COMPLEX. Data protection in practice INTERNATIONAL SERVICE BUREAUX AND TRANS NATIONAL DATA FLOWS TERESA (17) 1/85. Jon Bing
|
|
- Octavia Morris
- 5 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 1/85 Jon Bing Data protection in practice INTERNATIONAL SERVICE BUREAUX AND TRANS NATIONAL DATA FLOWS TERESA (17) COMPLEX NORWEGIAN RESEARCH CENTER FOR COMPUTERS AND LAW UNIVERSITETSFORLAGET
2 IB M B e ig e n IBM Ham ar Pjiifcijl 2 M (,Ofi*n?7 74* IBM K n s lia n s a n d S H.iqh u'.q l 3 III i042? * liii IBM Sarp sb o rg K irke q l 63 III i03li*i/03t< IBM S ia v a n q e r Auqi»*n<)s(lai^n K l 11» D*J ifr * nn IBM T ro n d h e im - IB M Tonsb erg N edre L an q q l J3. Ill (033l IBM Ålesund Parhql 7 llf i0 / n 2 4 1«/ IBM O slo O m ;M a u fls q l tit t0 2* 2 0»4 *>0
3 I'o m p l ox no. 1/85 Norwegian Research Center lor Computers and Law University ol Oslo. Niels Juels gale OS Jon Bing Data protection in practice INTERNATIONAL SERVICE BUREAUX AND TRANSNATIONAL DATA FLOWS TERESA (17) Aknowledge is made to the Stiftung Volkswagenwerk which has funded this project U nivcrsilctsforlagcl A S O slo
4 Universiietsforlagei AS ISBN The Publicaiion of [he CompLex reports are supported by: Norwegian Bankers' Association Bergens Tidende Norwegian Employers' Confederation Norwegian Telecommunication Authority Norwegian Association for Computers and Law Norwegian Asscociation of Jurists Association of Norwegian Insurance Companies O rkla Industries Printed in Norway hv l ic S A 'S. Oslo
5 Foreword T h i s is the s e c o n d of t h e r e p o r t s d o c u m e n t i n g t h e p r o j e c t " D a t a p r o t e c t i o n in p r a c t i c e, o r g a n i z e d as p r o j e c t T E R E S A (17) in the r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m on i n f o r m a t i o n l a w at t h e N o r w e g i a n R e s e a r c h C e n t e r for C o m p u t e r s a n d L a w. T h e r e s e a r c h w a s c a r r i e d o u t in t h e p e i i o d , b u t f o r p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s, t h e r e p o r t w a s d e v e l o p e d in T h e p r o j e c t g r o u p w a s a s s i s t e d b y a r e f e r e n c e g r o u p c o m p o s e d of a s s e s s o r H e r b e r t B u r k e r t of the G e s e l l s c h a f t f u e r M a t h e m a t i k u n d D a t e n v e r a r b e i t u n g, B o n n ; t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t o r of the S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n, J a n F r e e s e ; the d i r e c t o r o f the D a n i s h D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y, J ø r g e n P a u l s e n ; a n d the d i r e c t o r of t h e N o r w e g i a n D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e, H e l g e Seip. T h a n k s a r e a l s o d u e t o a l l t h o s e w h o h a v e a s s i s s t e d in i n t e r v i e w s w i t h i n t h e f o u r j u r i s d i c t i o n s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n. It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h o u g h t h e i r h e l p a n d c o m m e n t s h a v e b e e n v a l u a b l e, t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e a s s e s s m e n t s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s r e s t w i t h t h e a u t h o r. T h e o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h t e a m w a s d i r e c t e d b y D a g F r a y s t a d, w i t h S y n n ø v e S m e d a l S u n d b y (1981) a n d A r n s t e i n Ø d e g å r d (1982) as r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n c e. A r n s t e i n Ø d e g å r d w a s in c h a r g e of t h e a c t i v i t i e s d o c u m e n t e d in t h i s r e p o r t, w h i c h h a s b e e n w r i t t e n by J o n B i n g b a s e d o n t h e m a t e r i a l c o l l e c t e d a n d a n a l y s e s m a d e by t h e r e s e a r c h t e a m. It is c o n s e q u e n t l y p u b l i s h e d in h i s n a m e. O n e o t h e r r e p o r t h a v e a l s o b e e n p u b l i s h e d b a s e d o n t h i s w o r k, D a g F r a y s t a d 1s s t u d y o n m a t c h i n g e l e m e n t s a n d i d e n t y f i e r s. T h e c o m p a r a t i v e l e g i s l a t i v e r e v i e w d e v e l o p e d by t h e r e s e a r c h t e a m w i l l not be p u b l i s h e d as a s e p a r a t e r e p o r t, b u t is a v a i l a b l e in m a n u s c r i p t.
6 F o r t h i s r e p o r t, t h a n k s a r e d u e to p r o f e s s o r K n u t S Selraer a n d D a g F r a y s t a d, w h o h a v e c o m m e n t e d u p o n t h e d r a f t r e p o r t ; to G u n n a r B a c h w h o h a s m a d e the a p p r o x i m a t i o n to E n g l i s h c l o s e r t h a n t h e a u t h o r w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e to do on h i s o w n, a n d to T o n e S u t t e r u d w h o h a s h e l p e d in c o r r e c t i n g a n d p r e p a r i n g the f i n a l v e r s i o n. T h a n k s a r e a l s o d u e t o t h e S t i f t u n g V o l k s w a g e n w e r k, w h i c h h a s b e e n p a t i e n t l y w a i t i n g for t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n of t h e w o r k it h a s f i n a n c e d. S k i l l e b e k k, D e c e m b e r 1984
7 C o n t e n t s 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n A c t o r s a n d i n t e r e s t s... 7 (1) D a t a s u b j e c t s... 7 (2) F o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x... 7 (3) N a t i o n a l s e r v i c e b u r e a u x... 8 (4) C u s t o m e r s... 9 (5) G o v e r n m e n t s (6) C o n c l u s i o n s S w e d e n U s e of f o r e i g n c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e b u r e a u x (1) T h e e m b o s s i n g c a s e (2) T h e p u b l i s h i n g c a s e (3) A s s e s s m e n t of t h e 1974 c a s e s (4) T h e U n i v a c c a s e (5) T h e M a l m o e f i r e b r i g a d e c a s e (6) B a c k u p s e r v i c e a b r o a d U s e of p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y w i t h i n a c o o p e r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n - the S W I F T c a s e U s e of a f f i l i t a t e d s e r v i c e b r u e a u a b r o a d (1) T h e S i e m e n s c a s e (2) T h e T h o r n c a s e (3) T h e A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s c a s e (4) T h e P K b a n k c a s e I m p o r t of d a t a... 39
8 4. Denmark I n t r o d u c t i o n C o l l e c t i o n o f data in D e n m a r k E x p o r t of s e n s i t i v e r e g i s t e r s S e r v i c e b u r e a u x C o n c l u s i o n s N o r w a y T h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y C a s e s t u d i e s D a t e m a G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c I B M L i t e r a t u r e 63
9 1 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n O n e of t h e m a j o r c o n t r o v e r s i e s w i t h i n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, h a s b e e n its p o s s i b l e i m p a c t o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e. T r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s - o r s i m p l y T D F - r e f l e c t w o r l d t r a de: in p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e t r a d e in g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s, t h e r e a r e f l o w s of d a t a - o f t r a n s p o r t d o c u m e n t s a n d d a t a, of e c o n o m i c t r a n s a c t i o n s, of n e g o t i a t i o n s, c o n t r a c t s, s t a t i s t i c s etc. T h e l e g a l i s s u e o f t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s is w i d e r t h a n the d a t a p r o t e c t i v e issue, e s p e c i a l l y if d a t a p r o t e c t i o n is d e f i n e d as t h e p r o t e c t i o n of d a t a o n p h y s i c a l p e r s o n s o n l y. N e v e r t h e l e s s, d a t a o n p e r s o n s w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y b e p a r t s o f t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s - in t h e f o r m o f d a t a on v e n d o r s, b a n k i n g c l i e n t s etc. In t h e l a t e i e s t h e f o c u s of t h e d i s c u s s i o n on t r a n s n a t i o nal d a t a f l o w s has, h o w e v e r, not b e e n p l a c e d p r i m a r i l y o n t h i s g e n e r a l i s s u e - b u t r a t h e r o n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of " r e g i s t e r s " o u t s i d e n a t i o n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n. In all t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n s e x a m i n e d in t h i s r e p o r t, the s u b j e c t for r e g u l a t i o n is a s y s t e m of p e r s o n a l d a t a - t h e d e f i n i t i o n of w h i c h v a r y b e t w e e n t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n s. D a t a s u b j e c t s - ie p e r s o n s on w h o m d a t a a r e c o n t a i n e d in s u c h s y s t e m s - a r e o f f e r e d a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f p r o t e c t i o n u n d e r t h e n a t i o n a l law. A n o b v i o u s p r o b l e m in e n f o r c i n g s u c h a law, a n d s e c u r i n g the r i g h t s o f t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s, is the p o s s i b i l i t y of u s i n g a c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e o u t s i d e t h e n a t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y. T h i s c r e a t e d the f e a r of t h e " d a t a h a v e n ", in w h i c h p r o c e s s i n g o f p e r s o n a l d a t a m i g h t t a k e p l a c e in v i o l a t i o n of t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d on n a t i o n a l p r o c e s s i n g.
