Chapter 18 Nuclear Chemistry
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1 Chapter 8 Nuclear Chemistry
2 8. Discovery of radioactivity 895 Roentgen discovery of radioactivity X-ray X-ray could penetrate other bodies and affect photographic plates led to the development of X-ray photography 896 Becquerel found that the uranium salt emitted rays that affected the photographic plate in total darkness the rays coming from uranium are able to ionize air and are also capable of penetrating thin sheets of metal 898 Curie radioactivity the spontaneous emission of particles and/or rays from the nucleus of an atom elements having this property are said to be radioactive Curies discovered two new elements, polonium (Po) and radium (Ra), both are radioactive 899 Rutherford found two particles α and β particles emitted 2 from uranium
3 by 92 over 30 radioactive isotopes were known 900 Villard discovered γ rays the symbolism and notation 238 ex. 92U atomic number 92, mass number 238 U-238 isotope contains 92 protons and 46 neutrons the protons and neutrons collectively are known as nucleons isotopes atoms of the same element with different masses ex. 8 O, 8 O, 8 O nuclide means any isotope of any atom 3
4 8.2 Natural radioactivity radioactive elements continuously undergo radioactive decay to form different elements radioactivity is a property of the nucleus neither ordinary changes of temperature and pressure nor the chemical or physical state of an element has any effect on the radioactivity each radioactive nuclide disintegrates at a specific and constant rate half-life (t /2 ) the time required for one-half of a specific amount of a radioactive nuclide to disintegrate ex..0 g Ra (t /2 = 620 years) g Ra 620 y g Ra 620 y g 88 Ra half-lives for certain isotopes of Ra, C, U 4
5 3 3 ex. 8. half-life of 53I is 8 days. How much 53I from a 32-g sample remains after five half-lives? half-lives No. of days remaining g ex. 8.2 in how many half-lives will 0 g of a radioactive nuclide decay to less than 0% of its original value? half-lives % remaining 00% 50% 25% 2.5% 6.25% remaining 0g 5g 2.5g.25g 0.625g between the 3rd and the 4th half-lives 5
6 8.3 Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays Curie proved that α and β particles are oppositely charged the lighter β particles were strongly deflected toward the positive pole the heavier α particles were less strongly deflected and in the opposite direction alpha (α) particles consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, has a mass of ~4 amu 4 2He loss of an α particle from the nucleus results in loss of 4 in the mass number (A) and loss of 2 in the atomic number (Z) ex. 238U 234Th + α ( 4 He) Ra Rn + α ( He) 2 2 6
7 beta (β) particles is identical in mass and charge to an electron decomposition of a neutron produces a beta particle and a proton 0 0 n p + -e loss of a β particle from the nucleus results in no change in the mass number (A) and increase of in the atomic number (Z) ex. 90 Th 9 Pa + β Pa 92 U + β Pb 83 Bi + β Gama (γ) rays are photons of energy more energetic than X-rays no electrical charge and no measurable mass loss of a γ ray from the nucleus results in no change in the mass number (A) and atomic number (Z) ex. 8.3 (a) write an equation for loss of an α particle from the nuclide 94 78Pt 90 Pt 76Os + α 228 (b) what nuclide is formed when 88 Ra loses a β particle from its nuclide? 228 Ra Ac + β
8 ex. 8.4 what nuclide will be formed when 82 Pb successively emit two β particles then one α particle? Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 82 Pb β β α the ability of radioactive rays to pass through objects is in proportion to the speed a which hey leave the nuclide γ rays travel at light velocity (86000 mile/s) and are capable of penetrating several inches of lead the fastest velocity of β particles is about 9/0 the light velocity α particles have velocities less than /0 the light velocity 24 thin sheet thin sheet 5-cm Pb of paper of Al block 8
9 8.4 Radioactive disintegration series the naturally occurring radioactive elements with a higher atomic number than Pb fall into 3 orderly disintegration series: () the uranium series 92 U 82Pb 232 (2) the thorium series 90 Th Pb 235 (3) the actinium series 92 U Pb 24 (4) the neptunium series 94Pu Bi Pu is a synthetic element 9
10 8.5 Transmutation of elements transmutation the conversion of one element into another by either natural or artificial means 99 Rutherford bombarding N nuclide with a particle to produce O nuclide N + α 8 O + H E. O. Lawrence the cyclotron the Van de Graaf electrostatic generator the betatron the electron and proton synchrotron with these instruments many nuclear transmutation become possible Li + H Ar + H Na + H 2 Cd + H 2 H + H Bi + 2 H O + n 0 2 U + C He K + 0 n Mg + n 0 Cd + H 3 H + H Po + 0 n C + He 2 Cf + 6 n
11 8.6 Artificial radioactivity Joliot-Curies observed when Al-27 is bombarded with α particles, neutrons and positrons are emitted when the source of α particles is removed, neutrons cease to be produced Al + 2He 5 P + 0 n P 4Si + +e P-30 is a radioactive nuclide, has a half-life of 2.5 minutes the radioactivity of nuclides produced in this manner is known as artificial radioactivity or induce radioactivity artificial radionuclides disintegrate in a definite fashion and have a specific half-life
12 8.7 Measurement of radioactivity the Geiger counter is commonly used to detect and measure radioactivity the instrument consists of Geiger-Müller detecting tube and counting device curie (Ci) is the unit used to express the amount of radioactivity produced by an element Ci: the quantity of radioactive material giving disintegrations per second pure Ra has an activity of Ci/g roentgen (R) quantifies exposure to γ or X-rays R: the amount of radiation required to produce ions/cm 3 rad (radiation absorbed dose): the amount of radiation that provides 0.0 J of energy per Kg of matter 2
