PATHS OF THE PAST: AN OFF-MOUND SURVEY OF SHELL MOUND S (8LV42) NORTHEASTERN PENINSULA

Transcription

1 PATHS OF THE PAST: AN OFF-MOUND SURVEY OF SHELL MOUND S (8LV42) NORTHEASTERN PENINSULA By ANTHONY BOUCHER A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2017

2 2017 Anthony Boucher

3 To Lindsey

4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to many people who assisted me throughout the course of this research. I am grateful for my friends and colleagues Joshua Goodwin, Mark Donop, Jessica Jenkins, Terry Barbour, and Austin Jacobs who volunteered their labor for what was at times trying fieldwork in the heat and bugs of Gulf Coastal Florida. I would like to give a special thanks to Kenneth Sassaman, not only for his guidance through this process, but for being a true mentor throughout my time here at the University of Florida. Additionally, I would like to thank my committee members Neill Wallis and Charlie Cobb for their support and guidance. I am also grateful for insights provided by Asa Randall and Susan Gillespie, which aided in the development of ideas for this thesis. And finally, I would like to thank my fiancée, Lindsey Shatters. Throughout the entire process of fieldwork, writing, and editing, Lindsey s support and encouragement has truly been a blessing for me throughout this process and I find it difficult to believe I could have done this without her by my side. 4

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS... 4 LIST OF TABLES... 7 LIST OF FIGURES... 8 ABSTRACT CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Situating Time and Place The Spaces Between METHODS AND RESULTS Introduction and Methods Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41) Background Profile Cut I Profile Cut II Dennis Creek Mound Summary Peninsular Survey Results Material Culture Pottery Assemblage Limestone-Tempered Sherds Sand-Tempered Sherds Spicule-Tempered Sherds Modified Shell Flaked Stone Worked Bone Summary of Survey CONNECTING HISTORIES Early Woodland (ca BC) Middle to Late Woodland (ca. AD ) Reconfiguration of Center PATHS OF THE PAST As Paths Expand Future Directions

6 Conclusion LIST OF REFERENCES BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

7 LIST OF TABLES Table page 2-1 Absolute Frequency of ¼ Material of Peninsula and Dennis Creek Mound Absolute Frequency of Pottery along Transects by Temper Absolute Frequency of Pottery Sherds by Decoration in Transects C-Q Absolute Frequency of Pottery by decoration in Transects A-B and R-W

8 LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 1-1 USGS Topographic Map of LSAS Research Tracts along Florida Gulf Coast Topographic Map of Previous Test-Unit Excavations at Shell Mound (8LV42) Regional Distribution of Woodland period Civic-Ceremonial Centers in the Southeast USGS Topographic map of survey area between Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound Shell Mound (8LV42) and Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41) Approximate Locations of Profile Cuts I and II at Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41) Photograph Illustrating Mottled Fill in Profile Cut I Photographs of Tallant s Previous Work at Dennis Creek Mound Photograph and Description of Intact Stratigraphy from Profile Cut II Photograph Illustrating Shallow Midden in STP C Approximate Distribution of Disturbances along the Survey Tract Approximate Distribution of Pottery Types along Survey tract Select Sherds from Peninsular Survey and Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41): Profile Cut II (a); STP A-2 (b); STP B-3 (c); STP S-2 (d); Profile Cut II (e) Select Sand-tempered Sherds from Peninsular Survey and Dennis Creek Mound Select Spicule-tempered sherds from Peninsular Survey Demonstrating Variation of Type G Crown Conch Hammers from Peninsular Survey and Dennis Creek Mound Lightning Whelk Hammer and Merceneria Cutting-edge tool Select Examples of Flakes and Select Examples of Angular Shatter Worked and Notable Bone from Peninsular Survey:

9 3-1 Approximate Location of Early Woodland Period Node with Representative Pottery Approximate Location of Mid-Late Woodland Period Node with Representative Pottery Approximate Location of Late Woodland Period Node with Representative Pottery Evolution of Shell Mound (8LV42) from AD

10 Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts PATHS OF THE PAST: AN OFF-MOUND SURVEY OF SHELL MOUND S (8LV42) NORTHEASTERN PENINSULA Chair: Kenneth E. Sassaman Major: Anthropology By Anthony Boucher August 2017 A civic-ceremonial center on the northern Gulf coast of Florida, Shell Mound, is registered in the Florida Master Site Files as a discrete site (8LV42), but it is only one component of a larger complex of mounds and the spaces that separate them. Reported in this thesis are the results of a shovel-test pit survey that documented the remnants of Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41), 250 meter to the northeast of Shell Mound, and the area in between these two terraformed features. Results show that Dennis Creek Mound was constructed at ca. AD 550, at about the same time that Shell Mound was terraformed into its final configuration. However, the space between these two mounds lacks archaeological evidence of contemporaneous activity. Revealed instead in a survey of 130 shovel tests were components both predating and postdating Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound. The earlier components are consistent with the founding of a mortuary mound to the west of Shell Mound, which adds greater time depth of the ceremonial history of the immediate landscape. Taken together, this archaeological record illustrates intermittent ritual practices of the area s inhabitants for over a millennium. Most importantly, these results support the idea that spaces between 10

11 mounds and the pathways that connect them are integral to the history and meaning of the ceremonial landscapes on the northern Gulf Coast. 11

12 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Extensive networks of constructed mounds, rings, and ridges cover Florida s Gulf Coast. For the past seven years the Laboratory of Southeastern Archaeology (LSA) has conducted fieldwork on the northern Gulf Coast of Florida (Sassaman et al. 2016). The area of the Lower Suwannee Archaeological Survey (LSAS) spans a 42-kilometer stretch of largely undeveloped coastline, which is home to 111 recorded archaeological sites, and potentially many more. For the purposes of archaeological research, this expansive stretch of coastline has been separated into five tracts (Sassaman et al. 2010) (Figure 1-1). Recently, much of the research has been focused on the Shell Mound Tract and its namesake site, Shell Mound (Figure 1-2). Dating to the Middle Woodland period, Shell Mound is a U-shaped ridge of mostly oyster shell measuring roughly 180 x 170 m in plan. The ridge encloses a 60-m-diameter central area or plaza that is open to the southeast. To the west of Shell Mound, across a strait of intertidal water, is Palmetto Mound (8LV2), a local mortuary mound (Donop 2017; Sassaman et al. 2015). The LSA s work at Shell Mound has been extensive rather than intensive, focusing on dispersed areas of the site in order to document variation in stratigraphy, features, and the sequence of construction. To date, 14 test units have been excavated and 18 radiocarbon assays provide age estimates ranging from AD (Sassaman et al. 2016) (Figure 1-2). Although activity at Shell Mound took place over a span of six centuries, the most intensive activities took place between about AD , when the mound assumed its final shape and a contemporaneous mortuary mound (8LV41) was constructed approximately 250 meters northeast of the site. The height of mound 12

13 construction at the site corresponded with intensive ceremonial activities involving many large pits and other subsurface features, evidently in association with mortuary practices (Sassaman et al. 2016). In the spring of 2016 we conducted off-mound reconnaissance at Shell Mound, targeting the northeastern peninsula of the site, in the direction of the aforementioned mortuary mound (8LV41). The survey resulted in 130 shovel test pits (STPs) spanning an approximately 250 meters of the northeastern peninsula. Additional work outside of the peninsular survey included the testing of 8LV41, which had previously been documented by C.B. Moore in the early 19 th century. In the following chapter, I describe the field work and the methods used to survey the northern peninsula of Shell Mound, along with the testing of the mound approximately 250 meters north east of Shell Mound, 8LV41, hereafter referred to as Dennis Creek Mound. Additionally, Chapter 2 will briefly discuss the laboratory and analytical methods conducted on the assemblage recovered from the survey. In Chapter 3, I describe the results of the survey and provide a discussion of temporal nodes which are assigned based on the variations of diagnostic pottery types as well as the assemblages of material culture recovered as compared to what has been observed from excavations on the mound proper. Finally, in Chapter 4, I conclude with a summary of my findings, interpretations, and suggestions for future research. The sections that follow situate the time and place of this thesis, followed by a discussion on the importance of a broader scaled consideration of mound complexes and the landscape. Situating Time and Place The Woodland period (1200 BC AD 1000) has been glossed as an era of regionalism with an emphasis on the participation of a panregional religious movement involving mound construction, elaborate mortuary ceremonialism, animal effigies, and 13