10 2 In o r d e r to c o n t r o l t h i s p r o b l e m, n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d p r o c e d u r e s to c o n t r o l the flow o f p e r s o n a l d a t a f r o m the t e r r i t o r y a n d t o s y s t e m s a b r o a d. T h i s w a s n o t a g e n e r a l c o n t r o l, b u t l i m i t e d to a few q u a l i f i e d s i t u a t i o n s - f o r i n s t a n c e (as in b o t h S w e d e n a n d N o r w a y ) w h e n d a t a is c o m m u n i c a t e d for t h e p u r p o s e of b e i n g i n c l u d e d into a f o r e i g n s y s t e m w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e if e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n the j u r i s d i c t i o n. T h e D a n i s h c l a u s e for the c o n t r o l o f t h e f l o w of s e n s i t i v e d a t a h a s a s i m i l a r j u s t i f i c a t i o n. T h e G e r m a n l e g i s l a t i o n (on f e d e r a l l e v e l a n d in the l a n d of H e s s e ) l a c k s t h e s e e x p l i c i t c l a u s e s r e g u l a t i n g t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows. T h i s j u s t i f i c a t i o n for t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of s o m e c o n t r o l l i n g m e c h a n i s m w o u l d s e e m q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e, as a n e c e s s a r y r a m i f i c a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n to s e c u r e that its e f f e c - t i v n e s s is n o t to u n d e r m i n e d b y i n t e r n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o c e s s i n g. A g a i n it s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d that it is b y n o m e a n s o b v i o u s t h a t n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n d o e s n o t h a v e e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n - as, i n d e e d, it m a y be q u i t e d i f f i c u l t to d e t e r m i n e w h a t a " t e r r i t o r i a l " l i m i t a t i o n s h o u l d i m p l y w h e n a p p l i e d to the d a t a p r o c e s s i n g t a k i n g p l a c e in a c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k c o v e r i n g s e v e r a l j u r i s d i c t i o n s. T h i s p r o b l e m, a l o n g w i t h the p r o b l e m o f c h o i c e of law w i t h r e s p e c t t o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n, is b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e d in B i n g : , e s p e c i a l l y p W h e n i n t r o d u c e d, h o w e v e r, t h e s e c o n t r o l p r o v i s i o n s b e c a m e r a t h e r c o n t r o v e r s i a l. T h e r e a s o n w a s s i m p l y t h a t t h e c l a u s e s p e r m i t t e d a c o n t r o l e x c e e d i n g the r e q u i r e m e n t s of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n - in t h e o r y t h e y c o u l d b e u s e d to c o n t r o l v i t a l t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows, a n d t h r o u g h these, i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e. A s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C o m p a n y m a i n t a i n e d ( F r e e m. m 1980: 11) : " W h a t b e g a n as a p r o b l e m in p r i v a c y p r o t e c t i o n h a s d e v o l o - p e d i n t o a s e r i o u s p o t e n t i a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s s u e. "
11 3 O r as s t a t e d by a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of C o n t i n e n t a l I l l i n o i s N a t i o n a l B a n k ( W a l k e r : 1 6 ) : " B a n k i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e t h r e a t e n e d w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w s c o u l d b e b l o c k e d by r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n. " E x a m p l e s w e r e c i t e d. F o r t h o s e j u r i s d i c t i o n s b e i n g p a r t s of o u r r e p o r t, the e x a m p l e s w i l l b e e x a m i n e d in d e p t h. B u t a few e x a m p l e s m a y be o f f e r e d as a n i l l u s t r a t i o n. It w a s r e c o m m e n d e d in a C a n a d i a n r e p o r t t h a t d a t a p r o c e s s i n g r e l a t e d to C a n a d i a n b u s i n e s s o p e r a t i o n s s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d in C a n a d a e x c e p t w h e n o t h e r w i s e a u t h o r i z e d ( F r e e m a n : 1 1 ). C o n t r o l D a t a C o r p o r a t i o n r e p o r t e d t h a t in t h e i r c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a r r i e r o f J a p a n, K o k u s a i D e n s h i n D e n w a Co. (KDD), t h e r e w e r e i n t r o d u c e d l i m i t a t i o n s to C o n t r o l D a t a ' s a b i l i t y to o f f e r c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s in J a p a n ( O n s t a d : 1 7 ). O n e w i l l n o t e t h a t t h e t w o e x a m p l e s c i t e d ( a n d w h i c h h a v e not b e e n a n a l y z e d as p a r t o f t h i s r e p o r t ) h a v e n o t t h e i r j u s t i f i c a t i o n in d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t r a t h e r in t h e m o r e g e n e r a l p o l i c y c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w issue. T h e y a r e e x a m p l e s of i n v i s i b l e t r a d e b a r r i e r s, b u t n o t of a d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n c r e a t i n g s u c h b a r r i e r s. N e v e r t h e l e s s, t h e E u r o p e a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n h a s b e e n c i t e d as t h e m a i n e x a m p l e o f s u c h i n v i s i b l e a n d p r o t e c - t i o n i s t i c b a r r i e r s. T h i s has, f o r i n s t a n c e, b e e n f o r m u l a t e d in a n o u t s p o k e n w a y by a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e for o n e of t h e e a r l y a n d m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l d a t a n e t w o r k s w h i c h o p e r a t e s on a c o m m e r c i a l b a s i s, T y m s h a r e ( B u r t e n : 2 2 ). T h i s n e t w o r k i d e n t i f i e s b a r r i e r s, o b s t r u c t i o n s a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s a g a i n s t o p e n a n d c o m p e t i t i v e b u s i n e s s o p e r a t i o n s, e s p e c i a l l y a g a i n s t US i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g a n d e q u i p m e n t c o m p a n i e s :
12 4 " S o c a l l e d 1d a t a - p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n ' w h i c h i n v o l v e s a g o v e r n m e n t a l d a t a r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t y e s t a b l i s h e d in e a c h c o u n t r y t o r e v i e w, i n s p e c t a n d a p p r o v e - in o t h e r w o r d s c o n t r o l - t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w s b o t h w i t h in the c o u n t r y a n d t h o s e e n t e r i n g o r l e a v i n g t h e c o u n t r y. T h i s l e g i s l a t i o n has m o s t c o m m o n l y b e e n i n i t i a t e d u n d e r t h e c o v e r o f h u m a n r i g h t s a n d t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f p r i v a c y o f i n d i v i d u a l s. H o w e v e r, the c o n c e p t of a c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t a u t h o r i t y w h i c h k n o w s a n d c o n t r o l s the i n f o r m a t i o n o n all c i t i z e n s a n d c o m m e r c e s e e m s to c o n t r a d i c t, in p r a c t i c e, t h e p r o t e c t i o n of h u m a n r i g h t s. " T h i s U S a t t i t u d e is not u n c o m m o n. T u r n r e p o r t s, in h i s m a j o r s t u d y ( : 1 1 ), t h a t US b u s i n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s e n g a g e d in i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade: "... t e n d to s e e p r o t e c t i o n i s t p o l i c i e s as t h e t r u e r a t i o n a l e f o r d a t a p r o t e c t i o n laws in E u r o p e. " He a l s o m a i n t a i n s that this is not an u n r e a s o n a b l e v i e w ( : 1 1 ) : "... it s e e m s q u i t e r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e that, as t h e i r d o m e s t i c i n f o r m a t i o n i n d u s t r i e s ' c a p a b i l i t i e s i n c r e a s e, g o v e r n m e n t s w i l l r e s t r i c t s t o r a g e a n d p r o c e s s i n g o f s e n s i t i v e d a t a t o t h e i r o w n t e r r i t o r i e s, to be p e r f o r m e d b y d o m e s t i c d a t a - p r o c e s s i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s. F r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w, t h e c o n c e r n s in the U S A a p p e a r t o be w e l l j u s t i f i e d. " A l s o m o r e o f f i c i a l v i e w s h a v e the s a m e i m p l i c a t i o n s. In M a r c h, 1981 a H o u s e S u b - c o m m i t t e e on G o v e r n m e n t I n f o r m a t i o n a n d I n d i v i d u a l R i g h t s o p e n e d h e a r i n g s o n t h e c o n c e r n o v e r b a r r i e r s to the i n t e r n a t i o n a l f l o w of data. T h e S u b - c o m m i t t e e c h a i r m a n, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e R i c h a r d s o n P r e y e r, s t a t e d (T D R M a y : 7 ) : " U n i t e d S t a t e s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c o m p a
13 5 n i e s h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d a v a r i e t y of r e s t r i c t i o n s 011 e n t r y in t o f o r e i g n m a r k e t s. S o m e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n i e s c o m p l a i n that n a t i o n a l ' d a t a p r o t e c t i o n ' l a w s a n d r e l a t e d a c t i o n s b y o u r i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d i n g p a r t n e r s r e s u l t in b a r r i e r s that t h r e a t e n l o s s e s in t e n b i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s a n d the e r o s i o n of o n e of the f e w b r i g h t s p o t s in o u r b a l a n c e - o f - p a y m e n t s p i c t u r e. B u s i n e s s e s d e p e n d e n t o n e f f i c i e n t a n d u n i m p e n d e d d a t a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s, s u c h a s b a n k i n g a n d f i n a n c i a l e n t e r p r i s e s, f i n d t h a t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l a w s a n d s i m i lar b a r r i e r s i m p o s e e v e r g r e a t e r c o s t s a n d e v e n t h r e a t e n to p r e c l u d e t h e o f f e r i n g of v a r i o u s p r o d u c t s a n d s e r v i c e s." T h e c o n f l i c t is t h e r e f o r e q u i t e o p e n. A n d t h i s v e r y c l e a r c r i t i c i s m of E u r o p e a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d the j u s t i f i c a t i o n for i n c l u d i n g in o u r s t u d y o f d a t a p r o t e c t i o n in p r a c t i c e an a n a l y s i s of s u c h c a s e s t h a t m i g h t d i s c l o s e w h i c h i n t e r e s t s a c t u a l l y a r e s e r v e d b y t h e l e g i s l a t i o n a n d by the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s. O u r a i m is not to f o c u s o n t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s in g e n e r a l, b u t r a t h e r o n the u s e of f o r e i g n d a t a p r o c e s s i n g s e r v i c e s. T h i s is p r o b a b l y t h e a r e a w h e r e t h e c o n f l i c t is m o s t c l e a r l y fe l t - a n d w h e r e a c o m p e t i t i o n e x i s t s b e t w e e n n a t i o n a l a n d f o r e i g n s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s. T h i s l i m i t a t i o n m a y b e f o u n d t o o r e s t r i c t i v e to d i s c l o s e the p o s s i b l e c o n f l i c t s r e l a t e d t o t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s. T h e a i m of t h i s e x p o s i t i o n d oes, h o w e v e r, i n c l u d e t w o r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s : (1) T h e u s e of a f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u as an a l t e r n a t i v e or s u p p l e m e n t t o a n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r. T h e r e is o n l y a c o n t r a c t u a l l i n k b e t w e e n t h e n a t i o n a l c l i e n t a n d the f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u. T h e r e a s o n for u s i n g t h e f o r e i g n b u r e a u m a y b e t h e q u a l i t y o r r a n g e of s e r v i c e s o f f e r e d ( b e t t e r s e c u r i t y, a v a i l a b i l i t y, p r o g r a m s o r d a t a b a s e s ),
14 6 o r it m a y b e t h e d e s i r e t o e s c a p e f r o m n a t i o n a l a n d r e s t r i c t i v e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. (2) T h e f o r e i g n s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r is p a r t of the s a m e m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y, a n d for b u s i n e s s a n d p o l i c y r e a s o n s, p a r t of the p r o c e s s i n g is a s s u m e d to t a k e p l a c e a b r o a d. T h e s e c o n d o f t h e s e t w o t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e s t u d y w i l l e m b r a c e that s i t u a t i o n w h i c h has p e r h a p s b e e n m o s t f r e q u e n t l y d i s c u s s e d : the i m p a c t of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n o n m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o m p a n i e s. In t h i s r e s p e c t, h o w e v e r, the s t u d y w i l l b e l i m i t e d to the i m p a c t o n t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e d a t a p r o c e s s i n g of the c o m p a n y in q u e s t i o n - n o t t h e m o r e g e n e r a l issue, f o r i n s t a n c e the i m p a c t of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n on t h e d a t a i n c l u d e d in t r a n s p o r t d o c u m e n t s or s i m i l a r t r a n s a c t i o n s. D u r i n g the s t u d y, it b e c a m e e v i d e n t t h a t the t o t a l n u m b e r of c a s e s a n a l y s e d b y the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e not o v e r w h e l m i n g. In o r d e r to i l l u m i n a t e this v i t a l a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l issue, t h e p r o j e c t has t h e r e f o r e l o o k e d i n t o c a s e s o u t s i de t h e f o c u s of the m o r e t h o r o u g h s t u d y - a n d s u c h c a s e s w i l l be c i t e d w h e n c o n s i d e r e d r e l e v a n t.
