MODERN PHYSICS Frank J. Blatt Professor of Physics, University of Vermont
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1 MODERN PHYSICS Frank J. Blatt Professor of Physics, University of Vermont McGRAW-HILL, INC. New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal New Delhi Paris San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
2 Contents (Sections marked * are optional.) Preface xvii Chapter 1 The Theory of Special Relativity I: The Lorentz Transformation Introduction Classical Relativity:-The Galilean Transformation Equations Electromagnetic Waves and the Luminiferous Ether The Michelson-Morley Experiment The Theory of Special Relativity The Lorentz Transformations (a) Simultaneity, Length Contraction, and Time Dilation (b) The Twin Paradox (c) The Velocity Transformations Consequences of the Lorentz Transformations (a) The Relativistic Doppler Effect (b) Experimental Evidence of Relativistic Kinematics The Relativistic Expressions in the Classical Limit 25 SUMMARY 26 BIBLIOGRAPHY 27 PROBLEMS 27 Chapter 2 The Theory of Special Relativity: Relativistic Dynamics Introduction Relativistic Momentum Energy Relativistic Invariants Force and Acceleration 42 SUMMARY 45 BIBLIOGRAPHY 45 PROBLEMS 46 ix
3 Chapter 3 *The General Theory of Relativity Introduction The Principle of Equivalence Gravitational Red Shift: Gravitational Time Dilation and Length Contraction The General Theory of Relativity: Gravitation Predictions of the General Theory of Relativity 56 SUMMARY 62 BIBLIOGRAPHY 62 PROBLEMS 63 Chapter 4 Roots of the Quantum Theory Introduction Blackbody Radiation (a) Derivation of the Planck Distribution Law Specific Heat (a) Specific Heat of Crystals (b) Specific Heat of Gases The Photoelectric Effect X Rays Compton Scattering 84 SUMMARY 87 BIBLIOGRAPHY 88 PROBLEMS 88 Chapter 5 The Bohr-Rutherford Nuclear Atom Charge and Mass of an Electron Scattering Cross Section Coulomb (Rutherford) Scattering The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom The Energy-Level Diagram; Emission and Absorption of Radiation Characteristic X-Ray Lines The Franck-Hertz Experiment The Correspondence Principle 111 SUMMARY 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY 113 PROBLEMS 113 Chapter 6 The Wave Nature of Particles Introduction: The de Broglie Relation Experimental Evidence of Electron Waves 116
4 6.3 Complementarity The Uncertainty Principle The Wave-Particle Duality and Complementarity: A Gedanken Experiment 125 SUMMARY 128 BIBLIOGRAPH Y 129 PROBLEMS 129 Chapter 7 The Schrödinger Equation Introduction The One-Dimensional Schrödinger Equation The Time-Independent Schödinger Equation Interpretation of the Wave Function: Probability Density and Expectation Values Wave Packets: Group and Phase Velocities Particle in a One-Dimensional Square Well (a) Infinite Potential Barriers (b) Finite Potential Barriers Parity Tunneling The Harmonie Oscillator 149 SUMMARY 155 BIBLIOGRAPH Y 156 PROBLEMS 156 Chapter 8 The Schrödinger Equation in Three Dimensions: The Hydrogen Atom Introduction Solution of the Schrödinger Equation in Spherical Coordinates (a) Probability Densities and Expectation Values Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics (a) Spatial Quantization Degeneracy 171 SUMMARY 172 BIBLIOGRAPHY 173 PROBLEMS 173 Chapter 9 Intrinsic Spin of the Electron The Zeeman Effect and Electron Spin (a) The Zeeman Effect (b) Electron Spin 178 /
5 xii Contents 9.2 The Pauli Exclusion Principle and the Structure of Many-Electron Atoms (a) The Ground State of Atoms (b) Relation between Ground-State Configuration and Chemical and Physical Properties of Atoms Fine Structure, Spin-Orbit Coupling, and the Anomalous Zeeman Effect The Exclusion Principle and the Symmetry Properties of Electronic Wave Functions Masers and Lasers (a) Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission (b) Creating a Population Inversion: Pumping (c) Maser and Laser Operation 195 SUMMARY 199 BIBLIOGRAPHY 201 PROBLEMS 201 Chapter 10 Molecular Structure and Molecular Spectra Introduction lonic Bonding Covalent (Homopolar) Bonding (a) The H + 2 Ion (b) The H 2 Molecule Molecular Energy Levels and Molecular Spectra (a) Rotational Energy Levels (b) Vibrational Energy Levels (c) Molecular Spectra 216 SUMMARY 221 BIBLIOGRAPHY 222 PROBLEMS 223 Chapter 11 Statistical Physics Introduction Classical Statistical Physics Quantum Statistical Physics (a) Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac Distributions Liquid Helium and Bose-Einstein Condensation (a) Bose-Einstein Condensation 240 SUMMARY 243 BIBLIOGRAPHY 244 PROBLEMS 244
