Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis
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1 Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis WILLIAM D. EHMANN Professor, Department of Chemistry University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky DIANE E. VANCE Staff Development Scientist Analytical Services Organization Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant Oak Ridge, Tennessee A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. New York / Chichester / Brisbane / Toronto / Singapore
2 *. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO RADIOCHEMISTRY The Discovery of Radioactivity and Evolution of Nuclear Theory Forces in Matter and the Subatomic Particles Forces in Nature The Subatomic Particles Nuclides and Natural Decay Chains Nuclides and Symbols Classification of Nuclides Chart of the Nuclides Natural Decay Chains An Extinct Natural Decay Chain 31 CHAPTER 2 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY Alpha-Particle Decay Beta Decay Negatron Decay Positron Decay Electron Capture (EC or e) Gamma Decay Pure Gamma-Ray Emission Internal Conversion (IC) Pair Production (PP) Branching Decays and Decay Schemes Less Common Decay Modes Spontaneous Fission Decay Delayed-Neutron Emission Delayed-Proton Emission Double-Beta Decay < Two-Proton Decay C and Other Cluster Emission Decay 54 xi
3 Xll CHAPTER 3 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY AND MASS-ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS Description of the Nucleus Nuclear Properties Angular Momentum and Nuclear Spin Magnetic Moment (/A) Parity and Symmetry Models of Nuclear Structure Shell Model (Single Particle Model) Fermi Gas Model Liquid Drop Model Optical Model (Cloudy Crystal Ball Model) Collective Model Mass-Energy Relationships Mass-Energy Equivalence Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions Energy Changes in Radioactive Decay Closed-Cycle Decay for Mass-Energy Calculations Semiempirical Binding Energy Equation Nuclear Energy Surface Diagrams 78 CHAPTER 4 NUCLEAR REACTIONS Types of Nuclear Reactions Scattering Reactions Other Reactions Energetics of Nuclear Reactions Momentum Correction Coulomb Barrier Correction Cross Sections for Nuclear Reactions Measurement of Cross Section Excitation Functions Reaction Mechanisms Compound-Nucleus Formation Direct Interactions Special Nuclear Reactions Neutron-Induced Fission Fusion 106
4 Xlll Heavy-Ion Reactions Photonuclear Reactions 107 CHAPTER 5 RATES OF NUCLEAR DECAY Rates of Radioactive Decay Half-life and Average Life Units of Radioactive Decay Branching Decay Experimental Methods for Determination of Half-life Long Half-lives Medium Half-lives Short Half-lives Very Short Half-lives Estimation of Half-life from Theory and Systematics Growth of Radioactive Products in a Decay Chain Parent with a Single Radioactive Daughter Parent with Multiple Radioactive Daughters Growth of Products in a Neutron Flux 140 CHAPTER 6 INTERACTIONS OF RADIATION WITH MATTER Modes of Interaction Heavy Charged-Particle Interactions Range Relationships for Heavy Charged Particles Stopping Power Beta-Particle Interactions Range Relationships for Beta Particles The Feather Method Bremsstrahlung Radiation Cerenkov Radiation Beta Backscatter Positron Interactions Gamma-Ray Interactions Photoelectric Effect Compton Scattering Pair Production Mathematics of Gamma-Ray Absorption 170
5 XVI CHAPTER 10 RADIOTRACER METHODS General Aspects of Radiotracer Use Assumptions Made in Tracer Studies Factors in the Choice of a Radiotracer Production of Radiotracers Advantages and Disadvantages of Radiotracer Use Isotope Dilution Analysis Theory and Calculations for DIDA Applications of IDA Variations of IDA Tracers in the Study of Chemical Processes Equilibrium Processes Analytical Applications Studies of Reaction Mechanisms Other Applications of Radiotracers and Radionuclides Nuclear Medicine and Pharmacy General Aspects of Radiopharmaceutical Use Nuclear Properties of Indicator Nuclides In Vivo Diagnostic Procedures In Vitro Diagnostic Testing: Radioimmunoassay Therapeutic Uses of Radiation 342 CHAPTER 11 ION BEAM ANALYSIS AND CHEMICAL APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission Overview of the PIXE Process Projectile Acceleration and Target Preparation Ionization and X-Ray Emission Detection and Analysis of X Rays Applications of PIXE PIXE Variations Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry The Scattering Reaction Surface Analysis Using RBS Depth Profiling Using RBS Channeling Effects Applications of RBS 363
6 xvu Mössbauer Spectroscopy Hot-Atom Chemistry Production of Hot Atoms Energy Calculations Applications of Hot-Atom Reactions Radiation Chemistry 373 CHAPTER 12 NUCLEAR DATING METHODS General Principles of Nuclear Dating Methods Radiocarbon Dating Tritium Dating U-Pb and Th-Pb Methods Simple He Accumulation Method Single-Decay-Chain Methods Pb-Pb Method Rb-Sr Method K-Ar Method Standard Method Incremental Heating Method Pleochroic Halos Fission Tracks Special Methods Cosmic-Ray Exposure Ages of Meteorites Terrestrial Ages of Meteorites Extinct Natural Radionuclides Re-Os Method Lu-Hf Method K-Ca Method 403 CHAPTER 13 THE ORIGIN OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS Cosmology Elemental Abundances Cosmic Abundance Curves Primordial Nucleosynthesis Stellar Evolution Star Populations Evolution of a Star 418
7 XV Stellar Nucleosynthesis Hydrogen Fusion The CNO Bi-cycle Helium Burning Heavier Element Burning The s-process The r- and p-processes Supernovae The Solar Neutrino Problem Synthesis of Be, B, and Li 433 CHAPTER14 PARTICLE GENERATORS Natural Particle Sources Nuclear Reactors The Fission Process Major Components of Reactors Types of Reactors Applications of Reactors Accelerators: Basic Components Cockroft-Walton Accelerators Van de Graaff Accelerators Linear Accelerators Cyclotrons Synchrotrons Large Accelerators for Nuclear Physics Research 472 APPENDIX A STATISTICS FOR RADIOCHEMISTRY 475 APPENDIX B GENERAL REFERENCES AND DATA SOURCES 483 APPENDIX C NUCLIDIC PROPERTIES 485 APPENDIX D USEFUL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSIONS 517 INDEX 519
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