15 7 2. A c t o r s a n d i n t e r e s t s W h e n d i s c u s s i n g the a c t o r s a n d i n t e r e s t s of t h i s a rea, t h e r e e x i s t s a n u m b e r of p o s s i b i l i t i e s. T h e p i c t u r e w i l l, of c o u r s e, h a v e t o b e p r e s e n t e d in a r a t h e r s c h e m a t i c way. (1) D a t a s u b j e c t s D a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n is c o n c e r n e d w i t h d a t a s u b j e c t s. T h e o r i g i n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i n t r o d u c i n g s o m e s o r t o f c o n t rol of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s w a s to e s t a b l i s h a g u a r a n t e e o f n a t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n n o t b e i n g v i o l a t e d b y f o r e i g n p r o c e s s i n g. T h e d a t a s u b j e c t s h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i m p l e i n t e r e s t : T h e y w a n t t h e s a m e p r o t e c t i o n r e g a r d l e s s of w h e r e t h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s i n g of d a t a is t a k i n g p l a c e. T h e i r i n t e r e s t j u s t i f i e s c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y w i l l e s t a b l i s h s u c h a g u a r a n t e e. (2) F o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x F o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x o b v i o u s l y r e s e n t b e i n g d i s c r i m i n a t e d o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e f o r e i g n. T h e y m i g h t b e p i c t u r e d as b e i n g i n t e r e s t e d in a c q u i r i n g a d v a n t a g e s t h r o u g h t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y n o t u n d e r d i r e c t j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e n a t i o n a l law. If t h e r e a r e c o s t s i n v o l v e d in c o m p l y i n g w i t h n a t i o n a l law, i n t e r n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x m a y n e g l e c t t h e s e a n d be a b l e to o f f e r s e r v i c e s at a l o w e r p r i c e.
16 8 T h i s t y p e of i n t e r e s t s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n. T h e i n t e r e s t of t h e f o r e i g n b u r e a u d o e s not j u s t i f y a n y t h i n g e x c e e d i n g a p r i n c i p l e of " n a t i o n a l treatmi-nt": the m e r e fact t h a t t h e s e r v i c e v e n d o r is f o r e i g n, s h o u l d n o t b e s e e n as a p r o b l e m w i t h r e s p e c t to d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n - the f o r e i g n v e n d o r s h o u l d b e a b l e t o c o m p e t e w i t h n a t i o n a l v e n d o r s o n t h e m e r i t s o f p r i c e, q u a l i t y a n d s c o p e of s e r v i c e s. (3) N a t i o n a l s e r v i c e b u r e a u x O b v i o u s l y, the n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x w i l l not w e l c o m e c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m a b r o a d. A n y m e a s u r e w h i c h w i l l r e s e r v e the l o c a l m a r k e t f o r t h e n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x, w i l l be in t h e i r i n t e r e s t - at l e a s t in t h e s h o r t t e r m p e r s p e c t i v e. T h i s p o s i t i o n is not as e v i d e n t as the i n t e r e s t o f f o r e i g n b u r e a u x in n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t. A n y n a t i o n a l b u r e a u is a p o t e n t i a l e x p o r t e r. If t h e n a t i o n a l b u r e a u is m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e e x p o r t m a r k e t, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s on t h e h o m e m a r k e t g e t s i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h the g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y o f t h e b u r e a u. T h o u g h t h e b u r e a u m a y s e p a r a t e its i n t e r e s t s i n t o " p r o t e c t i o n " o n t h e h o m e m a r k e t a n d " n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t " o n f o r e i g n m a r k e t s, t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s w i l l not be e a s i l y u n i f i e d w i t h i n o n e c o r p o r a t e p o l i c y. T h e r e f o r e, it m a y be r e l e v a n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n " e x p o r t e r s " a n d " i m p o r t e r s " w i t h r e s p e c t to n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e b u r e a u x. A p p l y i n g t h i s t o t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n s in q u e s t i o n, one c e r t a i n l y w i l l f i n d m a n y i n d i v i d u a l v a r i e t i e s. N e v e r t h e l e s s, a n d for the sake- of a r g u m e n t, o n e m a y c o n s i d e r b u r e a u x in D e n m a r k, S w e d e n a n d N o r w a y as b e i n g w i t h i n " i m p o r t i n g " j u r i s d i c t i o n s, s e e i n g thiiir i n t e r e s t s b e t t e r s e r v e d by " p r o t e c t i o n i s t " a p p r o a c h e s. T h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y is n o t s u c h a
17 9 E u r o p e a n n e i g h b o u r s - m o r e e a s i l y h a v e a n " e x p o r t i n g " p o s i tion, t h o u g h p r o b a b l y b e i n g " i m p o r t i n g in r e l a t i o n to t h e US. (4) C u s t o m e r s T h e m a i n i n t e r e s t of t h e c u s t o m e r w i l l s i m p l y be to take a d v a n t a g e of t h e " b e t t e r " s e r v i c e. W h i c h s e r v i c e is b e t t e r, w i l l g e n e r a l l y b e d e t e r m i n e d by c o s t - b e n e f i t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s, m o d i f i e d b y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n q u a l i t y. T h e i n t e r e s t of t h e c u s t o m e r m a y a l s o i n c l u d e a t t e m p t s to e v a d e e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n. T h i s is an i n t e r e s t w h i c h p r o b a b l y is r e a l i s t i c, b u t w h i c h s h o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d j u s t i f i e d. T h e r e f o r e, t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e p o s s i b l e i n t e r e s t of the c u s t o m e r is e x c l u d e d. T h e i n t e r e s t of t h e c u s t o m e r is t h e r e f o r e s i m i l a r t o t h a t of the f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x - that s u c h b u r e a u x a r e g i v e n n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t, a n d not d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t by n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. T h i s u n i o n of i n t e r e s t s b e c o m e s e v i d e n t in t h e c a s e w h e r e t h e f o r e i g n s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r is p a r t of the s a m e o r g a n i z a t i o n as t h e c u s t o m e r - a c a s e e x e m p l i f i e d b y the m u l t i n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r o c e s s i n g at t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s w i t h i n o n e j u r i s d i c t i o n t h e d a t a o r i g i n a t i n g at a b r a n c h w i t h i n a n o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n. T h e p r a c t i c a l b e n e f i t s of s u c h a p r a c t i c e m a y b e o b v i o u s, a n d s u c h c o r p o r a t i o n s w i l l h a r d l y be p l e a s e d t o f i n d t h a t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n h a s c r e a t e d b a r r i e r s to t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of w h a t is c o n c e i v e d as a r a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t e p o l i c y.
