Semiconductor Physical Electronics
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1 Semiconductor Physical Electronics
2 Sheng S. Li Semiconductor Physical Electronics Second Edition With 230 Figures
3 Sheng S. Li Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Florida Gainesville, FL USA Library of Congress Control Number: ISBN 10: ISBN 13: Printed on acid-free paper. C 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed in the United States of America. (TB/EB) springer.com
4 Preface The purpose of the second edition of this book is to update the developments in various semiconductor and photonic devices since the first edition was published in Due to the advances in semiconductor technologies over the past decade, many new semiconductor devices have emerged and entered the marketplace. As a result, a significant portion of the material covered in the original book has been revised and updated. The intent of this book is to provide the reader with a self-contained treatment of the fundamental physics of semiconductor materials and devices. The author has used this book for a one-year graduate course sequence taught for many years in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering of the University of Florida. It is intended for first-year graduate students who majored in electrical engineering. However, many students from other disciplines and backgrounds such as chemical engineering, materials science and engineering, and physics have also taken this course sequence. This book may also be used as a general reference for processing and device engineers working in the semiconductor industry. The present volume covers relevant topics of basic solid-state physics and fundamentals of semiconductor materials and devices and their applications. The main subjects covered include crystal structures, lattice dynamics, semiconductor statistics, one-electron energy band theory, excess carrier phenomena and recombination mechanisms, carrier transport and scattering mechanisms, optical properties, photoelectric effects, metal semiconductor contacts and devices, p-n junction diodes, bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs), MOS devices (MOSFETs, CCDs), photonic devices (solar cells, LEDs, and LDs), quantum-effect devices (QWIPs, QDIPs, QW-LDs), and high-speed III-V semiconductor devices (MESFETs, HEMTs, HETs, RTDs, TEDs). The text presents a unified and balanced treatment of the physics of semiconductor materials and devices. It is intended to provide physicists and materials scientists with more background on device applications, and device engineers with a broader knowledge of fundamental semiconductor physics. The contents of the book are divided into two parts. In Part I (Chapters 1 9), the subjects of fundamental solid-state and semiconductor physics that are essential for understanding the physical, optical, and electronic properties of semiconductor v
5 vi Preface materials are presented. Part II (Chapters 10 16) deals with the basic device physics, device structures, operation principles, general characteristics, and applications of various semiconductor and photonic devices. Chapter 1 presents the classification of solids, crystal structures, concept of reciprocal lattice and Brillouin zone, Miller indices, crystal bindings, and defects in solids. Chapter 2 deals with the thermal properties and lattice dynamics of crystalline solids. The lattice-specific heat, the dispersion relation of lattice vibrations, and the concept of phonons are also described. Chapter 3 is concerned with the three basic semiconductor statistics. Derivation of Maxwell Boltzmann (M-B), Bose Einstein (B-E), and Fermi Dirac (F-D) distribution functions are given in this chapter. Chapter 4 describes the elements of quantum concepts and wave mechanics, the one-electron energy band theory, the effective mass concept for electrons and holes in a semiconductor, the energy band structures for elemental and compound semiconductors, and the density-of-states functions for bulk semiconductors and low-dimensional systems such as superlattices, quantum wells, and dots. Chapter 5 deals with the equilibrium properties of intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Derivation of general expressions for electron and hole densities, and discussion of the shallow- and deep-level impurities in semiconductors are given in this chapter. Chapter 6 presents the recombination mechanisms and excess carrier phenomenon in a semiconductor. The basic semiconductor equations, which govern the transport of excess carriers in a semiconductor, are described in this chapter. Chapter 7 deals with the derivation of transport coefficients using the Boltzmann equation and relaxation time approximation. The low-field galvanomagnetic, thermoelectric, and thermomagnetic effects in n-type semiconductors are described in this chapter. Chapter 8 is concerned with the scattering mechanisms and the derivation of electron mobility in n-type semiconductors. The relaxation time and mobility expressions for the ionized and neutral impurity scatterings and acoustical and optical phonon scatterings are derived. Chapter 9 presents the optical properties and photoelectric effects in semiconductors. The fundamental optical absorption and free-carrier absorption processes as well as the photoelectric effects such as photoconductive, photovoltaic, and photomagnetoelectric effects in a semiconductor are depicted. Chapter 10 deals with the basic theories and relevant electronic properties of metal semiconductor contacts and their applications. The current conduction in a Schottky barrier diode, methods of determining and enhancing the barrier heights in a Schottky contact, and ohmic contacts in a semiconductor are presented. Chapter 11 presents the basic device theories and characteristics of a p-n junction diode. The p-n heterojunction diodes and junction-field effect transistors (JFETs) are also discussed. Chapter 12 is concerned with the device physics, device structures, and characteristics of various photovoltaic devices (solar cells), photodetectors, and their applications. The solid-state light-emitting devices, which include the light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and semiconductor diode lasers (LDs) are described in Chapter 13. Recent advances in LEDs and LDs and their applications are given in this chapter. Chapter 14 deals with the basic device physics, modeling, and electrical characteristics of bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), p-n-p-n fourlayer devices (SCRs, thyristers), and heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs).