14 the acquisition of nonlocal material (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:114). Woodland complexes are considered hubs or centers in widespread ceremonial and exchange networks with historical roots in the Hopewell tradition of the American Midwest (Anderson and Mainfort 2002:13). Hopewellian traditions in the heartland dissipated around A.D. 350, at which time emphasis in mound ceremonialism and exchange shifted southward into the lower Southeast. During the Middle and Late Woodland periods (ca. AD ) in the Southeast, formerly dispersed and mobile populations increasingly congregated in larger village settlements (Anderson and Mainfort 2002). The circular arrangement of villages were demarcated by the deposition of continuous midden or discrete midden piles in rings or horseshoe shapes surrounding plazas mostly devoid of cultural materials (Pluckhahn 2010; Russo et al. 2014; Stephenson et al. 2002; Wallis et al. 2015). Around AD 200, larger villages became associated with mound construction around the perimeter of plazas and were initiated at locations of prior human interment (Pluckhahn 2003; Pluckhahn 2010; Wallis et al. 2016). The practice of incorporating the civic (i.e., settlement) with the ceremonial (i.e., mortuary) at these large mound centers diverged from earlier vacant Hopewellian ceremonial centers, suggesting a shift from the integration of many dispersed groups to a focus on individual, corporate societies (Anderson and Sassaman 2012: 114; Carr 2006). Reasons for their departure from earlier, northern Hopewellian practices remains unclear. However, the close correlation between population aggregation and ritual practice is evident at most of these centers, where planned site designs were established during their initial occupation (Wallis et al. 2015:508). Moreover, in Florida and south Georgia, the emergence of civic-ceremonial 14

15 centers is considered to coincide with Swift Creek tradition, later overlapping with a mortuary and ceremonial program traditionally known as Weeden Island (Wallis 2011; Wallis et al. 2015). Woodland period settlements in the study area were shaped by the histories of several civic-ceremonial centers along the coast and beyond. Among those constructed on the Gulf Coast were Garden Patch (8DI4), located at the north end of the study area, and Crystal River (8CL1), 25 km to the south of Cedar Key. Other civic-ceremonial centers related to those on the coast are Kolomoki (9ER1) in southwest Georgia, and McKeithen (8CO17), located in the interior of northern Florida (Milanich et al. 1997) (Figure 1-3). These civic-ceremonial centers were initiated between about AD 200 and 400 and most, if not all, were preceded by mortuary activity. Platform mounds, burial mounds, midden ridges, and plazas formed the integrated terraformed landscapes of the many regional centers. In recent decades civic-ceremonial centers have become a focal point of southeastern Woodland Period archaeology (e.g., Anderson and Mainfort 2002; Milanich et al. 1984; Pluckhahn 2003; Pluckhahn et al. 2010; Sassaman et al. 2016; Wallis et al. 2015). As mentioned above, the emergence of these centers has been said to coincide with Swift Creek traditions across a wide area of Florida and adjacent states, which later transitioned to, or included, Weeden Island practices. Represented by a regional scale connection through paddle matches of complicated stamped pottery and a widespread distribution of ceremonial paraphernalia, these traditions played a large part in an extensive network of trends in community aggregation (Wallis et al. 2015: 508). Participation in these social networks is considered to be a factor that united 15

16 disparate communities through strikingly similar mortuary and terraforming practices (Wallis et al. 2015; Wallis et al. 2016). Kolomoki, McKeithen, Garden Patch, and Crystal River, are well documented examples of the intensive investment in place practiced by local habitants during the Middle to Late Woodland Period. Shell Mound is also a civicceremonial center, although at times less accepted due to its differences in terraforming practices and its later construction. In a brief overview, the aforementioned similarities between these civic-ceremonial centers, Shell Mounds differences, and the processes that led to their establishment as significant places will be discussed below. Kolomoki, in southwest Georgia, is the largest example of a civic-ceremonial center. The center was established through mortuary rituals and other ceremonies that brought people together and rapidly became home to many hundreds of people. During the earliest phase of occupation, ca. AD 350 to 450, the plaza, a surrounding circular embankment, and several small burial mounds were constructed and together delimited the layout of the circular village that would be occupied for at least two centuries (Pluckhahn 2003: ). Similarly, McKeithen, in northwest Florida, was initiated by mortuary practices, which led to the intensive occupation and terraforming around AD (Milanich et al. 1997). Garden Patch, in Florida s northern Gulf Coast, provides another example of an emergent civic-ceremonial center. Around AD 324 to 375 at least one burial mound was emplaced and a horseshoe-shaped midden began to form. Terraforming of the ensuing two centuries at this coastal center followed the circular arrangement of mounds and platform mounds surrounding a plaza (Wallis et al. 2015). Finally, Crystal River, also located in Gulf coastal Florida, is renowned for its civicceremonial architecture and the large and diverse assemblage of ceremonial 16

17 paraphernalia that paralleled the practices of its neighboring centers (Pluckhahn et al. 2010). Among these parallels are the center s elaborate platform mounds, conical mounds, arcuate midden, and central plaza, all of which were preceded by mortuary practices in a similar fashion as the previously discussed centers. Shell Mound is also a coastal civic-ceremonial center, although it was established a bit later and does not conform to the architectural grammar of the others. Despite its more recent age, Shell Mound is adjacent to a mortuary facility known as Palmetto Mound, which dates as early as 800 BC (Donop 2017; Sassaman et al. 2016). Shell Mound began to take form after AD 400 on a relict paleodune with the primary deposition of large volumes of oyster shell, and assumed its final arcuate shape through the use of redeposited extant oyster midden. Activity at Shell Mound took place over a span of six centuries; however, the most intensive activities took place between about AD 450 and 600 when the mound assumed its final shape and a second contemporaneous mortuary mound was constructed. Terraforming practices involving the construction of monuments at Shell Mound was done in a linear array, rather than the aforementioned circular arrangement of mounds surrounding a plaza. Additionally, when compared to Garden Patch and Crystal River, Shell Mound is arguably the only truly coastal of these centers, as the former centers were constructed several kilometers back from the coastline. These differences are what have set Shell Mound aside from the broader discussions and considerations of Woodland Period civic-ceremonial centers in the Southeast. However, differences aside, Shell Mound and Palmetto Mound were clearly important places to the coastal dwellers of the Lower Suwannee 17

18 region, illustrated by its long history of engagement in ceremonial practice associated with mortuary activities and intensive terraforming. The Spaces Between Over the decades that civic-ceremonial centers have become the focal point of inquiry for the Woodland Period, archaeologists continue to focus on monumental constructs, rather than the landscape writ large. I argue that it is equally important, although sometimes neglected, to consider the spaces in between the mounds, which are formed in conjunction with mound construction. These built environments are not homogenous places of mounded monuments; rather they are heterogeneous places, encompassing multiple events of terraforming and engagement with the landscape (Thomas 2008:300). The heterogeneity of these built environments is highlighted by a deep and diverse regional history of terraformed places. Each of these places, positioned on a path, contained within a region that encapsulates histories of past peoples and their engagement with the landscape (Ingold 2000). Places of monumental construction throughout the eastern United States provide a deep history of past peoples and their investment in place. Terraforming practices, such as mound building, provide the constructed nodes contain many of these histories. Often less considered, are the spaces between monuments, which are nodes in and of themselves that continue to be interacted with even as monuments become avoided or abandoned places. Both nodes of monumental constructs and their linking spaces are bound by the itineraries of their inhabitants in that these places do not exist in space but as nodes in a matrix of movement (Ingold 2000:119). It must be noted that the spaces of concern here are not centralized plazas emplaced by site plans, rather they are the peripheries or outlying places less impacted by terraforming, representing the routes of 18

