AN INTRODUCTION TO COSMOCHEMISTRY

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1 AN INTRODUCTION TO COSMOCHEMISTRY CHARLES R. COWLEY Professor of Astronomy, University of Michigan CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

2 Foreword V a % e x i 1 Overview The Scope of Cosmochemistry Cosmochemistry and the Four Physical Sciences A Standard Abundance Distribution The Chemical History of Planetary Material Abundances Beyond the Solar System Two Approaches to Cosmochemistry 8 2 Minerals: An Introduction to the Nomenclature and Chemistry Introduction Mineralogy Some Useful Concepts from Crystallography A Simplified Mineral Classification The Common Minerals of Cosmochemistry Oxides The Olivines The Pyroxenes The Feldspars '' Mineralogy as a Clue to History: The Bowen Reaction Series; Paragenesis Problems 26 3 A Brief Introduction to Petrology Preliminary Remarks The Classification of Igneous Rocks Some Terminology Related to the Texture of Rocks Basalts, Gabbros, and Anorthosites Phase Diagrams Formation of the Lunar Highlands: A Petrological Exercise Problems 38 4 A Resume of Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics Introductory Remarks Systems, States, and Variables Additional State Functions and the Laws of Thermodynamics How to Tell the Direction of a Chemical Reaction 44

3 viii 4.5 Calculation of AG; Standard States Free Energy Changes At Arbitrary Pressures Heat Capacities Chemical Equilibrium Statistical Mechanics: Distributions Boltzmann's postulate: the Connection Between W and the Entropy S The Particle in a Box: Quantum Cells for Free Particles Chemical Equilibrium and Statistical Mechanics Problems 62 5 Condensation Sequences and the Geochemical Classification of the Elements The Concept of Geochemical Classification The Siderophile-Lithophile Distinction The Problem with the Chalcophiles Molecular Equilibria in the Gas Phase The Condensation of Solids The Geochemical Classes of Volatile and Refractory The Geochemistry of Trace Elements: Ionic Substitution Problems 88 6 The Theory of the Bulk Composition of the Planets Geophysical Constraints Earth Models The Moon and Terrestrial Planets The Jovian Planets A Zero-Order Model for the Solar Nebula Equilibrium and Disequilibrium Condensation The Condensation Sequences of Lewis and Coworkers Difficulties with the Condensation Sequences Problems Meteorites and the Standard Abundance Distribution (SAD) An Overview Meteorite Ages Meteorites and the SAD The SAD and Nuclear Processes: Overview Problems An Introduction to Isotope Geology with an Emphasis on Meteorites Introduction Rubidium-Strontium Dating; Sample and Model Ages Evolution of the Initial Ratio: ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) Further Remarks on Radioactive Dating Stable Isotope Geology Oxygen Anomalies and the Refractory Inclusions of Meteorites Isotopic Anomalies in the Noble Gases Aluminum-26 in the Early Solar System The Nature of the Allende Inclusions Problems 148

4 ix 9 Some Concepts from Nuclear Physics Introductory Remarks The Semi-empirical Mass Formula The One-Particle or Shell Model of the Nucleus The Classical Forms of Radioactivity, and Fission Nuclear Reactions and Their Rates Problems Energy Generation in Stars and Nucleosynthesis Introduction The Burning of Hydrogen and Helium Carbon, Oxygen, and Neon Burning Silicon Burning, Equilibrium, and Quasi-Equilibrium Processes The Problem of the Light Nuclei: Li, Be, and B Cosmic Rays and Abundances of LiBeB Cosmological Production of the Light Elements Synthesis of Nuclides Beyond the Iron Peak: the s-process The Classical r-process Additional Mechanisms for the Production of Elements Beyond the Iron Peak Supernovae and Supernova 1987A Problems, Atomic and Molecular Spectra Introductory Remarks Atomic Spectra: The Nomenclature of LS Coupling A Brief Description of the Data Tables Diatomic Molecules: Rotation and Vibration Diatomic Molecules: Electronic Structure and Wavelengths Rotational Structure of Symmetrical Top Molecules Rotational Structure of Asymmetrical Top Molecules Nuclear Effects in Atomic and Molecular Spectra: Hyperfine Structure Problems The Analysis of Stellar Spectra The Identification of Lines in Stellar Spectra Details of Identification Work The Analysis of Stellar Spectra: Overview The Slab Model Details of the Line Absorption Coefficient Doppler Broadening of Spectral Lines The Curve of Growth for Equivalent Widths Details of the Curve of Growth The Method of Spectral Synthesis Problems 287

5 13 The Chemistry of Stars and Stellar Systems The General Framework Spectral Classification The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram Stellar Abundances Population-Related Abundance Patterns Abundance Variations Attributed to In Situ Nucleosynthesis Abundance Variations Attributed to Chemical Fractionations Problems Cold, Non-stellar Material in Galaxies Introduction Molecular Clouds The Theory of Interstellar Chemistry Interstellar Grains: Optical Properties Interstellar and Circumstellar Features The Formation of Dust Problems Emission-Line Regions and their Chemical Abundances Emission Regions Planetary and Diffuse Nebulae: The Hydrogen Lines Electron Temperatures and Densities in Emission Regions Determination of Abundances Abundances in Emission Regions Atlas of Simulated Emission Spectra Problems Abundances of the Elements in Galaxies An Introduction to Galactic and Extragalactic Research Basic Data for the Chemical Evolution of the Solar Neighborhood Analytical Models of Chemical Evolution: Basic Relations Stars and the Total Mass The Distribution of Stellar Abundances: Infall Fixing the Model Parameters from Observations The Distribution of Stellar Abundances: Gas Loss Recent Developments in Galactic Chemical Evolution Abundances in Distant Objects Dark Matter in the Universe Problems 416 Appendix 418 References 434 Index 462

Dating. AST111 Lecture 8a. Isotopic composition Radioactive dating

Dating. AST111 Lecture 8a. Isotopic composition Radioactive dating Dating Martian Lafayette Asteroid with patterns caused by the passaged through the atmosphere. Line on the fusion crust were caused by beads of molten rock. AST111 Lecture 8a Isotopic composition Radioactive