O WILEY- MODERN NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY. WALTER D. LOVELAND Oregon State University. DAVID J. MORRISSEY Michigan State University
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1 MODERN NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY WALTER D. LOVELAND Oregon State University DAVID J. MORRISSEY Michigan State University GLENN T. SEABORG University of California, Berkeley O WILEY- INTERSCIENCE A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
2 CONTENTS PREFACE xv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS Introduction / The Atom / Atomic Processes / Ionization / X-ray Emission / The Nucleus Nomenclature / Survey of Nuclear Decay Types / Modern Physical Concepts Needed in Nuclear Chemistry / Types of Forces in Nature / Elementary Mechanics / Relativistic Mechanics / De Broglie Wavelength, Wave Particle Duality / Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle / Units and Conversion Factors / Particle Physics / Exchange Particles and Force Carriers / 24 Problems / 24 Bibliography / 26 v
3 Vi CONTENTS CHAPTER 2 NUCLEAR PROPERTIES Introduction / Nuclear Masses / Terminology / Binding Energy Per Nucleon / Separation Energy Systematics / Abundance Systematics / Semiempirical Mass Equation / Nuclear Sizes and Shapes / Quantum Mechanical Properties / Nuclear Angular Momenta / Electric and Magnetic Moments / Magnetic Dipole Moment / Electric Quadrupole Moment / 50 Problems / 53 References / 56 Bibliography / 56 CHAPTER 3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY KINETICS Basic Decay Equations / Mixture of Two Independently Decaying Radionuclides / Radioactive Decay Equilibrium / Branching Decay / Natural Radioactivity / Radionuclide Dating / 81 Problems / 87 References / 89 Bibliography / 89 CHAPTER 4 RADIOTRACERS Introduction / Design of a Radiotracer Experiment / Basic Design Criteria / Practical Considerations / Preparation of Radiotracers and Their Compounds / Chemical Synthesis / Biosynthesis / Tritium Labeling / Radiolysis of Labeled Compounds / 101
4 CONTENTS Vi I 4.4 Tracing of Physical Process / Chemical Applications of Tracers / Isotope Effects / Biological Applications / Environmental Applications / Industrial Use of Radiotracers / Nuclear Medicine / Isotope Dilution Analysis / Direct IDA / Inverse IDA / General Comments / Special IDA Techniques / Radiometric Techniques / 125 Problems / 127 References / 128 Bibliography / 128 CHAPTER 5 NUCLEAR FORCES Introduction / Characteristics of the Strong Force / Charge Independence of Nuclear Forces / 132 Problems / 134 Reference / 135 CHAPTER 6 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE Nuclear Potentials / Schematic Shell Model / Independent Particle Model / Collective Model / Nilsson Model / Nucleus as a Fermi Gas / 163 Problems / 171 References / 174 Bibliography / 174 CHAPTER 7 a DECAY Energetics of a Decay / Theory of a Decay / Hindrance Factors / 192
5 Viii CONTENTS 7.4 Heavy Particle Radioactivity / Proton Radioactivity / 195 Problems / 197 References / 198 Bibliography / 198 CHAPTER 8 ß DECAY Introduction / Neutrino Hypothesis / Derivation of Spectral Shape / Kurie Plots / ß-Decay Rate Constant / Electron Capture Decay / Parity Nonconservation / Neutrinos / ß-Delayed Radioactivities / Double-ß Decay / 217 Problems / 219 References / 220 Bibliography / 220 CHAPTER 9 y-ray DECAY Introduction / Energetics of y Decay / Classification of Decay Types / Electromagnetic Transition Rates / Internal Conversion / Angular Correlations / Mössbauer Effect / 241 Problems / 247 References / 248 Bibliography / 248 CHAPTER 10 NUCLEAR REACTIONS Introduction / Energetics of Nuclear Reactions / Reaction Types and Mechanisms / Nuclear Reaction Cross Sections / 255
6 CONTENTS ix 10.5 Reaction Observables / Rutherford Scattering / Elastic (Diffractive) Scattering / Direct Reactions / Compound Nucleus Reactions / Photonuclear Reactions / Heavy Ion Reactions / Coulomb Excitation / Elastic Scattering / Fusion Reactions / Deep Inelastic Scattering / Incomplete Fusion / Reactions Induced by Radioactive Projectiles / High-Energy Nuclear Reactions / Spallation/Fragmentation / Multifragmentation / Quark Gluon Plasma / 292 Problems / 293 References / 296 Bibliography / 297 CHAPTER 11 FISSION Introduction / Probability of Fission / Liquid Drop Model / Shell Corrections / Spontaneous Fission / Spontaneously Fissioning Isomers / Transition Nucleus / Fission Product Distributions / Total Kinetic Energy (TKE) Release in Fission / Fission Product Mass Distributions / Fission Product Charge Distributions / Excitation Energy of the Fission Fragments / Dynamical Properties of the Fission Fragments / 325 Problems / 329 References / 329