19 past people s as they engaged in various practices on the landscape. Although these spaces are not centralized in the sense of a site plan, they are centralizing. Similar, to paths travelled by the inhabitants of a metropolitan area, these spaces illuminate the built environment, connecting these monumental nodes to one another. The recorded history of coastal dwellers in Florida s northern Gulf Coast goes back as far as four millennia and continued through European contact (Sassaman et al. 2016). This deep history is illustrated by the actions of these coastal dwellers navigating the aqueous landscape of the Lower Suwannee, emplacing monumental constructs atop islands and parabolic sand dunes. While rich in resources, the aqueous landscape of the Lower Suwannee is constantly in flux, causing constant negotiation between it and its inhabitants. Through daily practices and navigation among islands, coastal dwellers required a deep understanding of the winds, tides, channels, reefs, shoals, and open waters. Islands terrestrial landscapes, between continents and the sea are the nodes connecting these networks of monumental construction (Ingold 2000). Metaphorically comparable to the dynamic movement of water, Florida s Big Bend Region provides a vibrant example of coastal peoples and their interactions with their local landscape. Through practical engagement of resource procurement Woodland peoples of the Lower Suwannee would have inevitably come upon residues of past social practices in a monumental landscape. As this work will show the elaborate rings, ridges, and mounds emplaced on these terrestrial nodes potentially became recognized as a feature of their own identities manifested in physical and cultural values of their landscape (Barrett 1999:263). Among these features are constructed U- or C-shaped 19

20 shell rings and middens, which often bear a striking resemblance to parabolic sand dunes (Sassaman et al. 2016). Parabolic sand dunes of the coast were molded into their arcuate shape by prevailing winds in the Pleistocene (Wright et al. 2005). As nature would have it, prevailing winds in the Pleistocene came from the southwest, creating dunes with orientations aligned to the solstices. With some dunes measuring up to two kilometers long and seventeen meters tall, these features may have been just as influential to the past peoples of the Lower Suwannee as the Tors were to the Mesolithic people of southwest England (Bradley 1998) or the periglacial fissures of bedrock were to the builders of Stonehenge (Parker Pearson 2013). In all cases, these features were modified through practices of terraforming or mortuary activities and often reestablished their original or natural forms (see, Bradley 1998; Parker Pearson 2013; Randall and Sassaman 2017). Actions taken by inhabitants to mimic these places may have been an effort to link themselves to a mythical past. Through moving about and interacting with their landscape, individuals would have literally rediscovered practices of the past, potentially embedding them into their own lives (Barrett 1999). Actions of these coastal dwellers embellishing parabolic dunes through mortuary practices has a documented history going back as early as the Late Archaic ( BC) (Randall and Sassaman 2017; Sassaman 2016). Elsewhere, these practices are argued to represent the efforts of past peoples negotiating with rising seas by establishing them as physiographic landmarks, demarcated by the burying of the dead and deposition of ceremonial paraphernalia (Sassaman 2016). The best documented examples of these practices in the Lower Suwannee are seen at McClamory Key, Bird 20

21 Island, and Palmetto Mound. McClamory Key and Bird Island were established as cemeteries prior to 2500 BC and are the oldest available examples of terraforming performed through the embellishment of dunes by the inhabitants of the area (Sassaman et al. 2016). The third, Palmetto Mound was established around 400 BC, if not earlier, marking the final episode of these practices as rising seas subdued, but continued to be interacted with through mortuary practices far beyond its initial establishment (Donop 2017; Sassaman et al. 2016). Moreover, some centuries later, the embellishment of the remnant dune arm adjacent to Palmetto Mound intensified in forms of large ceremonial and ritual gatherings, eventually leading to the subsequent terraforming of Shell Mound, and its establishment as a civic-ceremonial center (Sassaman et al. 2016). These interactions with islands and parabolic sand dunes through practices of terraforming effectively bound the histories of the Lower Suwanee s inhabitants to these places. In that, these places of mounded shell and earth became the physical nodes or landmarks of events coastal dwellers inscribed upon the landscape and at times interacted with for millennia. Histories were made as past peoples moved about and engaged with these nodes along the Big Bend region of Florida. Through every path travelled these coastal dwellers left residues of their histories embedded throughout the landscape. Many of the spaces between discussed above are the open waters of the Gulf of Mexico. At mound complexes, like Shell Mound, some of these spaces are terrestrial paths between monuments. Along these paths are the accumulated residues of past peoples and their engagement with the landscape both physically and temporally. Through this perspective two forms of archaeological bookends present 21

22 themselves. In the physical spaces there are bookends of monuments and paths that connect them, the second, much less tangible, are temporal bookends. These bookends come to represent the fits and starts of events, gatherings and returns of people engaging with the places of their ancestors. However, unlike monumental constructs, their connecting paths or spaces between are less often examples of abandoned or avoided places, providing continuity of practices through time. The histories of these places are connected through both monumental constructs and their spaces in between. In that, for each place there is a path emplaced representing the movement of peoples through both space and time (Ingold 2000). Two of these physical bookends have been established with the recent testing of Dennis Creek Mound and the ongoing work by the LSA at Shell Mound. Both of these constructs were emplaced on a remnant dune arm, which, in turn, linked a path through their shared space in between. Similar to the regional movement of these coastal dwellers to and from islands discussed above, their engagement with their local landscape has been observed between these monuments. The following chapter reports the methods and results of our recent work at Dennis Creek Mound and along Shell Mound s northeastern peninsula. 22

23 Figure 1-1. USGS Topographic Map of LSAS Research Tracts along Florida Gulf Coast; Inset Showing Shell Mound Tract (bottom left). 23

24 Figure 1-2. Topographic Map of Previous Test-Unit Excavations at Shell Mound (8LV42). 24

25 Figure 1-3. Regional Distribution of Woodland period Civic-Ceremonial Centers in the Southeast. 25

26 CHAPTER 2 METHODS AND RESULTS Introduction and Methods The goal of the survey of Shell Mound s northern peninsula was to examine the subsurface of the nonmounded areas of the site and find intact stratigraphy at Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41). This was accomplished through a series of shovel tests along transects spanning the 250-meter-long northeastern portion of the landform between Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound. Reported in this chapter are the results of the survey along with new information from the testing of Dennis Creek Mound. Using the United States Geological Survey (USGS) 7.5 Suwannee (1993) Quad Topographic map of Shell Mound, 23 shovel test transects (Transects A-W) were established along the peninsula leading towards Dennis Creek Mound (Figure 2-1). These transects run along azimuths set perpendicular to County Road 326 and were terminated at the boundaries of the salt marsh. Transects of the survey extended 40 meters east past Dennis Creek Mound near the border of Levy County Campground lands. STPs that deviated from the set transects were labeled as opportunistic (OP) for the testing of raised areas that were potentially anthropogenic deposits. STPs were assigned sequential alpha-numeric designations that were recorded along with the azimuth of transects as well as distance to the previous STP. All materials excavated from STPs was passed through ¼-inch hardware cloth. All recognizable cultural material and vertebrate faunal remains was collected from all STPs, where they returned to the LSA for analysis and curation. Most STPs were excavated to a depth of at least one meter, and in cases where it was still viable and deemed necessary, excavations continued past a meter with a 26