18 LO (5) G o v e r n m e n t s G o v e r n m e n t s h a v e the p o w e r to i n f l u e n c e a n d s u p p o r t o n e or m o r e of t h e o t h e r actors. T h e e x p l i c i t i n t e r e s t of g o v e r n m e n t s is t h e e n f o r c e m e n t of t h e i r d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. A s m e n t i o n e d, d a t a s u b j e c t s w o u l d l i k e t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n to be e q u a l r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l n a t u r e of d a t a p r o c e s s i n g. A n i n t e r e s t of n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s w o u l d be to e n s u r e t h a t s u c h r e a s o n a b l e e q u a l i t y is m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h the e n f o r c e m e n t of the c l a u s e s in d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n e n p o w e r i n g d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s t o c o n t r o l t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows. A n o t h e r i n t e r e s t of the s t a t e w o u l d be to d e f e n d n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e i n d u s t r y a g a i n s t f o r e i g n c o m p e t i t i o n. T h i s w o u l d i m p l y b a c k i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n i s t i n t e r e s t s o f n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e b u r e a u x - a n d m a y h a v e e v e n f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s, in t h e n a t u re of a m o r e g e n e r a l t r a d e a n d e m p l o y m e n t p o l i c y, o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f l o n g t e r m i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t etc. T h i s m a y a l s o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as the p r o t e c t i o n i s t l c i n t e r e s t. G o v e r n m e n t s h a v e - at least p o t e n t i a l l y - an i n t e r e s t in b o t h t h e s e a s p e c t s. T h e p r o b l e m, as p r e s e n t e d in the i n t r o d u c t i o n, m a y in t h e s i m p l e s t of terms b e c o n c e i v e d as w h e t h e r g o v e r n m e n t s a r e b a c k i n g o n l y the l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r e s t s of d a t a s u b j e c t s, o r w h e t h e r t h e y are u s i n g t h e s e as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n for p u r s u i n g p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c i n t e r e s t s. A s to o u r a n a l y s i s, a m a j o r p r o b l e m w o u l d b e to f i n d e m p i r i c a l d a t a w h i c h m a y d e t e r m i n e the c h o i c e m a d e b y the g o v e r n m e n t s in q u e s t i o n - as d i s c l o s e d by t h e i r p r a c t i c e - b e t w e e n t h e s r two m a j o r i n t e r e s t s. H o w e v e r, a o v e r n m e n t s h
19 11 t h e i n t e r e s t of n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y. A g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d not b e i n c l i n e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e d a t a o u t s i d e its t e r r i t o r y o n t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h w a s c o n s i d e r e d u n d u l y to i m p i n g e o n n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y. N a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o o v i o u s l y is an i n t e r e s t d i f f e r i n g f r o m t h e i n t e r e s t in d a t a p r o t e c t i o n, as t h e c o l l e c t i v e, r a t h e r t h a n the i n d i v i d u a l, is t h e s u b j e c t of t h e p r o t e c t i o n. But e q u a l l y o b v i o u s, n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y m a y s o m e t i m e s b e c o n s i d e r e d as an e x c u s e for i m p l e m e n t i n g p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s. (6) C o n c l u s i o n T h e c o n f l i c t of i n t e r e s t m a y b e r e g a r d e d o n o n e h a n d as the i n t e r e s t in n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t, a n d on t h e o t h e r h a n d as the i n t e r e s t in p r o t e c t i o n i s m. T h i s is, h o w e v e r, c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y that f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x m a y b e d i s c r i m i n a t e d not t h r o u g h p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c r e a s o n s, b u t b e c a u s e they c a n n o t o f f e r s u f f i c i e n t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n ( w h i c h m a y b e the c a s e if t h e y w o r k w i t h i n a j u r i s d i c t i o n l a c k i n g n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a tion), o r that p r o c e s s i n g o u t s i d e t h e t e r r i t o r y is u n a c c e p t a b le d u e to n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y r e a s o n s. A t h i r d p o i n t is a d d e d w h e n t h e last t w o r e a s o n s a r e u s e d to s h r o u d t h e r e a l r e ason: n a m e l y that of p r o t e c t i o n i s m. T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r a c t i c e of n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a g e n c i e s a n d c a s e s s h o u l d at l e a s t m a k e p o s s i b l e a s o m e w h a t b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e c o m p l e x c o n f l i c t p o t e n t i a l i t i e s.
20 12 3. S w e d e n 3.1 U s e of f o r e i g n c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e b u r e a u x S w e d e n h a s t h e o l d e s t n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, a n d w a s a l s o t h e f i r s t c o u n t r y to r e a l l y b r i n g i n t o f o c u s t h e i s s u e of t r a n s n a t i o n a l flows o f p e r s o n a l d ata. Its p o l i c y h a s b e e n g i v e n a lot o f a t t e n t i o n, a n d s o m e of t h e c o n c e r n m e n t i o n e d i n i t i a l l y m a y h a v e been c a s u e d by e a r l y d e c i s i o n s of the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n Board. T h i s is i n d i c a t e d b y the B r i t i s h L i n d o p C o m m i t t e e, w h i c h a r g u e s ( R e p o r t : ) : "... d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s m i g h t i m p o s e r e s t r i c t i o n s on the e x p o r t to t h e UK of p e r s o n a l d a t a a b o u t t h e i r o w n c i t i z e n s if t h e p r o c e s s i n g of s u c h d a t a w e r e e x c l u d e d from the p r o t e c t i o n in the UK Act. I n d e e d, w e u n d e r s t a n d t h a t UK c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e c o m p a n i e s, c o m p e t i n g for S w e d i s h d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c o n t r a c t s, h a v e a l r e a d y s u f f e r e d f r o m r e s t r i c t i o n s i m p o s e d by the S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n Board, b e c a u s e of t h e a b s e n c e of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n in the UK." R e s e a r c h i n g t h e p r a c t i c e of the S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n, the p r o j e c t h a s u n c o v e r e d o n l y two c a s e s u p o n w h i c h t h i s r a t h e r g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n m a y be b a s e d. B o t h c a s e s a r e w e l l k n o w n f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e, b u t are p e r h a p s o f t e n r e p o r t e d s o m e w h a t b r i e f l y. O u r a n a l y s i s is, of c o u r s e, b a s e d o n t h e o r i g i n a l S w e d i s h - l a n g u a g e d o c u m e n t s.
21 13 (1) The embossing case T h e f i r s t c a s e ( d e c i s i o n o f A u g u s t 12th, 1974, D n r ) c o n c e r n s a S w e d i s h l o c a l a u t h o r i t y, J o e n k j o e p i n g l a e n s l a n d s t i n g ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a c o u n t y o r a d i s t r i c t a u t h o r i t y ). J u l y 1974, t h i s a u t h o r i t y h a d i n t r o d u c e d a r e g i s t e r of p a t i e n t s. T h e a u t h o r i t y r e q u i r e d an a m e n d m e n t a n d e x t e n t i o n to t h i s r e g i s t e r in o r d e r t o e m b o s s p l a s t i c p a t i e n t c a r d s. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n d i d n o t h a v e a n y c o m m e n t s in r e s p e c t t o t h e p l a n n e d a m e n d m e n t o f t h e r e g i s t e r. A s t o t h e e m b o s s m e n t o f c a r d s, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n did, h o w e v er, p o i n t o u t t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o s e c t 11 of t h e act, a s p e c i a l l i c e n s e for e x p o r t of d a t a f o r p r o c e s s i n g a b r o a d w a s r e q u i r e d. T h e e m b o s s m e n t p r e s u m e d s u c h a n e x p o r t. T h e d e c i s i o n of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d in q u e s t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h i s e x p o r t. T h e e x p o r t w o u l d i n c l u d e p e r s o n s in t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e c o u n t y. T h e e m b o s s m e n t w o u l d i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a e l e m e n t s : - PIN - c o u n t y, m u n i c i p a l i t y, c o m m u n i t y - n a m e - a d d r e s s N o c o m p a n y in S w e d e n w a s a t t h a t t i m e a b l e t o e m b o s s p l a s t i c c a r d s, t h o u g h t h i s w o u l d b e c o m e p o s s i b l e d u r i n g t h e a u t u m n of T h e c o u n t y a u t h o r i t y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t a n e w h o s p i t a l w o u l d be r e a d y in A u g u s t 1974, a n d t h a t the u s e of p a t i e n t s c a r d s w a s c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h t h i s n e w h o s p i t a l. A d e l a y u n t i l t h e c a r d s c o u l d be p r o d u c e d in S w e d e n, o r m a n u a l l y e m b o s s e d, w o u l d b e i n c o n v e n i e n t. T h e UK b u r e a u in q u e s t i o n ( R a p i d D a t a, H a v a n t ) a n d t h e i r S w e d i s h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e (AB C a r l L a m m ) h a d e m p h a s i z e d t h e i r a w a r e
22 14 n e s s of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s e c u r i t y of t h e d a t a for u n a u t h o r i z e d a c c e s s o r use, a n d R a p i d D a t a h a d s p e c i f i e d t h e i r s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d b a s e s i t s d e c i s i o n on t h r e e p o i n t s. F i r s t l y, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d s t a t e s that in thxs c a s e it is a q u e s t i o n of m a s s data, a n d t h a t t h e a s s e s s m e n t of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n m u s t t a k e t h i s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n. T h i s is the f i r s t d e c i s i o n on m a s s e x p o r t of p e r s o n a l d ata, a n d the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d is c o n s c i o u s of the i m p o r t a n c e of the d e c i s i o n as a p r e s e d e n c e. S e c o n d l y, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d p o i n t s to the risk of e s t a b l i s h i n g t o t a l r e g i s t e r s of t h e S w e d i s h p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n s e v e r a l f o r e i g n b u r e a u x h a v i n g h a d m a s s d a t a e x p o r t e d to them: " T h r o u g h a c o o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x, w h i c h in an a u t h o r i z e d o r u n a u t h o r i z e d w a y h a v e h a d a c c e s s to d a t a o n S w e d i s h c i t i z e n s f r o m r e g i s t e r s, s u c h p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t e r m a y o v e r t i m e b e c o m e b r o a d e r a n d d e e p e r." T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d p o i n t s out t h a t S w e d i s h a u t h o r i t i e s d o not h a v e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r s u c h f o r e i g n r e g i s t e r s, a n d that c o n t r o l b y f o r e i g n a u t h o r i t i e s "at t h i s t i m e " c a n n o t be c o u n t e d on. S e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s c a n n o t c o m p e n s a t e for this lack of c o n t r o l - t h o u g h the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d t a k e s c a r e to s t r e s s t h a t this d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t t h e m e a s u r e s t a k e n in th i s c a s e a r e i n a d e q u a t e. T h i r d l y, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d t a k e s n o t e o f the " u n r e s t in r e s p e c t to p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t e r s of w h i c h d a t a s u b j e c t s h a v e l i t t l e k n o w l e d g e w i t h r e s p e c t to o b j e c t i v e s a n d use, an u n r e s t
23 15 s e e n as p a r t o f d a t a p r o t e c t i o n, a n d t h i s is r e l a t e d to the la c k of c o n t r o l p o i n t e d o u t in its s e c o n d p o i n t. O n t h i s r e a s o n i n g, l i c e n s e w a s r e f u s e d. T w o of t h e b o a r d m e m b e r s h a d a d i s s e n t i n q v iew, p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t the d a t a w e r e not s e n s i t i v e, a n d that a r g u m e n t s of c o s t s s h o u l d be g i v e n h i g h e r p r i o r i t y. If w e u s e o u r s c h e m a for an a n a l y s i s o f w h i c h i n t e r e s t s are i m p o r t a n t in t h i s d e c i s i o n, w e s e e t h a t t h e " p r o t e c t i o n i s t " i s s u e w a s n o t v e r y s t r o n g. A t the t i m e n o n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y w a s c o m p e t i n g for t h e c o n t r a c t, t h o u g h t h e r e w o u l d o f c o u r s e be m e d i u m t e r m b e n e f i t s for a c o m p a n y s e t u p so t o say b e h i n d the s c r e e n e r e c t e d b y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d s t r e s s e d q u i t e s t r o n g l y t h e " e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n to d a t a s u b j e c t s " - a n d it s h o u l d be b o r n in m i n d t h a t at this t i m e the UK h a d n o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. N e i t h e r h a d it a d o p t e d t h e O E C D r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o r C o u n c i l o f E u r o p e t r eaty. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e a l s o s t r e s s e d t h e " n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y " issue, as t h i s w a s a c a s e o f m a s s e x p o r t. In a s s e s s i n g the d e c i s i o n, it s h o u l d a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d t h a t at t h i s r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y s t a g e a r e s t r i c t i v e p o l i c y m i g h t h a v e l e s s p r e c e d e n t a l e f f e c t t h a n a p e r m i s s i v e. T h u s o u r a n a l y s i s w o u l d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s is not a g o o d e x a m p l e o f p r o t e c t i o n i s m, b u t r a t h e r an e x a m p l e of p u r s u i n g t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. T h e e m p h a s i s o n lack o f c o n t r o l s m a y g i v e s o m e j u s t i f i c a t i o n t o the g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e L i n d o p C o m m i t t e e, c i t e d i n i t i a l l y.