7 X CONTENTS CHAPTER 12 NUCLEAR REACTIONS IN NATURE: NUCLEAR ASTROPHYSICS Introduction / Elemental and Isotopic Abundances / Primordial Nucleosynthesis / Stellar Evolution / Thermonuclear Reaction Rates / Stellar Nucleosynthesis / Introduction / Hydrogen Burning / Helium Burning / Synthesis of Nuclei with A < 60 / Synthesis of Nuclei with A > 60 / Solar Neutrino Problem / Introduction / Expected Solar Neutrino Sources, Energies, and Fluxes / Detection of Neutrinos / Solar Neutrino Problem / Solution of the Problem Neutrino Oscillations / Synthesis of Li, Be, and B / 361 Problems / 362 References / 363 Bibliography / 363 CHAPTER 13 ANALYTICAL APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS Activation Analysis / Basic Description of Method / Advantages and Disadvantages of Activation Analysis / Practical Considerations in Activation Analysis / Applications of Activation Analysis / Particle-Induced X-ray Emission / Rutherford Backscattering (RBS) / 376 Problems / 379 References / 380 Bibliography / 380
8 CONTENTS Xi CHAPTER 14 REACTORS AND ACCELERATORS Nuclear Reactors / Neutron-Induced Reactions / Neutron-Induced Fission / Neutron Inventory / Light Water Reactors / The Oklo Phenomenon / Neutron Sources / Neutron Generators / Accelerators / Ion Sources / Electrostatic Machines / Linear Accelerators / Cyclotrons, Synchrotrons, and Rings / Charged Particle Beam Transport and Analysis / Radioactive Ion Beams / Nuclear Weapons / 421 Problems / 426 References / 427 Bibliography / 427 CHAPTER 15 THE TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS Introduction / Limits of Stability / Element Synthesis / History of Transuranium Element Discovery / Superheavy Elements / Chemistry of the Transuranium Elements / Environmental Chemistry of the Transuranium Elements / 457 Problems / 462 References / 463 Bibliography / 464 CHAPTER 16 NUCLEAR REACTOR CHEMISTRY Introduction / Fission Product Chemistry / 466
9 Xii CONTENTS 16.3 Radiochemistry of Uranium / Uranium Isotopes / Metallic Uranium / Uranium Compounds / Uranium Solution Chemistry / Nuclear Fuel Cycle The Front End / Mining and Milling / Refining and Chemical Conversion / Enrichment / Fuel Fabrication / Nuclear Fuel Cycle The Back End / Properties of Spent Fuel / Fuel Reprocessing / Radioactive Waste Disposal / Classification of Radioactive Waste / Amounts and Associated Hazards / Storage and Disposal of Nuclear Waste / Chemistry of Operating Reactors / Radiation Chemistry of Coolants / Corrosion / Coolant Activities / 494 Problems / 494 References / 495 Bibliography / 496 CHAPTER 17 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER Introduction / Heavy Charged Particles (A > 1) / Electrons / Electromagnetic Radiation / Photoelectric Effect / Compton Scattering / Pair Production / Neutrons / Radiation Exposure and Dosimetry / 530 Problems / 533 References / 535 Bibliography / 535
10 CONTENTS Xi i i CHAPTER 18 RADIATION DETECTORS Detectors Based an Ionization / Gas Ionization Detectors / Semiconductor Detectors (Solid-State Ionization Chambers) / Scintillation Detectors / Nuclear Track Detectors / Nuclear Electronics and Data Collection / Nuclear Statistics / Rejection of Abnormal Data / Setting Upper Limits When No Counts are Observed / 576 Problems / 576 References / 577 Bibliography / 577 CHAPTER 19 RADIOCHEMICAL TECHNIQUES Unique Aspects of Radiochemistry / Availability of Radioactive Material / Targetry / Measuring Beam Intensity and Fluxes / Recoils, Evaporation Residues (EVRs), and Heavy Residues / Radiochemical Separation Techniques / Precipitation / Solvent Extraction / Ion Exchange / Extraction Chromatography / Rapid Radiochemical Separations / Low-Level Measurement Techniques / Introduction / Blanks / Low-Level Counting General Principles / Low-Level Counting Details / Limits of Detection / 608 Problems / 609 References / 610 Bibliography / 611
11 XIV CONTENTS APPENDIX A FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 613 APPENDIX B NUCLEAR WALLET CARDS 617 APPENDIX C PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS 639 APPENDIX D LIST OF ELEMENTS 641 APPENDIX E ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 643 INDEX 665
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