27 maximum of approximately 1.25 meters. In some cases, STPs were terminated early due to large root obstructions or the intrusion of water along the salt marsh. If the STP was terminated due to root obstructions it was moved to a nearby spot and restarted. All STPs were 30 x 30 centimeters in plan, spaced at 10-meter intervals along transects that were staggered by 5 meters to minimize the area between tests. After the excavation of each STP, a sketch profile was recorded on standardized forms, along with Munsell soil chart descriptions of visible stratigraphy, and notes of the type and number of cultural materials recovered. All cultural materials were bagged and labeled with provenience information. Additional work included the excavation of two profile cuts into the remnant of Dennis Creek Mound. These consisted of the excavation of modified, wedge-shaped STPs, basically 50 x 50 centimeter in plan. As with other STPs, the fill of those dug on the margins of Dennis Creek Mound were passed through ¼-inch hardware cloth and all cultural materials were then bagged and labeled with provenience information. Additionally, two bulk samples were removed from the first (Str. I) and second (Str. II) strata of the mound for flotation and fine screening in order to recover organic materials for radiocarbon dating. The profile cuts were further documented through profile sketching, Munsell soil charts and photographs. All materials recovered were returned to the LSA for further analysis and curation. The results of the profile cuts excavated at Dennis Creek Mound will be reported in the section that follows. 27

28 Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41) Background Dennis Creek Mound was originally described by C. B. Moore in 1902 as a 6.5- foot tall and 64-foot wide mound (Moore 1902:215). Early excavations by Moore and other amateur archaeologists along with later looting and road construction have left the mound severely damaged. Dennis Creek Mound was constructed approximately 250 meters northeast of Shell Mound, on top of the same parabolic dune arm (Figure 2-2). Moore s previous trenching revealed alternating strata of oyster shell and sand, with an 18-inch cap of sand on top. Although he encountered no burials, Moore noted the presence of fragmentary human bone from earlier looting. Additional early investigations by amateur archaeologists includes those conducted by Montague Tallant in the early 20th century. Unlike Moore s observations, Tallant (n.d.) described the mound contents as, a clean midden of shell, lacking any cultural materials. As mentioned above, the LSA s recent work at the mound involved the excavation of two profile cuts from the remnants of Dennis Creek Mound, which are reported on below as Profile Cut I and Profile Cut II (Figure 2-3). Profile Cut I The first profile cut of Dennis Creek Mound, shown in Figure 2-4, was located on the northern margin of the mound. This appeared to be an area of prior looting, chosen in an effort to lessen our impact on the remnant of the mound. Observed from Profile Cut I was mottled fill containing residues of modern disturbances with glass and metal intermixed with sherds of limestone- and sand-tempered pottery. Interestingly, recently obtained photographs from the Museum of South Florida of Montague Tallant s (n.d.) previous work here, shown in Figure 2-5, suggests that our first area of testing was 28

29 potentially the location of his digging in the early 20 th century. Although the initial testing of the mound did not provide any new insights to the archaeological history of the site, it may be used as an object lesson on the current state of the mound and the severe impact amateur archaeologists have had on sites in the study area. Profile Cut II The second profile cut, shown in Figure 2-6, was excavated on the western margin of the mound. The excavation of Profile Cut II intercepted what may be the only remaining intact portion of the mound, revealing a thin A horizon over white and orange sands and an approximately 30-cm-thick stratum of shell midden. Four strata (STR) were recorded during the excavation of Profile Cut II, two representing deposited anthropogenic midden (STR I and II), and the bottom two (STR III and IV) representing submound soils. Stratum I, centimeters below surface (cmbs), consisted of yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) fine sand with oyster midden shell, faunal remains, pottery sherds,shell hammers, and a human cranial fragment. STR II, at approximately cmbs, consisted of brownish gray fine sands (10YR 5/1 intermixed with whole and fragmented oyster shell with few cultural materials. The third Stratum (STR III), approximately cmbs, contained fine gray sands (10YR 8/1) with no observable shell inclusions or cultural materials. Finally, STR IV, contained no indications of midden deposition and consisted of yellowish brown fine sands grading to fine yellow sands (10YR 6/6). Two bulk samples were removed from strata I and II of the second profile cut. The bulk sample removed from STR I provided a charcoal sample that returned an AMS age estimate of 1510+/-30 BP or cal AD and , which gives a central age estimate of approximately cal AD 575, within the range of Shell Mound 29

30 terraforming. The basal shell midden (STR II), provided an AMS age estimate of 1590+/-30 BP, or cal AD suggesting that it is evidence of redeposited oyster midden. Further demonstrating the redisposition of the basal midden is the lack of observable leeching between STR II and the natural substrate (STR III-IV), shown in Figure 2-6, the clear break between these strata illustrate that STR II was not autochthonous. Material wise, STR II contained limestone-tempered sherds, a sandtempered fabric impressed sherd, crown conch hammers, oyster, and vertebrate fauna. STR II s resemblance to shell midden at Shell Mound is so striking as to suggest it may have been mined and emplaced to form the isolated mortuary mound. Midden excavation, displacement, and redeposition have been documented elsewhere at Shell Mound and inferred to have been the practice used to finalize its arcuate shape during times of terraforming between AD 550 and 650 (Sassaman et al. 2016). These practices are demonstrated at Shell Mound in the redeposited midden of TU 1 strata I V dating between AD (Sassaman et al. 2013). Further evidence for redeposited midden is found at TU8 column samples 1-6, including strata I-III that date from AD , and potentially the majority of TU11 on the southern ridge dates from AD (Sassaman et al. 2015). The midden in the upper portions of these units came into existence between AD 400 and 600, and were mobilized sometime between AD 550 and 650 in a fashion similar to what is observed in STR II of Dennis Creek Mound. Along with the parallels between shell midden and cultural materials from Dennis Creek Mound and Shell Mound, stratigraphic similarities with Palmetto Mound were observed as well. STR I of Profile Cut II, bears a striking resemblance to the sand and shell stratum Donop (2017) has observed at Palmetto mound. These similarities are 30

31 illustrated in what appears to be the mixing of two different color sands to create the buff color shown in STR I (Figure 2-6). However, Palmetto Mound s stratum produced an age estimate of approximately 300 BC, which is several centuries prior to the construction of Dennis Creek Mound (Donop 2017; Sassaman et al. 2016). Although speculative, this may be an indication that Shell Mound s occupants dug into Palmetto Mound and observed this practice as terraforming protocol for the initiation of a mortuary mound. Dennis Creek Mound Summary The recent testing of Dennis Creek Mound has clarified the mound s place in the larger chronological sequence of the site. The basal material appears to be allochthonous suggesting the midden was redeposited in order to construct the mound. The age estimate provided by STR II does not refer to mound construction; this would be in the latter half of Shell Mound s terraforming sometime between AD 550 and 650. As a result, STR II of Dennis Creek Mound provides a possible example of shell midden being moved from sources at least 250 meters distance. Also of significance are the mound s stratigraphic similarities to Palmetto Mound that demonstrate what may be an intentional mixing of sands and shell midden at the bases of both mortuary facilities. Although it is difficult to say exactly what Dennis Creek Mound s purpose on this landscape may have been, it is clear that it involved mortuary activities. Whether in the form of a charnel house or cemetery, this was a place for the dead. The 250-m stretch of land between Dennis Creek Mound and Shell Mound further illustrates the deep history of the center and will be reported in the following sections. 31

32 Peninsular Survey Results A total of 130 STPs were excavated along approximately 250 meters of the peninsula. Of these, 83 were positive (i.e., contained cultural materials in undisturbed deposition). Soil profiles throughout the project area indicated thin, ephemeral middens. Raised middens or similar anthropogenic deposits were not observed. Areas chosen for the testing by opportunistic STPs were anomalously high elevations of possibly anthropogenic origin. However, they all exhibited evidence of recent disturbance, as indicated by mottled deposits of fill, often coupled with the recovery of modern cultural materials. Evidently, these anomalies were push-piles provided by the relatively recent land use of the site, probably involving heavy equipment (e.g., bulldozer). Despite the isolated disturbances, intact deposits were evident in dark brown (10YR 3/2) sandy subsoil, grading to yellowish brown (10YR 6/6 10YR 5/6) with depth, as illustrated in Figure 2-7. Dark brown sandy subsoil is indicative of ephemeral midden that persisted throughout the majority of the 250-m stretch of land tested for this survey with the exception of transects excavated beyond Dennis Creek Mound. All observed midden was approximately cm thick and eventually graded into the yellowish brown sands around cmbs. Also notable, were the shifting patterns of shell density within the midden throughout the area surveyed. Beginning at approximately 60 meters from the northern arm of the mound proper, the presence of whole shell within midden sharply declines to near absence. This pattern continued until reaching the base of Dennis Creek Mound, and thereafter the presence of shell declines again. Fill from STPs excavated adjacent to the marsh consisted of dark brown to black (10YR 2/2 10YR 2/1) organically enriched, mucky sands. These STPs resulted in excavation ending at depths between cmbs, due to contact with ground water. 32