24 16 (2) The publishing case T h e s e c o n d m a j o r c a s e f o l l o w e d a few w e e k s later, o n A u g u s t 27th, 1974 (D n r ). T h e a p p l i c a n t, B o n n i e r s F o e r e t a g s i n f o r m a t i o n AB, w a s a f f i l i a t e d to a m a j o r S w e d i s h p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e. T h i s c o m p a n y c o o p e r a t e d in p r o d u c i n g a c a t a l o g u e n a m e d S w e d i s h T a x C a l e n d a r (S v e r i g e s T a x e r i n g s k a l e n d e r ). T h i s c a t a l o g u e w o u l d i n c l u d e all p h y s i c a l a n d l e g a l p e r s o n s w i t h an i n c o m e e x c e e d i n g 6 U SEK, e s t i m a t e d to a p p r o x i m a t e l y e n t r i e s. T h e d a t a w a s f u r n i s h e d by c o u n t y a u t h o r i t i e s on m a g n e t i c tape. In o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e c i s i o n, o n e s h o u l d m a k e p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of i n c o m e is by i t s e l f not a v i o l a t i o n of p r i v a c y. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is m a d e p u b l i c b y s t a t u t e, a n d t h e r e is a t r a d i t i o n for s o m e p u b l i c a t i o n s c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n. T h e c a t a l o g u e in q u e s t i o n w a s t h e a n n u a l v o l u m e of a c a t a l g u e p u b l i s h e d for a n u m b e r o f p r e v i o u s y e a r s (the c a s e d o e s n o t g o i n t o d e t a i l s on t h i s p o i n t, as t h i s w a s n o t d i s p u t e d ). T h e d a t a to b e i n c l u d e d were: - c o d e for c o u n t y a n d m u n i c i p a l i t y - P I N - n a m e - a d d r e s s - t a x a b l e s t a t e i n c o m e - t a x a b l e m u n i c i p a l i n c o m e - d e b i t e d c a p i t a l tax T h e d a t a w a s e d i t e d in o r d e r to r e l a t e h u s b a n d a n d w i f e, and in o r d e r to m a k e an a l p h a b e t i c a l sort of m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a n d c o u n t i e s. C a p i t a l w a s c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g to s t a t u t o r y rules, a n d this p r o c e s s i n g t o o k p l a c e in S w e d e n.
25 17 A c o n t r a c t w a s e n t e r e d w i t h a UK firm, C o m t e c h, for p h o t o c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e d a t a. T h i s w a s d o n e in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h an e a r l i e r p r a c t i c e. A c o m p u t e r e x p e r t f r o m t h e g r a p h i c d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c o m p a n y a f f i l i t a t e d t o t h e p u b l i s h e r ( B o n n i e r s G r a f i s k a I n f o r m a t i o n s b e h a n d l i n g AB) b r o u g h t a m a g n e t i c t a p e to C o m tech, w h e r e t h e p h o t o c o m p o s i t i o n took p l a c e. T h e e x p e r t then b r o u g h t t h e t a p e a n d t h e p h o t o c o m p o s e d f i l m s b a c k to S weden, w h e r e t h e a c t u a l p r i n t i n g t o o k place. A l s o in t h i s c a s e, n o S w e d i s h c o m p a n y c o u l d m e e t t h e s p e e d r e q u i r e m e n t s. B o n n i e r s a l s o o f f e r e d to h a v e t h e p r o c e s s i n g done u n d e r s u r v e i l l a n c e b y t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e at C o m t e c h. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d d e c i d e d a c c o r d i n g t o d e c i s i o n in T h e E m b o s s i n g C a s e, u s i n g i d e n t i c a l p h r a s e s. O n e of t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e B o a r d (Ake P e r n e l i d ) h e l d a d i s s e n t i n g o p i n i o n. H e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the r i s k f o r u n a u t h o r i z e d u s e s h o u l d be r e l a t e d to the m o t i v a t i o n of p o s s i b l e f o r e i g n o r g a n i z a t i o n s. T h e r e s u l t i n g p u b l i c a t i o n c o u l d b e p u r c h a s e d a c r o s s t h e c o u n t e r in a n y b o o k s t o r e, a n d it w o u l d t h e r e f o r e be i m p r o b a b l e that a f o r e i g n o r g a n i z a t i o n w o u l d t a k e t h e t r o u b l e o f m a k i n g a n u n a u t h o r i z e d p e n e t r a t i o n. A n a n a l y s i s o f t h i s d e c i s i o n m u s t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t that it is a l i n e a r d e s c e n d a n t o f t h e f o r m e r d e c i s i o n. A g a i n t h e p r o t e c - t i o n i s t i c e l e m e n t is h a r d l y d o m i n a n t, t h o u g h c l e a r l y s t r o n g e r t h a n in t h e f o r m e r c a s e. B u t as the d e c i s i o n c o n t a i n s the i d e n t i c a l p h r a s e s, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d b r i n g s i n t o f o c u s t h e e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t. In a s s e s s i n g t h e d e c i s i o n, it a l s o s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d that a t t h i s time, t h e o p t i c a l c h a r a c t e r r e a d i n g o f p u b l i c a t i o n s w a s less a d v a n c e d t h a n t o d a y. A t t h a t t i m e it w a s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e to m a k e a d i s t i n c t i o n in p r i n c i p l e b e t w e e n the p r i n t e d c o p y of a r e g i s t e r ( w h i c h in t h i s c a s e w o u l d b e r e a d i l y a v a i
26 18 lable) a n d t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d v e r s i o n ( w h i c h w o u l d f o r s o m e t i m e r e s i d e a b r o a d ). T o d a y, t h i s w o u l d be less j u s t i f i e d - as the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a c c e s s i n g a c l e a r l y p r i n t e d c o p y a n d a c o m p u t e r i z e d c o p y w o u l d o n l y b e o n e of cost. S u c h c o s t d i f f e r e n c e s m a y b e i m p o r t a n t in p r a c t i c e, but h a r d l y s u f f i c e n t for m a k i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n in p r i n c i p l e, as the d e c i s i o n w o u l d s e e m t o imply. It s h o u l d a l s o be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the r e f e r e n c e to " p u b l i c u n r e s t " m a y be m o r e d i f f i c u l t to d e f e n d in r e s p e c t t o a r e g i s t e r w i t h s u c h a c l e a r a n d l i m i t e d o b j e c t i v e as the p r o d u c t i o n o f an a n n u a l c a t a l o g u e. O b v i o u s l y, the e x i s t e n c e of a p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t e r of m e d i c a l p a t i e n t s w o u l d m o r e e a s i l y g i v e c a u s e f o r s u c h " u n r e s t ". In o u r o p i n i o n it w o u l d t h e r e f o r e be e a s y to a r g u e that t h i s d e c i s i o n s t r e t c h e s t h e o b j e c t i v e s of n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n f u r t h e r t h a n t h e f o r m e r d e c i s i o n. T h e i r o r d e r is, h o w e v e r, h a r d l y an a c c i d e n t. G i v e n the p r e c e d e n t a l v a l u e of t h e f o r m e r d e c i s i o n ( w h i c h in S c a n d i n a v i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e law is r a t h e r s t r o n g b a s e d o n t h e p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l i t y w i t h i n p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) t h e s e c o n d d e c i s i o n is q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e. B u t it is n e v e r t h e l e s s a d e v e l o p m e n t in a r e s t r i c t i v e d i r e c t i o n. (3) A s s e s s m e n t of t h e 1974 c a s e s T h e s e a r e o u r t w o e x a m p l e s of d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x. B o t h a r e e a r l y d e c i s i o n s, b u t it is o b v i o u s l y t o t h e s e T h e L i n d o p C o m m i t t e e r e f e r r e d w h e n s t a t i n g a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on UK t r a d e in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. T h e c a s e s are, h o w e v e r, a t y p i c a l in o n e v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t - t h e y a r e b o t h e x a m p l e s o f m a s s e x p o r t of d a t a - d a t a o n in o n e c a s e a n d in t h e o t h e r c a s e a p p r o x i m a t e l y
