must be cited in text Cite single-authr references by the surname f the authr fllwed by date f the publicatin in parenthesis, e.g.... accrding t Hays (1994) r... ppulatin grwth is ne f the greatest envirnmental cncerns facing future generatins (Hays, 1994). Cite duble-authr references by the surnames f bth authrs fllwed by date f the publicatin in parenthesis, e.g.... Simpsn and Hays (1994) cite mre than duble-authr references by the surname f the first authr fllwed by et al. and then the date f the publicatin, e.g. Pfirman et al. (1994) Frmats f writing references in reference list Jurnal paper: Starr, M. P Landmarks in the develpment f phytbacterilgy. Annual Review f Phytpathlgy 22: Bk: Schaad, N. W. (ed.) Labratry Guide f Identificatin f Plant Pathgenic Bacteria. APS Press, St. Paul, MN. Chapter in a bk: Otim-Nape GW, Thresh JM, Fargette D Bemisia tabaci and cassava msaic virus disease in Africa, p In: Gerling D, Mayer RT (Eds.). Bemisia 1995: Taxnmy, Bilgy, Damage, Cntrl and Management. Intercept, Andver, UK. Internet surce: Gttwald, T. R Citrus Huanglngbing: the pathgen and its impact. APSnet feature. Accessed 20 th January Article in a newspaper: Warrick, Jby. Lawmakers Urge Special Cunsel Prbe f Harsh Interrgatin Tactics. Daily Natin 25 th July 2015, Upcuntry editin. Reprt by an institutin: Fd and Agriculture Organizatin (FAO) Wrldwide regulatins fr myctxins fr 1995: A cmpendium. Fd and Nutritin Paper N. 64. FAO Rme. Kenya Natinal Bureau f statistics Ecnmic Survey reprt: Ministry f Planning and Natinal Develpment. Pp Ministry f Agriculture (MA) Eastern prvince annual crp reprt. Ministry f Agriculture, Nairbi, Kenya. Publicatin in Prceedings: Legesse, B.W., Myburg, A.A., Pixley, K., Twumasi-Afriyie, S. and Btha, A.M Genetic diversity f maize inbred lines revealed by AFLP markers. African Crp Science Cnference prceedings 8: Paper presented in Cnference : Hwler RH, Oates G, Allem A An assessment f the impact f cassava prductin n the envirnment and bidiversity, p In: Hershey, C (Ed.). Prceedings f Validatin Frum n Glbal Cassava Develpment Strategy held frm 26 th t 28 th April 2001, Rme, Italy. Thesis: Njenga, L. N Fungal and aflatxin cntaminatin in maize frm eastern Kenya and evaluatin f pssible management strategies. MSc. Agricultural Resurce Management, University f Nairbi Prf. James W. Muthmi, Department f Plant Science and Crp Prtectin, University f Nairbi 12

WRITING THE REPORT. Organizing the report. Title Page. Table of Contents

WRITING THE REPORT. Organizing the report. Title Page. Table of Contents WRITING THE REPORT Organizing the reprt Mst reprts shuld be rganized in the fllwing manner. Smetime there is a valid reasn t include extra chapters in within the bdy f the reprt. 1. Title page 2. Executive