A Novel Nano-Injector Based Single Photon Infrared Detector

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1 A Novel Nano-Injector Based Single Photon Infrared Detector H. Mohseni, O.G. Memis, S.C. Kong, and A. Katsnelson Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Northwestern University Evanston, IL 60208, USA Abstract: We present a novel single photon detector based on a nano-injector. This method, in principle, is capable of single photon detection at room temperature at λ~1.7 µm. Also, the process is not based on avalanche multiplication, and hence the device has no excess noise. Moreover, the device can cover a wide range of wavelengths from UV to mid-infrared, since the detection and amplification processes are completely decoupled and delocalized. Unlike avalanche-based detectors, this device operates at a very low bias that makes it possible to produce large 2D arrays with a good uniformity. I. INTRODUCTION Interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter is one of the most fundamental processes in our world. While only a physical curiosity several decades ago, this interaction has found ever-increasing practical applications in all aspects of our life. Therefore, detection of extremely weak electromagnetic radiation is becoming the focus of many research works. Single photon detectors (SPD) provide the ultimate limit of such detection in term of sensitivity, and are considered the enabling devices in a wide range of medical, commercial, defense, and research applications. Unfortunately, the existing SPDs have important drawbacks that limit the performance of many systems in the above fields. In particular, these drawbacks have prevented demonstration of the much-needed highperformance SPDs beyond the visible wavelength, and high-performance arrays of SPDs. Many applications can drastically benefit from two-dimensional imaging arrays of SPD, and SPDs that can operate in the longer wavelengths. Some examples are infrared mammography, Infrared tomography, molecular infrared florescent imaging, quantum imaging, infrared non-destructive inspection, and remote detection of buried landmines. Existing devices for infrared detection are photodiodes (PIN and avalanche), phototransistors, quantum well (QWIP), and quantum dot infrared photodetectors (QDIP). In order to be used as a single-photon detector, an infrared detector needs to be extremely low noise while creating enough signal amplitude: generally this is only possible with quantum confinement, such as a single-electron transistor based detectors 1, or an internal gain mechanism, such as avalanche based detectors. PIN photodiodes are the simplest and most mature of all IR photon detectors. However, they have no internal gain, which limit their use for single photon detection. Regular avalanche diodes and phototransistors offer Enabling Photonics Technologies for Defense, Security, and Aerospace Apps. II, edited by Michael J. Hayduk, Andrew R. Pirich, Eric J. Donkor, Peter J. Delfyett, Jr., Proc. of SPIE Vol. 6243, 62430X, (2006) X/06/$15 doi: / Proc. of SPIE Vol X-1

2 internal gain mechanisms, but the extremely high electric field required for avalanche leads to a significant dark current (count) mostly due to the tunneling 2. QWIPs utilize quantum confinement to reduce noise levels and thermal generation at long and very long wavelengths, but cannot absorb polarization parallel to growth direction and still have a relatively high noise and low quantum efficiency 3. QDIPs should offer a better SNR and lower dark current due to 3-dimensional confinement of carriers and quantized energy levels 4. However, they suffer from low quantum efficiency (η~10%) due to the low fill factor of the dots. Existing semiconductor based single photon detectors are avalanche Si photodetectors with a good detection performance below ~1µm. Unfortunately at telecom wavelengths (1.3µm, 1.55µm) Si does not work efficiently. InGaAs/InP avalanche photodetectors can operate at the telecom wavelength. However, they have a large dark current that reduces effective single photon detection. Therefore, they are mostly used in gated mode, and cannot be used in non-synchronized applications such as imaging systems 5,6. Here we present a novel avalanche-free single photon detector based on carrier focalization and augmentation. The principle of operation of the so-called Focalized Carrier augmented Sensor (FOCUS) is shown in Fig.1 schematically. + - Nano-injector Oxidized Layer Absorption Layer Hole Channel e - h + Substrate Photon Figure 1. The schematics of FOCUS. Compared to the existing technologies, FOCUS is created to deliver better performance and higher SNR: when an electron-hole pair is generated through optical excitation, the nano-injector attracts the hole and traps it in a very small volume. This creates a high concentration that reduces the potential barrier and leads to the injection of many electrons to the absorption layer (Fig.2). The structure features short transit time for electrons and high lifetime for holes in the nano-injector, which accounts for the high gain. Furthermore, the thick absorption layer and efficient collection of holes results in high quantum efficiency. Absorption Layer e - h + Photon Substrate Figure 2. Electron injection resulted from entrapment of a hole. Proc. of SPIE Vol X-2

3 To improve carrier injection, FOCUS is utilizing type-ii band alignment in the lattice matched InP/GaAsSb/InGaAs material system. Hot electron injection is easily achieved in this system 7,8, and is used to enhance the device gain. Unlike other low dimensional detectors, FOCUS contains a large absorption medium to increase quantum efficiency, and adds the benefit of same small sensing volume of a quantum dot. Thus, the base (GaAsSb) and emitter (InP) regions are different in radius than the collector (InGaAs), which is optimized to be the main absorption medium. Such a large collector region, designed for a high photon-electron interaction, can also route the optically generated holes towards the nano-injector for a high amplification. The small volume of the nano-injector produces an ultra-low capacitance that leads to a large change of potential even with entrapment of a single hole (Fig.3). The change of potential reduces the barrier between the emitter and collector, and produces a large electron injection. Our simulation results show a gain of ~10 4 is easily achievable. The structure is also designed to reduce recombination of injected electrons with the photo-generated holes by separating the electron and hole current paths. Energy tel Electrons iloles rid Pnsilinn (micrnnsj Figure 3. The band diagram at the center of device (vertical). II. SIMULATION MODEL A simulation tool was created using Comsol Multiphysics 9, which uses Finite Element Method (FEM). The model incorporates the Poisson s equation along with the diffusiondrift equations using appropriate boundary conditions and cylindrical symmetry. To improve performance and lower the complexity, the simulation of a radial cross-section of FOCUS is performed instead of the whole 3-dimensional volume. The model incorporates several nonlinear effects such as incomplete ionization, surface recombination, impact ionization, nonlinear mobility, and hot electron effects. Stability of the model was a problem, as the device possesses a highly nonlinear dynamics. Consequently, there were convergence issues which needed to be addressed: forced boundaries in the form of ohmic or Schottky contacts (i.e. Dirichlet boundary conditions) imposed infinite recombination and created stress on the domains they are attached to. The heterostructure of the device resulted in jumps in the carrier concentrations, which made current continuity harder to sustain. The most effective method was to build up Proc. of SPIE Vol X-3