6 Contents xiii Chapter 12 Solid-State Physics I: Structure of Crystalline Solids and Electron Energy Bands Introduction Cohesive Forces in Crystals (a) Ionic Crystals (b) Covalent Crystals (c) Metallic Crystals (d) Molecular Crystals Crystal Defects 255 *12.3(a) Dislocations; Plastic Deformation and Crystal Growth (b) Point Defects 258 Impurity Atoms 258 Vacancies and Interstitials; Solid-State Diffusion The Band Theory (a) Bloch Functions (b) Energy Bands and Effective Masses Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors 264 *12.A Appendix: The Bloch-Floquet Theorem 268 *12.B Appendix: Solution of the One-Dimensional Schrödinger Equation in the Tight-Binding Approximation 269 SUMMARY 271 BIBLIOGRAPHY 272 PROBLEMS 272 Chapter 13 Solid-State Physics II: Electronic Properties Introduction Metals (a) The Electronic Specific Heat (b) Electrical Conductivity (c) Thermal Conductivity; the Wiedemann-Franz Law Semiconductors (a) Conductivity (b) The Hall Effect Semiconductor Devices (a) p-n Junction Diodes (b) Tunnel Diodes (c) Transistors 291 The n-p-n Transistor 291 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) (d) Optical Devices 294 Photovoltaic Effect 296 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Junction Lasers 297
7 13.5 Superconductivity (a) Fundamental Properties of Superconductors (b) Superconductor Technology 303 Josephson Junctions 305 SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices) 306 Josephson Junction Logic Elements 309 SUMMARY 310 BIBLIOGRAPHY 312 PROBLEMS 312 Chapter 14 Nuclear Physics I: Properties of Nuclei Introduction Nucleons and Nuclei (a) Composition of Nuclei: Protons and Neutrons (b) Size and Shape of Nuclei Nuclear Force (a) Origin of the Nuclear Force; the Exchange Force Stability of Nuclei: Binding Energy The Nuclear Shell Model 333 *14.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) (a) Principles of NMR (b) Energy Absorption and Spin-Lattice Relaxation (c) Nuclear Magnetization and the Dynamics of the Magnetization Vector (d) Techniques for Observing NMR and Measuring 7\ and T (e) Some Applications of NMR 346 SUMMARY 348 BIBLIOGRAPHY 349 PROBLEMS 350 Chapter 15 Nuclear Physics II: Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions Introduction Decay Constant, Half-Life, and Activity Radioactive Decay Processes (a) Alpha Decay (b) Beta Decay (c) Gamma Rays and Nuclear Energy Levels Mössbauer Effect Nuclear Reactions (a) Reaction Cross Section (b) Nuclear Spectroscopy (c) Compound Nucleus 376
8 Contents xv 15.6 Fission and Fusion (a) Fission; Reactors (b) Fusion 385 *15.7 Applications of Nuclear Physics (a) Radioisotopes in Medicine 389 Diagnosis 389 Radioisotopes for Therapy (b) Radioisotopes in Archeology 396 SUMMARY 402 BIBLIOGRAPHY 404 PROBLEMS 404 *Chapter 16 Instrumentation for Nuclear Research Particle Accelerators (a) Linear Accelerators l(b) Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons Particle Detectors 420 SUMMARY 426 BIBLIOGRAPHY 426 PROBLEMS 427 Chapter 17 Elementary Particles Introduction Relativistic Quantum Mechanics Classification of Elementary Particles Conservation Laws, Symmetry, and Selection Ruies Resonance Particles More About Leptons Quarks Unified Field Theories 447 SUMMARY 448 BIBLIOGRAPHY 449 PROBLEMS 449 Appendix A The Fundamental Physical Constants 451 Appendix B Table of Isotopes 453 Appendix C Nobel Laureates in Physics 492 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems 497 Index 501
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