33 Additionally, most if not all, of these STPs contained no observable material culture. These results potentially suggest that this area was unoccupied during the height of activities at the site, or further archaeological evidence has been inundated by the transgressing shoreline of the study area. Recovered materials were spread across the project area, but in undisturbed contexts were concentrated in discrete locales (Figure 2-8). Although disturbed contexts contained Woodland period materials they were often recovered along with clear evidence of recent disturbances in forms of historical artifacts (i.e., broken glass) and in the most extreme example a metal braided cable, potentially used as a drag-line with heavy equipment. Disturbed contexts, shown in Figure 2-8, were concentrated in areas within the aforementioned topographic anomalies excavated as opportunistic STPs along the survey tract. Undisturbed contexts, also shown in Figure 2-8, were at times intercepted by these recent disturbances. However, once reaching the central portion of the survey tract major disturbances dissipated, and historic artifacts were found only at or near the surface of STPs. Material recovered from STPs was distributed among discrete nodes along the 250-meter stretch of land between Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound. Beginning at Transect A the frequency of pottery sherds was relatively high when compared to subsequent transects and declined in STPs excavated along the following transect (B). From transects C J, the frequency of pottery steadily increased reaching their highest in transects F H, thereafter, in transects J L, frequencies decline. Subsequent transects (M S), located near the base of Dennis Creek Mound marked the final notable varying frequencies of pottery. All STPs excavated northeast of the mound (Transects T W) 33

34 were devoid of pottery and contained few pieces of flaked stone. Throughout the survey the presence of flaked stone artifacts was relatively low, but consistent, with the exception of Transect P, where the highest density of flaked stone artifacts were recovered. The presence of modified shell was more or less consistent throughout the survey. The highest frequency of modified shell recovered is represented in transects A C similar to the presence of pottery, their frequencies vary throughout the peninsula, and declined until absence when reaching transects T W. Each of these materials described above will be reported in the section that follows. Material Culture As stated above, 83 of the STPs excavated along the northeastern peninsula produced artifacts and an inventory of all recovered cultural materials provided in Table 2-1 for each transect. The artifact inventory (Table 2-1) comprises six broad material categories: pottery sherds, flaked stone, modified shell, vertebrate fauna, miscellaneous rock and historic artifacts. Pottery sherds are the most frequent material, composing 60.8 percent of the total (n = 482 out of 674 total). Modified Shell, primarily worked quahog (Merceneria merceneria) and crown conch (Melongena corona) were the second most frequent category of artifact recovered (n = 144; 21.3 percent). These are followed by a low frequency of flake stone in the form of lithic debitage (n = 48; 7.1 percent). In the sections that follow the assemblage of materials recovered from the survey will be discussed in greater detail describing pottery, flaked stone, and modified shell from a site-wide perspective. Variations in the distribution of particular artifact types across the survey tract potentially reveal changes in the practices communities engaged in at Shell Mound through a vast span of time. It must be noted that although Shell Mound proper contains a robust sample of radiometric dates from larger 34

35 excavations exposing profiles and features, STPs do not lend themselves to this level of control. Throughout the survey datable materials were consistently found in some form of association with historic artifacts making sampling problematic without controlled recovery methods. Thus, inferences drawn on materials will consider pottery typologies from Willey (1949) and others, coupled with the current chronology of Shell Mound for relative dating and interpretive purposes. Future testing of the northeastern peninsula at Shell Mound will require controlled Test-Unit excavations in order obtain datable materials from a clearly undisturbed context. The pottery assemblage demonstrated stark differences between the temper and decorations when compared to previous assemblages recovered at the mound proper (Figure 2-9). Sherds from STPs in transects A B were dominated by plain limestonetempered Pasco pottery and few spicule-tempered St. Johns check-stamped sherds (Table 2-2). As this initial node began to diminish the presence of pottery increased once again along transects C Q. However, pottery recovered from this stretch of the survey tract deviated from the initial assemblage. The pottery assemblage from these transects is represented by an abundance of sand-tempered simple-and check-stamped pottery along with plain spicule-tempered St. John s pottery (Table 2-1). The presence of these tempers and decorations continued until reaching transects S T, where plain limestone-tempered Paso pottery sherds and spicule-tempered St. John s check stamped pottery returned, thereafter the presence of pottery diminished until complete absence. As seen in Table 2-2, the vast majority of sherds in the assemblage (n = 212 or 44.3 percent) are tempered with sand. Thirty-five sherds (7.3 percent) are spicule tempered and 26 sherds (5.4 percent) are limestone-tempered. Each of these pottery 35

36 groups will be described in detail below and compared to previous materials recovered from Shell Mound. Pottery Assemblage An assemblage of 482 pottery sherds was recovered from the peninsular survey of Shell Mound. Of these sherds, 209 were sherds less than ½-inch in maximum dimension, listed in Table 2-2 as crumb sherds. The balance of the assemblage can be classified by a number of criteria, such as culture-historical type (e.g., Deptford, Weeden Island), or surface treatment (e.g., simple stamped, dentate). The LSA s recent experience with pottery assemblages in the study area compels us to privilege temper type as the primary sorting criterion. Common temper types in the study area include fiber, sand, limestone, and sponge spicule (Sassaman et al. 2015). In many cases, temper types correspondingly vary with attributes such as surface treatment and vessel form, and certain tempers have limited temporal spans providing useful relative time markers. However, there is also considerable independence among some of these attributes, and some temper types were so long-lived that their chronological value is limited. Despite these caveats, using temper to sort pottery is advantageous because these attributes are readily identified, despite the size and condition of sherds. Even crumb sherds at times may be classified by temper type, making them a useful comparison unlike culture-historical types in some cases, where idiosyncratic surface treatments may be missing from a small, eroded crumb sherd. For analytical purposes here both well-known cultural-historical typologies and observable temper of pottery sherds have been applied to the analysis of this assemblage. 36

37 Limestone-Tempered Sherds Limestone was used as temper in various parts of the southeastern U.S. In Florida, limestone tempered pottery is found primarily at sites along the peninsular gulf coast north of Tampa Bay. Defined as Pasco by Goggin (1948), limestone-tempered pottery has been found at virtually all sites in the project area. Examples of Pasco sherds recovered from the survey are shown in Figure Visible in the photograph of these sherds are the characteristic white inclusion of limestone found in Pasco pottery. Additionally, due to chemical weathering and hydration it is also common for the bodies of these sherds to appear porous from missing limestone inclusions in sherds (Figure 2-10-b). Limestone-tempered sherds are ubiquitous at Shell Mound proper, and, unlike their presence along the northeastern peninsula, they contribute to over 90 percent of the current assemblage (Sassaman et al. 2015). In the study area, limestone-tempered pottery has been securely dated to the third century BC through at least the eighth century AD (Sassaman et al. 2015). It is never found to the exclusion of other wares: in early contexts it is found with sand-tempered sherds (largely of the Deptford series) and spicule-tempered sherds (of the St. John series), and in later contexts sand-tempered sherds of the Swift Creek and Weeden Island traditions, as well as later spiculetempered wares. Due to its ubiquity, limestone-tempered, Pasco pottery is thought to have been the quotidian ware for communities at Shell Mound and the greater Lower Suwannee area. However, Pasco vessels recovered from the mound proper were large and often deposited in massive pits, suggesting that the use of this local pottery type may have reached beyond the day-to-day practices of Shell Mound s occupants to include large-scale food processing and consumption (Sassaman et al. 2016). 37

