Nuclear and Particle Physics

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1 Nuclear and Particle Physics W. S. С Williams Department of Physics, University of Oxford and St Edmund Hall, Oxford CLARENDON PRESS OXFORD 1991

Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Historical perspective 1 1.2 The Rutherford scattering formula 5 1.3 The properties of the Rutherford differential cross-section 9 1.

2 Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Historical perspective The Rutherford scattering formula The properties of the Rutherford differential cross-section The experiments of Rutherford and his colleagues Examination of the assumptions The nuclear constituents What is coming? 16 Reference 16 2 Some Quantitative Formalities 2.1 Introduction The scale of nuclear physics and suitable units The radioactive decay law Multimodal decays The production of radioactive material Sequential decays The measurement of the transition rate Radioactive dating Decay and the uncertainty principle Collisions and cross-sections Probabilities, expectations, and fluctuations 38 References 39 3 The Size and Shape of Nuclei 3.1 The size of nuclei The scattering of electrons by nuclei The nuclear electric charge distribution The nuclear electric form-factor The isotope shift X-ray spectroscopy of mu-mesic atoms Nuclear scattering and nuclear size Overview of size determinations The shape of nuclei 52 References 53 Contents ix

4 The Masses of Nuclei 4.1 The naturally occurring nuclei 54 4.2 The nuclear binding energy 55 4.3 The liquid drop model 56 4.4 The Coulomb and asymmetry terms 61 4.

3 4 The Masses of Nuclei 4.1 The naturally occurring nuclei The nuclear binding energy The liquid drop model The Coulomb and asymmetry terms The implications of the semi-empirical mass formula Conclusions 64 References 65 5 Nuclear Instability Reference Nuclear decay Energy-level diagrams More on /?-decay The stability of nuclei Spontaneous fission Tricks with transition rates Conclusion Alpha Decay 6.1 Introduction Other properties of a-decay The simple theory of Coulomb barrier penetration The angular momentum barrier Decay schemes involving a-particle emission Barriers in other decays Some conclusions 96 References 96 7 Nuclear Collisions and Reactions 7.1 Historical introduction Matters of definition Kinematics of nuclear collisions Conservation laws in nuclear collisions and reactions? What can we learn from studying nuclear reactions Nuclear spectroscopy The compound nucleus model Compound state properties Direct reactions Compound state to direct Elastic scattering Induced fission and the fission reactor Reactor control and delayed neutron emission Energy from nuclear fusion 128 x Contents

7.15 Conclusion 129 References 130 8 Nuclear Models 8.1 Introduction 131 8.2 The magic numbers 1 131 8.3 The shell model: preliminaries 134 8.4 The spin-orbit interaction 140 8.

4 7.15 Conclusion 129 References Nuclear Models 8.1 Introduction The magic numbers The shell model: preliminaries The spin-orbit interaction The magic numbers The spins and parities of nuclear ground states Electromagnetic moments: magnetic dipole Electromagnetic moments: electric quadrupole Excited states in the shell model The collective model and other developments Reconciliation Au revoir to nuclei Forces and Interactions References Some nomenclature Electromagnetism The Dirac equation Feynman diagrams More fun with Feynman diagrams Tests of QED Nuclear forces The bound two-nucleon system The unbound two-nucleon system The Yukawa theory Quarks, gluons, and QCD The strong interaction The weak interaction Conclusion Hadrons and the Quark-Parton Model 10.1 Introduction The hadrons The quark-parton Model: Stage I The quark-parton Model: Stage II The quark-parton Model: Stage III. Heavy flavours Producing heavy flavours The value of R and colour Resonances in e + e" annihilation and quarkonia Fragmentation Further evidence for quarks -md gluons 225

10.11 Isotopic spin 227 10.12 Conclusion 231 References 232 11 The Electromagnetic Interaction 11.1 Introduction 234 11.2 The energy loss by ionization 235 11.3 The bremsstrahlung process 247 11.

5 10.11 Isotopic spin Conclusion 231 References The Electromagnetic Interaction 11.1 Introduction The energy loss by ionization The bremsstrahlung process Photon absorption and scattering The radiation of photons by nuclei and particles Rates for electric transitions Rates for magnetic transitions Selection rules in y-ray emission Nuclear isomerism Other electromagnetic processes Resonancefluorescenceand absorption of photons Summary 275 References The Weak Interaction 12.1 A review Neutrino and antineutrino Neutrinos galore The W and Z gauge bosons The Fermi theory of jß-decay The Kurie plot The ft value and some approximations Fermi's coupling constant Through the looking-glass Neutrinos and the looking-glass Neutrino scattering Neutrino mass Another neutrino problem Conclusion 321 References Particles: Summary and Outlook 13.1 The conservation laws Recognizing what is going on CP violation The standard model Beyond the standard model Grand unified theories Proton decay detectors Theories of everything 341 xii Contents

6 13.9 Open questions 343 References Nuclear and Particle Astrophysics 14.1 The expanding Universe Big Bang nucleosynthesis Stellar evolution Stellar nucleosynthesis Stellar nucleosynthesis Nucleosynthesis: summary Neutrinos in stellar evolution Neutrinos in stellar evolution Supernovae SN1987A Black hole formation Now and the future The first 225 seconds Conclusion 373 References 373 Appendix A The Atomic Elements 374 Appendix В Constants 375 Answers to Problems 376 Index 379

Contents. Preface to the First Edition Preface to the Second Edition

Contents. Preface to the First Edition Preface to the Second Edition Contents Preface to the First Edition Preface to the Second Edition Notes xiii xv xvii 1 Basic Concepts 1 1.1 History 1 1.1.1 The Origins of Nuclear Physics 1 1.1.2 The Emergence of Particle Physics: the