4 the simulation in steps. Starting with a less constrained model (i.e. without nonlinear effects or forced boundaries), then using the solution as initial condition turned out to have better convergence. Other than convergence issues, accurate modeling of surfaces needed special attention: The nano-injector region was extremely sensitive to any surface effect due to its high surface-to-volume ratio. In addition to this sensitivity, finite element method had problems with boundaries: forced boundaries sometimes created leaks in nearby neutral boundaries (i.e. Neumann boundary condition) and current integration along forced or internal boundaries turned out inaccurate, both of which needed improvement and was eventually addressed. III. RESULTS Simulation results show a high gain and low dark current, which correspond to a high SNR in this device. Although the gain of phototransistor is higher and the dark current of photodiode is lower than FOCUS, SNR ratio of both is still lower than FOCUS. The current components within the device are also as expected: the electron injection is mainly under the nano-injector, and hence recombination with photo-generated holes is minimized (Fig. 4) Current-voltage characteristics of a 5 µm wide device at different optical powers at room temperature are shown in Fig.5. The device is capable of detecting very weak optical powers even at room temperature, while demonstrating a respectable internal gain of about 4x10 3. Figure 4. Simulated electron injection density (arrow) and electrostatic potential (color) of the device at T=300 K and under a bias value of ~0.5 volts. Proc. of SPIE Vol X-4

5 1* 9 8 * *.I *.2 *.3 *.4 *.5 *. *2 *.8 *.9 I Bras (Volt) Figure 5. Current-voltage characteristics of a 5 µm wide device at T=300 K and different optical powers. The device shows an internal gain of ~4000. The results show that slightly increasing the radius of nano-injector is quite effective in further separation of electron and hole currents. The simulation also confirmed that the routing of the carriers towards the narrow nano-injector region reduces the radial diffusion length compared to the axial diffusion length. This reduction was expected due to the congestion of carriers around the center of FOCUS device. IV. CONCLUSION We have designed and simulated a novel single photon detector. It incorporates a nanoinjector region on top of a large absorption layer. It has several features to reduce the noise level while maintaining a high gain. The design was created while taking into account the fabrication and processing technology limitations. Furthermore, we created a three-dimensional non-linear simulation tool for accurate modeling of the proposed detector. The model enables us to see and compare performances among different types of photon detectors, and optimize the structures. We believe that there is much more room for improvement for the simulation: we are currently adding quantum effects and Monte Carlo analysis to the existing model. The optimized epitaxial layer structure and device geometry, provided by the simulation tool, was used for epitaxial growth and processing mask design. Fabrication of the devices is currently underway, and the evaluation of an actual FOCUS detector will be done in the near future. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work is partially supported by DRAPA-MTO through the Photon Counting Array (PCAR) program, grant # HR Proc. of SPIE Vol X-5

6 VI. REFERENCES 1 P. W. Li, W. M. Liao, David M. T. Kuo, and S. W. Lin, Fabrication of a germanium quantum-dot single-electron transistor with large Coulomb-blockade oscillations at room temperature, App. Phys. Lett. 85(9): (2004). 2 G. Karve, S. Wang, F. Ma, X. Li, J. C. Campbell, R. G. Ispasoiu, D. S. Bethune, W. P. Risk, G. S. Kinsey, J. C. Boisvert, T. D. Isshiki, and R. Sudharsanan, Origin of dark counts in In 0.53 Ga 0.47 As/ In 0.52 Al 0.48 As avalanche photodiodes operated in Geiger mode, Appl. Phys. Lett. 86, , (2005). 3 A. Rogalski and K. Chrzanowski, Infrared devices and techniques, Opto-Elec. Review. 10 (2): (2002). 4 A. Rogalski, Infrared detectors, status and trends, Progress in Quantum Elec. 27: (2003). 5 A. Lacaita, F. Zappa, S. Cova, and P. Lovati, Single-photon detection beyond 1 µm: performance of commercially available InGaAs/InP detectors, Applied Optics. 35 (16): (1996). 6 F. Zappa, A. L. Lacaita, S. D. Cova and P. Lovati, Solid-state single-photon detectors, Opt. Eng. 35(4): (1996) 7 J. Hu, X. G. Xu, J. A. H. Stotz, S. P. Watkins, A. E. Curzon, M. L. W. Thewalt, N. Matine, C. R. Bolognesi, Type II photoluminescence and conduction band offsets of GaAsSb/InGaAs and GaAsSb/InP heterostructures grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73(19): (1998) 8 R. Sidhu, N. Duan, J. C. Campbell, A. L. Holmes, A long-wavelength photodiode on InP using lattice-matched GaInAs-GaAsSb type-ii quantum wells, IEEE Photonics Tech. Lett. 17(12): (2005) 9 Comsol Multiphysics, Comsol, Inc. Proc. of SPIE Vol X-6