38 Similar to Shell Mound proper, Pasco pottery recovered from the survey tract was 100 percent plain excluding the single Impressed sherd (Figure 2-10-e) recovered in Profile Cut II of Dennis Creek Mound. Moreover, with the establishment of Dennis Creek Mound as a coeval feature to Shell Mound, a dominance of Pasco pottery would have been expected in this assemblage. However, this type only represents approximately five percent of pottery recovered along the peninsula illustrating a space apart from the mound proper, rather than an extension of it. The most frequent type of pottery in this assemblage was represented by sand-tempered pottery sherds with distinct surface treatments. Sand-Tempered Sherds Various types of surface treatment were observed among the 367 sandtempered sherds recovered from the survey tract (Figure 2-11). Approximately 32 percent of these (n = 155) are either too eroded or too small (i.e., crumb) to classify by surface treatment. Of those with preserved exterior surfaces and sizes greater than ½ inch, 64 percent (n= 138) were plain. The remaining 34 percent included 45 sherds with check-stamping, 18 sherds with simple-stamped surfaces, and a few other decorations (i.e., punctated or fabric impressed). Sand-tempered sherds recovered at Shell Mound tend to be in contexts dating to the first and second phases of occupation ranging from the second to early sixth centuries AD (Sassaman et al. 2015). The bulk of sandtempered sherds recovered from previous excavations on the mound are from the lower strata of TU8 and TU9, the former dating to fifth and early sixth centuries AD, the latter dating to the third century AD (Sassaman et al. 2015). In both of these places pottery types associated with the Deptford series have been recovered, in the form of simpleand check-stamped sherds (Figure 2-11-e) and the occasional cross simple-stamped 38

39 sherd (Figure 2-11-f), similar to the assemblage recovered along the peninsula. In addition, the assemblage included one punctacted sand-tempered sherd (Figure 2-11-g) from Profile Cut II of Dennis Creek Mound. Despite larger excavations at Shell Mound, sherds dating to Deptford times have been rare, and testing of the northeastern peninsula has successfully added to the sites inventory. The scarcity of classic Weeden Island wares continues to persist at Shell Mound even when including the results of the survey. One Punctated body sherd (Figure 2-11-n), along with two micaceous sand-tempered sherds, were recovered from STPs along Transects D H. These sherds are potentially related to Weeden Island traditions when the deposition of vessels with micaceous clay in mortuary contexts became more prevalent (Donop 2017). Moreover, the lack of Weeden Island wares supports the ongoing inference that Shell Mound was not used intensively or occupied after ca. AD 650, when these pottery types began to flourish in popularity within mortuary contexts such as the massive assemblage represented at Palmetto Mound, 500 m west of Shell Mound (Donop 2017; Sassman et al. 2016). The Deptford series wares recovered from transects C Q and its scarcity from previous excavations at the site suggests that this area may represent a temporal node of earlier activities. Furthering this inference is the presence of certain types of spicule-tempered pottery. Spicule-Tempered Sherds Spicule-tempered wares have a long history in the northern Gulf Coast region, as they do throughout much of Florida. These wares are often attributed to the St. Johns series of Florida, which is the hallmark type for the use of sponge spicules as a temper (Cordell 2004). Sherds from Shell Mound with spicules in the paste are found in limited numbers across a variety of contexts. A total of 65 spicule-tempered sherds were 39

40 recovered in the survey of the northeastern peninsula. Approximately 35 percent of these were plain (e.g., Figure 2-12-a), another 50 percent are eroded or crumbs, and the remaining 15 percent were check-stamped (e.g., Figure 2-12-c). Notable, are the thick-walled, plain spicule-tempered sherds represented in the pottery assemblage (Figure 2-12-b), which are often associated with earlier Woodland sites of the study area. Also, the St. Johns Check Stamped sherds are often associated with later Woodland components of sites throughout Florida (Sassaman et al. 2015). Further bolstering these chronological inferences are the associated materials recovered from STPs that included these types. Thick-walled plain, St. Johns wares were most often found in contexts with Deptford series type sherds. Whereas, St. Johns Check Stamped sherds were commonly found in association with Pasco pottery. Thus indicating that the former may represent materials of earlier peoples at Shell Mound and the latter representing later activities. These results promote the argument that materials recovered along the northeastern peninsula represent temporal nodes of activities spanning the Woodland period. Modified Shell Previous excavations at Shell Mound have resulted in an abundance of modified gastropod shells especially those of crown conch (Melongena corona). Typical among modified crown conch are Type G hammers (Marquardt 1992), examples of which can be seen in Figure By definition these tools have at least one perforation on the whorl, presumed to accept a handle, and battering on the siphon end. However, crown conch shells sometimes have perforation but no battering, and sometimes they have traces of battering but no perforation. Along the northeastern peninsula of Shell Mound these hammers were scarce when compared to previously analyzed assemblages from 40

41 the site. Similar to the distribution of Pasco pottery sherds these tools were often recovered nearest the base of both Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound. Worked quahog clam shells (Merceneria merceneria) were also recovered along the survey tract. One of these, shown in Figure 2-14-b, appears to have been utilized as a scraper or cutting-edge tool. The rest of these shells were fractured in angular fashion or show signs of use modification beyond what is necessary to open shells for consumption. Unlike the presence of crown conch hammers, worked quahog clam was consistent throughout the northeastern peninsula. In addition, one lightning whelk (Busycon contrarium) hammer is present in the assemblage of modified shell from STP I-2 (Figure 2-14-a). Although it is not surprising that some modified shells were recovered along the survey tract, the distribution of crown conch hammers further suggests that the space between Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound was not intensively utilized during times of occupation at the center. Flaked Stone A total of 48 flaked stone artifacts were recovered from the peninsular survey. All of these items are either flakes, both amorphous and bifacial, or shatter from the reduction of chert cores (Figure 2-15). The largest number of flaked stone was recovered from STPs excavated along Transect P. However, their relatively low presence was consistent throughout the survey tract. The low presence of lithic artifacts is consistent with Shell Mound and the majority of sites in the study area where these artifacts are rare, outside of specific contexts (Sassaman et al. 2015). Most of the flaked stone at Shell Mound is considered low-grade chert, which contains limestone cortex and numerous irregularities in the fabric of the rock. This low-grade chert is not terribly conducive to the production of formalized flake stone tools (i.e., bifaces). 41

42 The flaked stone artifacts recovered along the survey tract were typically recovered at approximately 50 cmbs, heavily patinated (i.e., weathered), and unassociated with pottery sherds (Figure 2-15-b). Given this consistent pattern, it is suggested that the lithic artifacts recovered along the survey tract are indicative of earlier activities at Shell Mound, potentially during prepottery times (i.e., pre-4000 BP). Outside of chert debitage, a few fragmentary limestone cobbles are present in the lithic assemblage with no apparent modification. These items may have been prescribed to various uses; however, no definitive evidence of any particular application was observed among those recovered. Limestone fragments were collected only when they potentially demonstrated some form of use wear and thus have not been tabulated into the broader results of the survey. Worked Bone Vertebrate faunal remains were scant along the northeastern peninsula. The total weight of vertebrate remains (Table 2-1) is grams, averaging roughly two gram of bone per STP excavated. Notable elements from the assemblage include a single shark tooth (Figure 2-16-b), and an alligator tooth (Figure 2-16-c), both of which were extremely eroded making it difficult to observe any potential modification. However, when considering previous worked bones recovered from Shell Mound proper, it is likely that these elements were modified or represent activities beyond daily consumption. Additionally, a single disk bead made from a fish vertebra, shown in Figure 2-16-a, was recovered in STP I-4. Notably, this STP exposed a potential pit feature, containing cranial elements from deer, various fish remains, and simple-stamped pottery sherds along with the bone bead. Outside of the bone bead no other clearly modified bones were observed. 42