27 19 s u b j e c t s. T h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a s p e c t w a s i m p o r t a n t in b o t h d e c i s i o n s. A n d in d e c i s i o n s o n w h o l l y n a t i o n a l r e g i s t e r s, the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d d i d s h o w the s a m e r e s t r i c t i v e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s r e g i s t e r s o f l a r g e f r a c t i o n s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n. A n e g a t i v e d e c i s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o R e a d e r s D i g e s t (a r e g i s t e r f o r d i r e c t m a i l w i t h i n S w e d e n, p r o c e s s e d a l s o in S w eden) w a s a p p e a l e d to t h e C a b i n e t, a n d t h e r e o v e r r u l e d. A f t e r a c h a n g e o f g o v e r n m e n t, h o w e v e r, the D a t a P r o t e c t i o n A c t w a s a m e n d e d t o t a k e s p e c i a l a c c o u n t of j u s t t h e s e t y p e of r e g i s t e r s. T o d a y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d h a s a s p e c i a l a u t h o r i t y in h a n d l i n g t h i s t y p e of r e g i s t e r s - an a u t h o r i t y w h i c h m a y be s e e n t o e x c e e d t h a t of t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n in a n a r r o w sense. It is t h e r e f o r e o u r o p i n i o n t h a t t h e s e t w o c a s e s c a n n o t be a d e q u a t l y a s s e s s e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f d a t a p r o e c t i o n or t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a flows. T h e y h e r a l d t h e p r i o r i t y g i v e n in S w e d e n to the v u l n e r a b i l i t y issue, w h i c h is t h e c o n t e x t of the n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t. A s w e l l k n o w n, t h e S w e d i s h r e p o r t s o n the v u l n e r a b i l i t y of t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d s o c i e t y h a s g i v e n r i s e to f u r t h e r a n d m o r e g e n e r a l w o r k in S w e d e n, a n d t h e Data I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d as w e l l as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n, h a s b e e n h e a v i l y i n v o l v e d in t h i s w o r k. V u l n e r a b i l i t y is o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d b o t h t o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a n d t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s as w e l l as p r o t e c t i v e t r a d e m e a s u r e s - b u t e q u a l l y o b v i o u s t o a m o r e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l issue. It w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e i n c o r r e c t to s e e in t h e s e t w o e a r l y d e c i s i o n s t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e of a f f a i r s w i t h r e s p e c t to e x p o r t of d a t a to f o r e i g n c o m p u t e r b u r e a u x - a n d a f t e r t h e s t a t u t o r y a m e n d m e n t, o n e m a y a l s o m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e l e g a l c o n t e x t has b e e n c h a n g e d a d e q u a t e l y.
28 20 (4) T h e U n i v a c c a s e T h i s c a s e, d e c i d e d b y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e o n O c t o b e r 13th, (D n r ) is i n d e e d r a t h e r a t y p i c a l. T h e S w e d i s h t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y w a s n e g o t i a t i n g for n e w c o m p u t e r e q u i p m e n t f r o m S a a b U n i v a c AB. T h e c o m p u t e r in q u e s t i o n h a d at t h i s t i m e not yet b e e n i n s t a l l e d in S w e d e n, a n d t h e t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y h a d d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e c o m p a n y b e f o r e J a n u a r y 1st, 1978, d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h r e s p e c t to a c c e s s a b i 1 ity a n d c a p a c i t y c o u l d b e m e t. T h i s i m p l i e d a test, w h i c h w a s p l a n n e d t o t a k e p l a c e in the US. A n d in o r d e r to m a k e this test as r e a l i s t i c as p o s s i b l e, a r e a l s a m p l e r e g i s t e r s h o u l d b e used. T h r e e r e g i s t e r s w e r e s u g g e s t e d : - a c l i e n t r e g i s t e r o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y s u b s c r i b e r s in V a e s t e r a s t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a r e a - an o r d e r r e g i s t e r o f o r d e r s f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y s u b s c r i b e r s in t h e F a g e r s t a a r e a c o d e d i s t r i c t - a w a k e - u p c a l l r e g i s t e r of s u b s c r i b e r s in S t o c k h olm, V a e s t e r a s a n d s o u t h e r n t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a r e a s. S p e c i a l s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d : T h e d a t a w o u l d be t r a n s p o r t e d b y c o u r i e r, s t o r e d in s p e c i a l l o c k e d c o m p a r t m e n t s b e t w e e n tests, d e l e t e d f r o m d i s k s a n d m a g n e t i c t a p e s b e f o r e r e t u r n to the U S U n i v a c c o m p a n y ; no o t h e r a c t i v i t y t h a n the t e s t s w o u l d t a k e p l a c e in the m a c h i n e hall, n o f u n c t i o n s for l i s t i n g t h e r e g i s t e r s w o u l d be i n c l u d e d in t h e t e s t s ( t h o u g h b r i e f s e c t i o n s m i g h t be p r i n t e d - t h e s e w a s g u a r a n t e e d to be i m m e d i a t e l y d e s t r o y e d ), a n d o n e of the s o f t w a r e e x p o r t s of the t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y w a s to f o l l o w t h e t e s t in USA. T h e t e s t p e r i o d w a s e s t i m a t e d to 4-7 w e e k s. T h e t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y s t r e s s e d t h e c o s t s of k e e p i n g a p e r s o n in the USA
29 21 t o c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r t h i s w a s felt n e c e s s a r y. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n g r a n t e d l i c e n s e in t h i s c a s e, a f t e r d i s c u s s i n g the s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s w i t h t h e t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y. T h e a u t h o r i t y w a s r e q u i r e d t o e n t e r a w r i t t e n c o n t ra c t w i t h U n i v a c o n t h e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s, a n d t h e p r e c a u t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e w a s s t r e s s e d in the d e c i s i o n. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e a d e q u a c y of t h e m e a s u r e s s h o u l d be s a m p l e d d u r i n g t h e t e s t p e r i o d, a n d that the r e g i s t e r s s h o u l d b e d e l e t e d in t h e U S (not t r a n s p o r t e d b a c k to S w e d e n ). T h e U n i v a c c a s e a l s o c o n c e r n e d - like t h e c a s e s - m a s s e x p o r t of d a t a. N e v e r t h e l e s s, t h e d e c i s i o n w a s d i f f e r e n t - a n d t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n m a d e n o m e n t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y r i s k s or t h e p r o t e c t i o n p r o b l e m. In 1977 t h e U S d i d h a v e a d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t the f e d e r a l a c t d i d n o t a p p l y t o the c a s e at h a n d - and t h e d e c i s i o n m a k e s no m e n t i o n of s t a t e law w h i c h m i g h t b e a p p l i c a b l e. T h e d e c i s i o n w o u l d s e e m to p i v o t o n t h e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s, w h i c h w a s f o u n d a d e q u a t e to g u a r a n t e e e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n a n d to a v o i d t h e i s s u e o f n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y. If t h e d e c i s i o n g i v e s p r i o r i t y to a n y i n t e r e s t s, it w o u l d b e t h a t o f t h e u s e r - in t h i s c a s e the t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y - in w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t m a d e p o s s i b l e a d e s i r e d e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e q u i p m e n t o f f e r e d. W e h a v e c a t e g o r i z e d t h i s c a s e w i t h the u s e of f o r e i g n c o m p u t e r b u r e a u x. T h i s is, h o w e v e r, o n l y t r u e in a v e r y f o r m a l s e n s e - as t h e p r o c e s s i n g w a s o n l y a m e a n s to t e s t i n g a c o m p u t e r s y s tem, not an e n d in i t s e l f. N e v e r t h e l e s s, w e f e e l that this d e c i s i o n b a l a n c e s t h e r a t h e r r e s t r i c t i v e t r e n d i n d i c a t e d by t h e c a s e s. If o n e a c c e p t s t h a t the s e v e r e s e c u r i t y m e a s u res t a k e n by the t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a u t h o r i t y w a s t h e m a i n r e a son for g r a n t i n g l i c e n s e, t h i s w o u l d s t r e n g t h e n t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t the i n t e r e s t g i v e n p r i o r i t y a r e t h o s e of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y - n o t t h a t o f p r o t e c t i o n i s m. But, as
