ASTROPHYSICS. K D Abhyankar. Universities Press S T A R S A ND G A L A X I E S
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1 ASTROPHYSICS S T A R S A ND G A L A X I E S K D Abhyankar Universities Press
2 Contents Foreword vii Preface ix 1 Introduction ' Astronomy and astrophysics Importance of astronomy Methods of astronomy and astrophysics The scientific method Scope of astronomy 6 2 The Celestial Coordinates Identification of stars Spherical coordinates The Altazimuth system The local equatorial system The universal equatorial system Aspects of sky at a given place Other systems Conversion of coordinates 17 Problems 19 3 Apparent Luminosities of Stars Magnitude scale Measurement of apparent luminosity Various magnitude systems Corrections for observed magnitudes 27 Problems 30 4 Stellar Distances and Absolute Luminosities Measurement of terrestrial distances Measurement of distances within the solar system Trigonometric parallaxes of stars Geometrical methods The method of luminosity distance 44 Problems 46 5 Surface Temperatures of Stars ' Introduction Laws for radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium 49
3 xli CONTENTS 5.3 Application of radiation laws to stellar photospheres Defining temperatures of stars by matter laws Spectral classification of stars Explanation of MK spectra Peculiar stellar spectra 74 Problems 76 Masses and Radii of Stars Kepler's third law Binary stars 81., 6.3 Description of a binary system Study of visual binaries Study of spectroscopic binaries Study of eclipsing binaries Measurement of stellar radii Important relations between stellar parameters 108 Problems 112 Structure of Stellar Atmospheres Introduction The radiative transfer Temperature distribution in a grey atmosphere The absorption coefficient Models of stellar atmospheres Convection in stellar atmospheres 134 Appendix 138 Problems 139 Chemical Composition of Stellar Atmospheres The line strength The line source function Inadequacy of the Schuster-Schwarzschild model The Milne-Eddington model Intrinsic causes of line broadening The curve of growth Uses of the curve of growth 163 ' 8.8 Abundances of elements in stars Stark broadening of hydrogen lines 169 Problems 172 Internal Structure of Stars Introduction Equations of stellar structure Polytropic models Temperature distribution in polytropes Stellar energy sources 188 ' 9.6 Stellar opacity 194
4 CONTENTS xiil 9.7 Preliminary models of main sequence stars Models for real stars Structure of white dwarfs -207 Problems Stellar Evolution The viria] theorem Evolution near the main sequence Star formation Pre-main sequence contraction Post-main sequence evolution Nucleosynthesis Superdense remnants Evolution of close binary.systems 238 Problems Large Scale Motions in Stellar Atmospheres Introduction 248 1L2 Stellar rotation' Stellar pulsation Macroturbulence Outflow of matter 268 Problems Stellar Magnetic Fields Measurement of magnetic field The A,, stars The sun Other stars 293 Problems Hot Stars and Gaseous Nebulae Fluorescence Abnormal populations of levels Collisional excitation Interstellar gas The crab nebula 319 Problems Distribution of Stars in the Milky Way Introduction Star counts Evidence for interstellar extinction Nature of interstellar dust Estimation of interstellar extinction Distribution of stars in the solar neighbourhood 340 Problems 345
5 xlv CONTENTS 15 Motions of Stars in the Milky Way The solar motion Peculiar motions of stars Oort's theory of galactic rotation Departures from circular motion Stellar populations 365 Problems Large-Scale Structure of the Milky Way The radio continuum The 21-cm line radiation Mass distribution Theories of spiral structure 385 Problems External Galaxies Building blocks of the universe Properties of normal galaxies Radio galaxies and quasars Clusters and multiple galaxies 415 Problems Cosmology Introduction 420 ' 18.2 Theoretical foundations 422 " 18.3 Some specific cosmological models Description of the observed universe Observational evidence Past and future of the universe 445 Problems Astronomical Instruments Introduction Optical telescopes Optical photometric instruments and techniques Optical spectroscopy Radio telescopes Miscellaneous remarks Space Astronomies Infrared astronomy Ultraviolet astronomy X-ray astronomy Gamma ray astronomy The Hubble space telescope 506 Appendix I: Constellations on the meridian at midnight during the course of the year 510
6 CONTENTS xv Appendix II: Nomenclature of variable stars 517 Appendix III: Timing of astronomical events 519 Appendix IV: Fundamental parameters of the sun 522 Bibliography 523 Subject Index 532 Name Index 540
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17. The Nature of the Stars Parallax reveals stellar distance Stellar distance reveals luminosity Luminosity reveals total energy production The stellar magnitude scale Surface temperature determines stellar
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