43 Summary of Survey Survey results indicate that the peninsula was occupied prior to the terraforming of Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound. The notable marked contrasts of the material assemblage recovered along the northeastern peninsula were unexpected. Previous excavations at Shell Mound have consistently provided cultural materials of a Middle Woodland Period assemblage. This assemblage typically includes an abundance of plain limestone-tempered Pasco sherds, crown conch hammers and other shell tools, along with a relatively low frequency of sand- and spicule-tempered sherds (Sassaman et al. 2015). Recovered across an expansive portion of the survey tract (Transects C Q) were sherds of sand-tempered simple- and check-stamped pottery along with spicule-tempered St. John s pottery (Table 2-3). Transects closest to Shell Mound (Transects A B) and the tested areas around Dennis Creek Mound (Transects R T) contained the highest frequency of Pasco pottery, St. John s Check Stamped pottery, and crown conch hammers. Additionally, a low frequency of micaceous sand-tempered pottery were also present in the assemblage, potentially indicative of later Woodland activities at the site (Table 2-4). These results indicate that Shell Mound s peninsula was potentially utilized prior to and after the abandonment of the center. In the following chapter the results reported here will be reviewed in chronological sequence, in order to further illustrate the history of land use along Shell Mound s peninsula. 43

44 Figure 2-1. USGS Topographic map of survey area between Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound; Inset STPs Labeled by Transect. 44

45 Figure 2-2. Shell Mound (8LV42) and Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41), LiDAR courtesy of Asa Randall. Figure 2-3. Approximate Locations of Profile Cuts I and II at Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41). 45

46 Figure 2-4. Photograph Illustrating Mottled Fill in Profile Cut I. Figure 2-5. Photographs of Tallant s Previous Work at Dennis Creek Mound Provided Museum of South Florida. 46

47 Figure 2-6. Photograph and Description of Intact Stratigraphy from Profile Cut II. Figure 2-7. Photograph Illustrating Shallow Midden in STP C-3. 47

48 Figure 2-8. Approximate Distribution of Disturbances along the Survey Tract. Figure 2-9. Approximate Distribution of Pottery Types along Survey tract. 48

49 Figure Select Sherds from Peninsular Survey and Dennis Creek Mound (8LV41): Profile Cut II (a); STP A-2 (b); STP B-3 (c); STP S-2 (d); Profile Cut II (e). 49

50 Figure Select Sand-tempered Sherds from Peninsular Survey and Dennis Creek Mound: STP F-5 (a); STP C-3 (b and c); STP I-4 (d); STP D-2 (e and f); STP R-2 (f); STP Profile Cut II (g); STP I-2 (h j); STP K-3 (k); STP C-3 (l); STP N- 3 (m); STP D-1 (n); STP H-1 (o). 50

51 Figure Select Spicule-tempered sherds from Peninsular Survey; STP I-3 (a); STP K-3 (b); STP S-1 (c). Figure Demonstrating Variation of Type G Crown Conch Hammers from Peninsular Survey and Dennis Creek Mound. 51

52 Figure Lightning Whelk Hammer (STP I-2) b. Merceneria Cutting-edge tool (STP H-3). Figure Top Row (A C) Select Examples of Flakes; Bottom Row (D F) Select Examples of Angular Shatter 52

53 Figure Worked and Notable Bone from Peninsular Survey: a. Disk Bone Bead; b. Eroded Sharks Tooth, c. Eroded Alligator Tooth Table 2-1. Absolute Frequency of ¼ Material of Peninsula and Dennis Creek Mound Pottery Sherds Flaked Stone Modified Shell Vertebrate Fauna Misc. Rock Historic Transect ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) wt(g) wt(g) wt(g) A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W OP DCM Total

54 Table 2-2. Absolute Frequency of Pottery along Transects by Temper. Limestone Sand Spicule Transects Sherd Crumb Sherd Crumb Sherd Crumb Total A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R 1 1 S 2 2 T U V W OP DCM TOTAL

55 Table 2-3. Absolute Frequency of Pottery Sherds by Decoration in Transects C-Q Plain Stamped Impressed Punctated Other Eroded/UID Total Temper ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) Limestone Body Rim Crumb Subtotal Sand Body Rim Crumb Subtotal Spicule Body Rim Crumb Subtotal Other Body Rim Crumb Subtotal Total Table 2-4. Absolute Frequency of Pottery by decoration in Transects A-B and R-W Plain Stamped Impressed Eroded/UID Total Temper ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) ct wt(g) Limestone Body Rim Crumb Subtotal Sand Body Rim Crumb Subtotal Spicule Body Rim Crumb Subtotal Total

56 CHAPTER 3 CONNECTING HISTORIES The Lower Suwanee encompasses a history of at least four millennia illustrated through human interaction with a maritime landscape (Sassaman et al. 2016). Along with the observable emplacement of mounded shell and earth, these histories were inscribed in the landscape. Observed along the northeastern peninsula of Shell Mound are the residues of large-scale, but short-term gatherings, assumedly related to mortuary activities taking place on Palmetto Mound. The space between Palmetto Mound and Shell Mound is today intertidal flats and oyster bars, inundated routinely except at extremely low tides. The space between Shell Mound and Dennis Creek, however, is terrestrial, consisting of the relict arm of a parabolic sand dune that was at least three kilometers long before affected by rising water in the late Holocene. Along the Big Bend region of Florida the embellishment of parabolic sand dunes through mortuary and ritual practices persisted for several millennia. At Shell Mound a significant change appears to have occurred during the fifth century AD, with the construction of a new mortuary mound and the contemporaneous terraforming of its southern ridge. These final acts of terraforming reoriented Shell Mound 120 degrees eastward and closed it off to Palmetto Mound (Sassaman 2016). However, prior to these acts inhabitants of the Lower Suwannee intensively engaged with Palmetto Mound through mortuary practices and the deposition of ceremonial paraphernalia. As these events elapsed, past peoples effectively emplaced their histories upon this ceremonial landscape. The following sections of this chapter discuss the historical process of Shell Mound, its inhabitants, and the events that potentially led to the aforementioned final acts of terraforming at the center. 56

57 Early Woodland (ca BC) Evidence of Early Woodland, Deptford period activities are scant at Shell Mound, with evidence limited to ephemeral deposits at the base of the mound proper, around the outside perimeter. In contrast, previous excavations and materials collected from Palmetto Mound offers us clear evidence that Early Woodland peoples visited the area at times for mortuary or ritual purpose (Donop 2017; Sassaman et al. 2015). Through the space between Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound we have gained further insights as to where these groups may have resided, in times of gathering and interacting with Palmetto Mound. Across an expanse of some meters northeast of Shell Mound, following the dune arm, STPs were largely devoid of shell or any evidence of intensive occupation. Although ephemeral middens were observed along these transects, they were not contiguous, nor were any deeper than 30 centimeters below the surface or rich in organic remains. STPs along these transects yielded sand-tempered, simplestamped and check-stamped body and rim sherds, along with thick-walled spiculetempered vessels that are believed to be early variants of the St. Johns tradition, coeval with Early Woodland, Deptford peoples (Milanich 1994:111; Willey 1949) (Figure 3-1). Faunal remains were few with the exception of one shovel test, which potentially intercepted a pit feature that contained a single disk bone bead, deer cranial elements, and various fish remains. Although independent age estimates have not yet been obtained, when considering the material culture and its comparison to what has been recovered from Shell Mound it is nearly certain that they would predate A.D. 400, after which activity at Shell Mound intensified. 57