13 8.8 Nuclear fission 8.8 Nuclear fission in nuclear fission a heavy nuclide splits into two or more intermediate-sized fragments when struck in a particular way by a neutron the fragments are called fission products 939 the first nuclear fission reported by Hahn and Strassmann characteristics of nuclear fission:. upon absorption of a neutron, a heavy nuclide splits into two or more smaller nuclides 2. the mass of the nuclides formed ranges from amu 3. two or more neutrons are produced from the fission of each atom 4. large quantities of energy are produced as a result of the conversion of small amount of mass into energy 5. most nuclides produced are radioactive and continue to decay until they reach a stable nucleus ex. 3
14 chain reaction critical mass the minimum quantity of an element needs to support a self-sustaining chain reaction ex. 92 U + 0 n 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0n U + 0 n Xe + 38 Sr n 4
15 8.9 Nuclear power 8.9 Nuclear power about 7% of the electrical energy used in U.S. is generated from power plants using uranium fuel nuclear power plant is a thermal power plant in which heat is produced by a nuclear reactor the major components of a nuclear reactor are. reactor core an arrangement of nuclear fuel 2. control system regulates the rate of fission and the rate of heat generation 3. cooling system removes the heat from the reactor and keeps the core at the proper temperature 5
16 tragic demonstrations of the dangers of nuclear power: 979 Three Mile Island, USA 986 Chernobyl, Soviet Union another problem with nuclear power plant radioactive waste production the spent nuclear fuel will remain radioactive for thousands of years 6
17 8.0 The atomic bomb the atomic bomb is a fission bomb which operates on the principle of a very fast chain reaction and releases a tremendous amount of energy a minimum critical mass of fissionable material is needed for a bomb the temperature developed in an atomic bomb is believed to be about 0 million degrees Celsius the nuclides used in atomic bombs are U-235 and Pu-239 uranium deposits contain 0.7% U U + n U Np Pu β β the hazard of an atomic bomb explosion: shock wave, tremendous heat, intense radiation in the form of α particles, β particles, γ rays, UV rays
18 8. Nuclear fusion nuclear fusion the process uniting the nuclei of two light elements to form one heavier nucleus such reactions produce energy fusion reactions are responsible for the tremendous energy output of the sun and the devastating power of hydrogen bomb fusion reactions require temperatures on the order of tens of millions of degrees for initiation hydrogen bomb is triggered by the temperature of an exploding fission bomb H + H He + n + energy tritium deuterium H + H 2 He + energy amu amu amu the difference in mass is amu and is manifested in the great amount of energy liberated developing fusion power reactor for the following reasons: virtually infinite amounts of energy are possible from fusion (deuterium is abundant) fusion power is much cleaner than fission 8 power (no long-lived and dangerous products) 0
19 8.2 Mass-energy relationship in nuclear reactions large amounts of energy are released in nuclear reactions, significant amounts of mass are converted into energy in fission reactions, ~0.% of the mass is converted into energy in fusion reactions as much as 0.5% of the mass is changed into energy the Einstein equation E = mc Li + H 2He + 2He + energy 7.06 g.008 g g g ( ) = 0.08 g ( kg)(3 0 8 m) 2 = J cf. complete combustion of 2.0 g carbon generates J the difference between the masses of the protons and the neutrons in a nucleus and the mass of nucleus is known as the mass defect the energy equivalent to this difference in mass is known as the nuclear binding energy the higher the nuclear binding energy, the more stable the nucleus ex. iron (atomic number 26) has a very high binding energy and is a very stable nucleus 9
20 ex. 8.5 calculate the mass defect and the nuclear binding energy for an a particle proton mass =.0072 g/mol neutron mass =.0087 g/mol α mass = g/mol.0 g = J 4 2 protons and 2 neutrons in 2He ( ) 2 = g = g (0.0305) ( ) = J/mol 20
21 8.3 Transuranium elements the elements that have atomic numbers greater than 92 are known as the transuranium elements they are synthetic radioactive elements 939 McMillan discovered neptunium Np Np 94 Pu + -e Np 94 Pu + -e since new transuranium element (04-0) have been discovered these elements have been produced in minute quantities by high energy particle acceleration 2
22 8.4 Biological effects of radiation ionizing radiation radiation with energy to dislocate bonding electrons and create ions when passing through matter α, β particles, γ-rays and X-rays fall into this classification the effects of radiation on living organism:. acute radiation damage high levels of radiations, especially γ rays or X- rays, produce nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea the damaging effects of radiation appear to be centered in the nuclei of the cells cancers are often treated with γ radiation from a Co-60 source 2. long-term radiation damage protracted exposure to low levels of any form of ionizing radiation can weaken an organism and lead to the onset of tumors the largest exposure to synthetic sources of radiation is from X-rays 3. genetic effect radiation can damage DNA molecules if the damage is not severe enough to prevent the individual from reproducing, a mutation may result 22
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