6 Preface vii Chapter 15 presents the silicon-based metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) devices. The device physics and characteristics for both metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) and charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are described. Finally, high-speed and high-frequency devices using GaAs and other III-V compound semiconductors are discussed in Chapter 16. The GaAs-based metal semiconductor field-effect transistors (MESFETs), high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs), hot-electron transistors (HETs), resonant tunneling diodes (NTDs) and transferred electron devices (TEDs) are described in this chapter. Throughout the text, the author stresses the importance of basic semiconductor physics and its relation to the properties and performance of various semiconductor devices. Without a good grasp of the physical concepts and a good understanding of the underlying device physics, it would be difficult to tackle the problems encountered in material growth, device processing and fabrication, device characterization, and modeling. The materials presented in this book should provide a solid foundation for understanding the fundamental limitations of various semiconductor materials and devices. This book is especially useful for those who are interested in strengthening and broadening their basic knowledge of solid-state and semiconductor device physics. The author would like to acknowledge his wife, Julie Wen-Fu Shih, for her support, love, and encouragement during the course of preparing this second edition.
7 Contents Preface... v 1. Classification of Solids and Crystal Structure Introduction The Bravais Lattice The Crystal Structure Miller Indices and Crystal Planes The Reciprocal Lattice and Brillouin Zone Types of Crystal Bindings Defects in a Crystalline Solid Problems Bibliography Lattice Dynamics Introduction The One-Dimensional Linear Chain Dispersion Relation for a Three-Dimensional Lattice The Concept of Phonons The Density of States and Lattice Spectrum Lattice Specific Heat Problems References Bibliography Semiconductor Statistics Introduction Maxwell Boltzmann Statistics Fermi Dirac Statistics Bose Einstein Statistics Statistics for the Shallow-Impurity States in a Semiconductor ix
8 x Contents Problems Bibliography Energy Band Theory Introduction Basic Quantum Concepts and Wave Mechanics The Bloch Floquet Theorem The Kronig Penney Model The Nearly Free Electron Approximation The Tight-Binding Approximation Energy Band Structures for Some Semiconductors The Effective Mass Concept for Electrons and Holes Energy Band Structures and Density of States for Low-Dimensional Systems Problems References Bibliography Equilibrium Properties of Semiconductors Introduction Densities of Electrons and Holes in a Semiconductor Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductors Ionization Energies of Shallow- and Deep-Level Impurities Hall Effect, Electrical Conductivity, and Hall Mobility Heavy Doping Effects in a Degenerate Semiconductor Problems References Bibliography Excess Carrier Phenomenon in Semiconductors Introduction Nonradiative Recombination: The Shockley Read Hall Model Band-to-Band Radiative Recombination Band-to-Band Auger Recombination Basic Semiconductor Equations The Charge-Neutrality Equation The Haynes Shockley Experiment The Photoconductivity Decay Experiment Surface States and Surface Recombination Velocity Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy Technique Surface Photovoltage Technique Problems References Bibliography
9 Contents xi 7. Transport Properties of Semiconductors Introduction Galvanomagnetic, Thermoelectric, and Thermomagnetic Effects Boltzmann Transport Equation Derivation of Transport Coefficients for n-type Semiconductors Transport Coefficients for the Mixed Conduction Case Transport Coefficients for Some Semiconductors Problems References Bibliography Scattering Mechanisms and Carrier Mobilities in Semiconductors Introduction Differential Scattering Cross-Section Ionized Impurity Scattering Neutral Impurity Scattering Acoustical Phonon Scattering Optical Phonon Scattering Scattering by Dislocations Electron and Hole Mobilities in Semiconductors Hot-Electron Effects in a Semiconductor Problems References Bibliography Optical Properties and Photoelectric Effects Introduction Optical Constants of a Solid Free-Carrier Absorption Process Fundamental Absorption Process The Photoconductivity Effect The Photovoltaic (Dember) Effect The Photomagnetoelectric Effect Problems References Bibliography Metal Semiconductor Contacts Introduction Metal Work Function and Schottky Effect Thermionic Emission Theory Ideal Schottky Contact Current Flow in a Schottky Diode
10 xii Contents 10.6 Current Voltage Characteristics of a Silicon and a GaAs Schottky Diode Determination of Schottky Barrier Height Enhancement of Effective Barrier Height Applications of Schottky Diodes Ohmic Contacts in Semiconductors Problems References Bibliography p-n Junction Diodes Introduction Equilibrium Properties of a p-n Junction Diode p-n Junction Diode Under Bias Conditions Minority Carrier Distribution and Current Flow Diffusion Capacitance and Conductance Minority Carrier Storage and Transient Behavior Zener and Avalanche Breakdowns Tunnel Diodes p-n Heterojunction Diodes Junction Field-Effect Transistors Problems References Bibliography Solar Cells and Photodetectors Introduction Photovoltaic Devices (Solar Cells) Photodetectors Problems References Bibliography Light-Emitting Devices Introduction Device Physics, Structures, and Characteristics of LEDs LED Materials and Technologies Principles of Semiconductor LDs Laser Diode (LD) Materials and Technologies Problems References Bibliography
11 Contents xiii 14. Bipolar Junction Transistors Introduction Basic Device Structures and Modes of Operation Current Voltage Characteristics Current Gain, Base Transport Factor, and Emitter Injection Efficiency Modeling of a Bipolar Junction Transistor Switching and Frequency Response Advanced Bipolar Junction Transistors Thyristors Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors Problems References Bibliography Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors Introduction An Ideal Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor System Oxide Charges and Interface Traps MOS Field-Effect Transistors SOI MOSFETS Charge-Coupled Devices Problems References Bibliography High-Speed III-V Semiconductor Devices Introduction Metal Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors High Electron Mobility Transistors Hot-Electron Transistors Resonant Tunneling Devices Transferred-Electron Devices Problems References Bibliography Solutions to Selected Problems Appendix Index
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