30 22 s t r e s s e d, t h i s c a s e is t o o a t y p i c a l for e s t a b l i s ) ing a b a s i s f o r a n y s t r o n g a r g u m e n t s. (5) T h e M a l m o e f i r e b r i g a d e c a s e T h i s is o n e of t h e m o r e f a m o u s e x a m p l e s of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o c e s s i n g in S c a n d i n a v i a, a n d p e r h a p s o n e of t h e m o r e c u r i o u s e x a m p l e s in t h e f i l e s o f the S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n. T h e c a s e w a s d e c i d e d b y tho D a t a I n s p e c t i o n 2 2 n d of N o v e m b e r, (Dnr ). T h e f i r e b r i g a d e of M a l m o e w a n t e d a f.ystem w i t h d a t a o n f i r e s i t e s e q u i p p e d w i t h a u t o m a t i c fire a l a r m s (at t h a t time, a p p r o x i m a t e l y ), i n f o r m a t i o n on building:-, w a t e r a c c e s s p o i n t s, s w i t c h o f f p o i n t s for e l e c t r i c i t y, g a s a n d w a t e r, s p e c i a l r i s k s etc. P e r s o n a l d a t a i n c l u d e d n a m e a n d t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r for the c o n t a c t p e r s o n s of the d i f f e r e n t c o m p a n i e s. T h e s e d a t a w a s e x t r a c t e d f r o m the m a n u a l f i l e s o f t h e f i r e b r i g a d e. F o r p r o c e s s i n g, t h e M a l m o e fire b r i g a d e c o n t r a c t e d G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c D a t a C e n t e r, C l e v e l a n d, O h i o. T h e s y s t e m w a s m a i n t a i n e d b y t e r m i n a l s f r o m M a l m o e. W h e n a u t o m a t i c f i r e a l a r m is s o u n d e d, a p r o c e s s i n g is i n i t i a t e d at the US s e r v i c e bure.i' x r e s u l t i n g in a p r i n t - o u t at the t e r m i n a l of t h e f i r e b r i g a d e in M a l m o e for u s e b y the p e r s o - nell i n v o l v e d in t h e a c t i o n taken. In its a r g u m e n t s, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n p o i n t e d o u t that I he e x i s t e n c e of t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s in».he r e g i s t e r w a s o n l y c a u s e d by his o r h e r f u n c t i o n w i t h i n the c o m p a n y. T h e d a t a (which w e r e r e s t r i c t e d to n a m e a n d t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r ) w e r e a l s o fount] to be r a t h e r t r i v i a l. T h e d a t a w m i ' M a l e n ho H o i o t o J
31 23 T h e r f o r e the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n l i c e n s e d t h e a r r a n g e m e n t, s e a t i n g a few c o n d i t i o n s ( i m p l i e d by the d e s c r i p t i o n a b o v e ), i n c l u d i n g t h a t d a t a s e c u r i t y s h o u l d b e s u f f i c e n t t o e x c l u d e u n a u t h o r i z e d a c c e s s. A n a l y s i n g t h i s c a s e, o n e m a y c o n s i d e r wl^ t h e r the i n t e r e s t in e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n o f d a t a s u b j e c t s h a s b e e n v i o l a t e d. It w o u l d be v e r y d. f t i c u l t to m a i n t a i n t h i s if, as t h e D.ita I n s p e c t i o n p o i n t s out, t h e p e r s o n a l d a t a i n v o l v e d a r e v e r y t r i v i a l. O f m o r e i n t e r e s t is he p o i n t that t h i s is a c a s e of n o n - p r o - t e c t i o n i s t i c a ' t i t u d e. O n e m a y p r e s u m e t h a t t h e r e w o r e n a t i o nal s e r v i c e b u r e a u x w h i c h w o u l d b e a b l e to o f f f r a s i m i l a r i n f o r m a t i o n s e r v i c e to t h e f i r e b r i g a d e - t h o u g h o b v i o u s l y the f i r e b r i g a d e t h o u g h t the U S b u r e a u ' s o f f e r w a s the b e t t e r. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n d i d in t h i s c a s e f o l l o w t h e p r ' n c i p l e of n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t r a t h e r t h a n the p r i n c i p l e of p r o t e c t i o n i s m. W e t h i n k t h a t t h i s is p e r h a p s a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n of the c u r rent p o l i c y t o w a r d s f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x t h a n the two c a s e s. (6) B a c k u p s e r v i c e s a b r o a d A c o m m o n c a s e w o u l d b e o n e w h e r e a S w e d i s h c o m p a n y for s e c u r i ty r e a s o n s c o n t r a c t s w i t h a c o m p a n y in a n o t h e r coun'.ry h a v i n g a c o m p a t i b l e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m for b a c k u p s e r v i c e s. S u c h a c a s e h a s b e e n d e c i d e d b y tin D a t a I n s p e c t i o n, w h e r e a b a n k in the s o u t h of S w e d e n w a s g r a n t e d l i c e n s e t o b a c k u p p r o c e s s i n g of its p e r s o n e l l r e g i s t e r in D e n m a r k. T h e l i c e n s e a l s o p e r m i t t e d p e r i o d i c a l t e s t i n g of thi= b a c k u p link (cfr S O U : 5 4 p 278). In its c o m m e n t s to h i s c a s e, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e men' i"n t hat s u c h a r r a n g e m e n t s p r o b a b l y a r e q u i t e c o m m o n (Sf;U : 5 4 p 278):
32 24 "As s u c h p l a n s a r e b a s e d o n t e c h n i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a s s e s s m e n t s, it w i l l in c e r t a i n c a s e s for t h e c o m p a n i e s tn q u e s t i o n i m p l y d i f f i c u l t i e s if c o n d i t i o n s a r e not c r e a t e d w h i c h w i l l p e r m i t s u c h r o u t i n e s. " In t h e s e r a t h e r c a r e f u l l y p h r a s e d s t a t e m e n t m a y b e s e e n the i n d i c a t i o n of a p o l i c y w h i c h w i l l a l l o w n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t of f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x at l e a s t in as far as b a c k u p r o u t i n e s a r e c o n c e r n e d.
33 U s e of p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y w i t h i n a c o o p e r a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n - the S W I F T c a s e In t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n, a d i s t i n c t i o n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n t h e u s e of a n i n d e p e n d e n t s e r v i c e b u r e a u a b r o a d, a n d t h e u s e o f a s e r v i c e b u r e a u a f f i l i t a t e d w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y. T h e r e is a c t u a l ly an i n t e r m e d i a r y s i t u a t i o n, w h e r e a n u m b e r o f i n d e p e n d e n t c o m p a n i e s in s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s o r g a n i z e b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a s y s t e m for c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d p r o c e s s i n g o f d a t a. T h e S W I F T s y s t e m r e p r e s e n t s s u c h a s o l u t i o n. S W I F T - t h e S o c i e t y f o r W o r l d w i d e I n t e r b a n k F i n a n c i a l T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s - w a s c r e a t e d in as a c o o p e r a t i v e, n o n - p r o f i t s o c i e t y. In 1980 it h a d as m e m b e r s 750 b a n k s in 27 c o u n t r i e s in E u r o p e, t h e A m e r i c a s a n d t h e F a r E a s t ( V e k e m a n : 7 ). At t h a t t ime, t h e n e t w o r k h a n d l e d t r a n s m i s s i o n s d a i l y. T h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e o f S W I F T is t o p r o v i d e ( N a c a m u l i : 7 ). "... a s t a n d a r d i z e d, a v a i l a b l e, a u d i t a b l e, s e c u r e a n d p r i v a t e s y s t e m f o r i t s m e m b e r b a n k s to e f f e c t i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l t r a n s a c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s. " T h e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s a r e q u i t e s e v e r e, a n d i n c l u d e a n a u t h e n t i c a t o r i m b e d d e d in e a c h m o n e y t r a n s f e r to g u a r a n t e e t h a t no c h a n g e t a k e p l a c e d u i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n. T h i s is b a s e d o n an a l g o r i t h m p r o v i d e d b y S W I F T, a n d b i l a t e r a l k e y s u s e d b y s e n d i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g b a n k s. T h e a l g o r i t h m is c o m m o n to all b a n k s, b u t t h e k e y s a r e k n o w n o n l y t o the s e n d i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g p a i r. T h e a u t h e n t i f i c a t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t a u t o m a t i c a l l y in t h e t e r m i n a l s. In a d d i t i o n, a l l m e s s a g e s o v e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i n e s a r e e n c r y p t e d ( N a c a m u l i : 9 ).