58 Therefore, the evidence for Early Woodland use of the landform is consistent with what limited evidence we have from Shell Mound: small, ephemeral deposits of apparently short-term and small-scale occupation that predate terraforming at Shell Mound. Given the proximity of these deposits to Palmetto Mound to the west, it seems likely that these occupations occurred in the context of mortuary ritual. It is worth noting that no evidence for occupation of any age was found directly associated with Palmetto Mound, suggesting that these small-scale deposits were sited on land that is today separated by several hundred meters of tidal water. However, at earlier times, when water levels were down, this area may have been relatively dry making the mortuary complex accessible by land as well. Whether Early Woodland peoples traversed by boat or foot they clearly intensively interacted with Palmetto Mound through burial of the dead and the deposition of elaborate materials. Some centuries later, attentions shifted east of Palmetto Mound and terraforming of the adjacent remnant dune arm intensified, establishing Shell Mound as a civic-ceremonial center. Middle to Late Woodland (ca. AD ) Shell Mound is primarily a late Middle Woodland period civic-ceremonial center. During this time large groups would gather to the site for mortuary or ritual purpose, in turn leaving their residues in large and numerous pit features along the northern arm of the mound (Sassaman et al. 2016). Survey results failed to locate evidence for any activity between Shell Mound and Dennis Creek Mound that is coeval with intensive use and terraforming at Shell Mound. Such evidence would consist predominantly of limestone-tempered Pasco pottery, which is abundant at Shell Mound. The most frequent occurrences of Pasco pottery along the dune are immediately adjacent to Shell Mound and immediately adjacent to Dennis Creek (Figure 3-2). Throughout these 58

59 transects plain limestone-tempered pottery was prevalent along with the occasional St. Johns Check Stamped sherds. Additionally, few crown conch hammers were included in the material culture recovered from these transects and faunal remains were scarce. Stratigraphically, no midden along the peninsula was comparable to those observed on the mound proper. Interestingly, the transects nearest to the foot of Shell Mound were located near one of the prior test units (TU 9), which contained a dense stratified shell midden (Sassaman et al. 2015). However, these transects were nearly devoid of shell, suggesting that the area may have been intentionally kept clean during the construction of the ridge. The transects farthest from Shell Mound and adjacent to Dennis Creek Mound were not only the final transects that contained coeval assemblages to the mound, but were the last to yield any assemblages that seemed arguably of the Woodland Period whatsoever. The absence of materials expected from an assemblage recovered at Shell Mound suggests that the events or daily practices taking place during times of intensive occupation at the center were contained within specific locales. Furthermore, although not extremely numerous, sherds of later Weeden Island times appeared in some shovel tests across the landform. These sherds were decorated with single incision and linear punctations, along with a few plain micaceous sand-tempered sherds (Figure 3-3). Although this should not be a surprise considering the substantial collections of Weeden Island pottery recovered from Palmetto Mound (Donop 2017), it is curious that there is only limited evidence of activities involving Weeden Island pottery at Shell Mound proper. Age estimates to date suggest that Shell Mound was abandoned by AD 700, after which Weeden Island pottery came into vogue 59

60 in the greater region. Before being abandoned, Shell Mound was reconfigured through large-scale terraforming that included the construction of Dennis Creek Mound. Potential events that caused these final acts of terraforming at Shell Mound will be explored below. Reconfiguration of Center Similar to the construction phases at Crystal River and Garden Patch, Shell Mound was constructed in multiple phases (Pluckhahn et al. 2010; Sassaman et al. 2016; Wallis et al. 2015). First, the occupants of the site consisted of small encampments at a relatively low elevation around AD 200 (Figure 3-4). In the subsequent century settlement shifted to the dune ridge, possibly due to rising seas, and midden began to accumulate. Like shell rings of habitation on dune ridges elsewhere, those at Shell Mound were likely of a modest size, but eventually led to an amalgam of rings and small shell mounds around approximately AD 550. What originally started as a traditional land-use practice of relocating to dune ridges as water levels rose became transmuted into a formal site plan at a scale comparable to Garden Patch (Sassaman et al. 2016). Around AD occupants of Shell Mound began to excavate and emplace midden dating to the prior century along the southern ridge of the mound, in turn, completing its arcuate form (Randall and Sassaman 2017). Simultaneously, Dennis Creek Mound was constructed from extant midden and other materials that bear a striking resemblance to those used at Palmetto Mound several centuries earlier. Although these two places shared similarities in construction materials, the coinciding terraforming of Shell Mound potentially indicates an ideological crisis among the center s inhabitants as they turned their backs to Palmetto Mound. 60

61 The reconfiguration of Shell Mound prior to its abandonment may have been a reaction to lowering of sea level associated with a presumed drop in global temperatures between AD Although direct evidence of these climatic events does not exist in the study area, droughts and extreme shifts in temperatures have been documented across the globe. Examples of these events recorded in Europe described them as a dust veil, producing a blue-colored sun and dimming the full moon, resulting in cold summers and droughts (Gräslund and Price 2015: 529). Correspondingly, ice core samples analyzed from the Central Andes of South America, demonstrate severe droughts throughout the region around 1500 years ago (Shimada et al. 1991). Further examples of these events are seen in an analysis conducted on a series of fossilized tree-rings collected from eastern Siberia to western United States, which are argued to correspond with this global phenomenon (Gräslund and Price 2015: 530). Although it must be noted that the results of the tree-ring data are highly debated, they are nonetheless worth consideration given the global trend of these events. Moreover, coupling the preexisting dynamism of the Lower Suwannee s environment with these climatic events may have resulted in a reversal of the longstanding trend from rising seas. This reversal may have caused waters to recede to the point where Palmetto Mound was no longer separated from Shell Mound, which may have been an alarming change for the inhabitants of the area. Therefore, the actions of constructing the southern ridge and turning their backs to Palmetto Mound, may have been a response to a perception that the retreat of water changed the relationship of the living to the dead. Perhaps this changed relationship introduced risks to the living that a water barrier prevented, causing Shell Mound s 61

62 occupants to construct a spiritual barricade of their own. Interestingly, this reconfiguration also follows the astronomical alignments of these various facilities. Like other cemeteries in the area dating as early as 4500 years ago, Palmetto Mound is sited on the end of a dune that is open to the setting winter solstice sun (Sassaman et al. 2016). In contrast, Dennis Creek Mound aligns with the rising summer solstice sun when viewed from Shell Mound (Randall and Sassaman 2017). In the act of closing off Shell Mound to Palmetto Mound and establishing a new mortuary mound landward, were Shell Mound residents reorienting themselves to a new vision of the cosmos? Although speculative, no dates exist from Palmetto Mound around the time of terraforming at Shell Mound to infer that the occupants or visitors continued to utilize it as their local cemetery. However, regionally, reconfigurations of sites signal changing ideological relationships between the living and the dead (Anderson and Sassaman 2012: 132). Additionally, as seen at Garden Patch, it is not unheard of for Woodland Period groups to occupy space near ancestral facilities while avoiding any deposition on such facilities (Wallis et al. 2015). Whether or not the final acts of terraforming at Shell Mound was a spiritual defensive maneuver, the occupants of the center found it important to construct a new mortuary facility as they reconfigured the mound, just prior to the abandonment of the site altogether. Centuries after the abandonment of Shell Mound, Palmetto Mound was reestablished as a local cemetery and continued to receive individuals and goods until approximately the 13 th century AD (Donop 2017; Sassaman et al. 2016). The continued reuse and reestablishment of Palmetto Mound shows that it was a place of significance for these coastal dwellers, which makes these final acts taken by Shell Mound s occupants compelling and worth further investigation. 62

63 Figure 3-1. Approximate Location of Early Woodland Period Node with Representative Pottery: (A and B) Thick-walled Spicule Tempered Sherds; Sand-Tempered Check-stamp Sherds (C E); F. Sand-Tempered Simple-stamped Sherd. 63

64 Figure 3-2. Approximate Location of Mid-Late Woodland Period Node with Representative Pottery: A. St. Johns Check-stamped body sherd; B. Impressed Limestone-tempered body sherd; C E. Plain Pasco body sherds. 64

65 Figure 3-3. Approximate Location of Late Woodland Period Node with Representative Pottery: A. Plain Micaceous Sand-temper Rim Sherd; B and C. UID Puntacted Sand-tempered body sherds Figure 3-4. Evolution of Shell Mound (8LV42) from AD