34 26 O b v i o u s l y, t h e s e c u r i t y f e a t u r e s a r e d e s i g n e d m a i n l y t o m e e t t h e d e m a n d s for s e c u r i t y in e l e c t r o n i c f u n d s t r a n s f e r s. B u t it m a y b e t a k e n as a p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e t h a t t h i s l e v e l of s e c u r i t y a l s o w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t in d a t a p r o t e c t i o n. O n t h e o t h e r h and, d a t a p r o t e c t i o n is d i f f e r e n t f r o m d a t a s e c u r i t y. T h e a r g u m e n t of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n w i l l be v a l i d e v e n if t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n to t h e f o r e i g n b a n k is s e c u r e. T h e f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n f o r l i c e n s e u s i n g S W I F T w a s d e c i d e d by t h e D a t a I n s e p c t i o n B o a r d on A p r i l 13th, 1976 (Dnr ). A m a j o r c o m m e r c i a l b a n k, S v e n s k a H a n d e l s b a n k e n (SHB) a p p l i e d for l i c e n s e to e x p o r t p e r s o n a l d a t a - in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h p a y m e n t t r a n s a c t i o n s b e t w e e n S H B a n d a f o r e i g n b a n k o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n, w h e n t h e t r a n s a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e for t h e a c c o u n t of the d a t a s u b j e c t a n d t h e p e r s o n a l d a t a a r e e l e m e n t s of the t r a n s a c t i o n, a n d - in i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c r e d i t r e p o r t s to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d h a d in an e a r l i e r d e c i s i o n o f N o v e m b e r 2 5th, (Dnr ) g r a n t e d l i c e n s e t o m a i n t a i n t h e se f i l e s a n d to e x p o r t d a t a to t h e e x t e n t m e n t i o n e d in t h e n e w t r a n s a c t i o n. T h i s d e c i s i o n, h o w e v e r, e x l u d e d e x p l i c i t l y t h e e x p o r t to a c e n t r a l i z e d f o r e i g n s y s t e m w h i c h, f o r i n s t a n c e, c l e a r e d t r a n s a c t i o n s b e t w e e n b a n k s. T h e S w e d i s h B a n k I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d did, on the r e q u e s t of the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d, g i v e an o p i n i o n o n the a p p l i c a t i o n, w h i c h w a s p o s i t i v e. R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d d i d a l s o v i s i t t h e o f f i c e s of S W I F T in B e l g i u m a n d H o l land, s e c u r i n g s u p p l e m e n t a l i n f o r m a t i o n on the c o m p u t e r s y s t e m
35 27 I n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e S W I F T n e t w o r k w o u l d t a k e p l a c e t h r o u g h a d e d i c a t e d m i n i c o m p u t e r ( S I D - S W I F T I n t e r f a c e D e v i c e ), w h i c h i t s e l f w o u l d be s u b j e c t to s e v e r e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s at S H B 1s d a t a p r o c e s s i n g d e p a r t m e n t in S t o c k h o l m. T o t h i s d e p a r t m e n t w o u l d b e c o n n e c t e d t e r m i n a l s in S t o c k h o l m, G o t h e n b u r g a n d M a l m o e. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d s m a k e m e n t i o n of its r e s o l u t i o n of M a y 2 9th, 1974 e s t a b l i s h i n g a m o d e l for a p p l i c a t i o n f o r b a n k s, w h i c h i n c l u d e d a g e n e r a l e x e m p t i o n u n d e r s e c t 11 o f t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n t o c o m m u n i c a t e p e r s o n a l d a t a a b r o a d as p a r t of a p a y m e n t t r a n s a c t i o n. T h i s d i d not, h o w e v e r, i n c l u d e t h e u s e o f the S W I F T s y s t e m. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d c o m m e n ted, h o w e v e r : "The n a t u r e of t h e t r a n s a c t i o n s t o be m e d i a t e d a n d the d a t a p r o c e s s i n g o p e r a t i o n s to b e p e r f o r m e d, t h e l i m i t e d s t o r a g e t i m e for a l l e t r a n s a c t i o n s, a n d t h e v e r y r i g o r o u s s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s t a k e n o r p l a n n e d t o g e t h e r l e a d to the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e S W I F T s y s t e m w i l l not i n v o l v e a r i s k of i n v a s i o n of p e r s o n a l p r i v a c y. " T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d p o i n t s o u t that t h e S w e d i s h b a n k s w i l l h a v e full c o n t r o l o f d a t a d u r i n g the p e r i o d t h e y r e s i d e in t h e S W I F T s y s t e m, a n d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d m a y e x c e r c i s e t h e n e c e s s a r y s u p e r v i s i o n. L a t e r o t h e r b a n k s h a v e b e e n g i v e n l i c e n s e t o c o n n e c t to the S W I F T n e t w o r k, for i n s t a n c e S p a r b a n k e r n a s B a n k, d e c i s i o n of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n o f N o v e m b e r 8th, 1976 (Dnr ). In t h i s d e c i s i o n, o n l y a r e f e r e n c e t o the f i r s t a n d d e c i s i v e p r e c e d e n t is g i v e n as r e a s o n s for the d e c i s i o n. In a n a l y s i n g t h i s c ase, o n e w i l l s e e t h a t t h e p r o t e c t i v e i n t e r e s t is not in t h e f o c u s - b a r r i n g S w e d i s h b a n k s f r o m S W I F T w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e a n y b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t o n t h e b u s i n e s s of
36 28 S w e d i s h b a n k s. T h e i n t e r e s t o f n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t m a y a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d a r a t h e r a r t i f i c i a l p o i n t o f v i e w w i t h r e s p e c t to an o r g a n i z a t i o n l i k e S W I F T, w h i c h has a f a c t u a l m o n o p o l y of a c e r t a i n s e r v i c e. O n e s h o u l d, h o w e v e r, a l s o c o n s i d e r the m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e a s c r i b e d t o s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s a n d i n t e g r i t y of the S W I F T s y s t e m, as w e l l as t h e fact t h a t t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n h a v e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e b a n k s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e t r a n s a c t i o n, a n d t h e r e b y a l s o h a s s u f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l o f t h e t r a n s a c t i o n itself.
37 U s e of a f f i l i t a t e d s e r v i c e b u r e a u a b r o a d T h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y i d e n t i f i e d w a s t h e c a s e in w h i c h a n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w a n t e d t o u s e t h e d a t a p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s of a b u r e a u a f f i l i t a t e d a b r o a d. T h e t y p i c a l e x a m p l e s w o u l d be r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e b r a n c h a n d h o m e o f f i c e s - b u t o b v i o u s l y the o p p o s i t e c o u l d a l s o be true, t h o u g h t h i s w o u l d be less t y p i c a l f o r a S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r y, w i t h o n l y a s m a l l n u m b e r of t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o m p a n i e s. (1) T h e S i e m e n s c a s e T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f t h e s e c a s e s a r e u n d o u b t e d l y t h e S i e m e n s case, d e c i d e d b y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n on M a r c h 13th, 1975 (Dnr ). T h e S i e m e n s m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o m p a n y i n c l u d e s s o m e 70 c o m p a n i e s in 40 c o u n t r i e s. T h e c e n t r a l p e r s o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in M u n i c h h a d e s t a b l i s h e d a p e r s o n a l r e g i s t e r in t h e f o r m of a d a t a b a n k w i t h t h e a c r o n y m P I S A. T h i s w o u l d p r o v i d e b a s i s for p e r s o n e l l s t a t i s t i c s a n d d e c i s i o n s in q u e s t i o n s o f p e r s o n e l l. T h e s t a t i s t i c s w o u l d a l s o be of a c o m p a r a t i v e n a t u r e, i n c l u d i n g - n u m b e r of p e r s o n s in d i f f e r e n t j o b l e v e l s - s a l a r y s t r u c t u r e - a g e s t r u c t u r e - e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e - p e r s o n e l l t h r o u g h p u t - n a t i o n a l i t y m i x of p e r s o n e l l - p e n s i o n s c h e m e s a n d o t h e r s o c i a l b e n e f i t s for e m p l y e e s
38 30 In r e s p e c t t o d e c i s i o n s on e m p l o y e e s, t h e s e w e r e b a s e d on a t e r m i n a l s y s t e m s t h r o u g h w h i c h q u e r i e s c o u l d be p u t to the d a t a b a s e. T h e s e i n c l u d e d - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of e m p l o y e e s a d e q u a t e for c e r t a i n j o b s or p o s i t i o n s - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f e m p l o y e r s s u i t a b l e f o r f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n - i d e n f i c a t i o n of e m p l o y e r s for h o n o r a r i u m s etc. P e r s o n a l d a t a o n f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d, n a t i o n a l i t y a n d e d u c a t i o n w a s e s s e n t i a l for P I S A. T h e d a t a w o u l d be p r e p r o c e s s e d in S t o c k h o l m a n d s t o r e d on a m a g n e t i c t ape. C o p i e s of t h e s t o r e d d a t a w o u l d b e p r i n t e d on f o r m s w h i c h w o u l d b e a c c e s s i b l e to the e m p l o y e e s. T h e m a g n e t i c t a p e w o u l d b e m a i l e d to M u n i c h. T h e d a t a w o u l d not b e c o m m u n i c a t e d t o t h i r d p a r t i e s. P r e p a r i n g the d e c i s i o n, the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n r e q u e s t e d c o m m e n t s f r o m s e v e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s of e m p l o y e e s. T h e n a t i o n a l u n i o n (L a n d s o r g a n i t a t i o n e n i S v e r i g e ) r e s p o n d e d n e g a t i v e l y, w i t h o u t a n y d e l i b e r a t i o n a p a r t from a r e f e r e n c e to m e m b e r u n i o n s w n i c h a l s o h e l d a n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e. A n o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n (S A C O / S R ) h a d a r a t h e r n o n c o m m i t t e n t a t t i t u d e, c o m m e n t i n g t h a t " a b s o l u t e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n " w a s i m p o s s i b l e, a n d t h a t t h e d e s i r e o n Siem e n ' s b e h a l f of u s i n g P I S A f o r e m p l o y e e p l a n n i n g w a s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e. T h e c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of o f f i c e a n d c o m m e r c e (TCO) g a v e a r a t h e r l e n g t h y c o m m e n t. T C O m a i n t a i n e d that the l a c k o f c o n t r o l of s y s t e m s a b r o a d j u s t i f i e d a r e s t r i c t i v e a t t i t u d e f r o m t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n. In c e r t a i n c a s e s, the s i t u a t i o n w o u l d j u s t i f y a d i f f e r e n t d e c i s i o n w h e r e e m p l o y e r a n d e m p l o y e e w e r e e q u a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in an e x p o r t. "A c o n d i t i o n w o u l d in t h e s e c a s e s be, h o w e v e r, that the l o c a l u n i o n s h a d c o o p e r a t i v e d e c i s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to the
39 31 c o n t e n t of t h e r e g i s t e r as a w h o l e a n d on t h e s u b s e t e x p o r t e d a b r o a d. " In t h i s case, T C O r e c o m m e n d e d a r e s t r i c t i v e a t t i t u d e. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n l i c e n s e d t h e l o c a l S w e d i s h s y s t e m f o r the d a t a n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e P I S A s y s t e m in M u n i c h. B u t t h e q u e s t i o n of e x p o r t w a s f o u n d m o r e d i f f i c u l t, a n d is t h e s u b j e c t of d i s c u s s i o n in t h e d e c i s i o n. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e s e d a t a a r e s e n s i t i v e. A n d if this e x p o r t is l i c e n s e d, t h e d e c i s i o n w o u l d b e c o m e a p r e c e d e n t a l s o f o r o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a n i e s. T h e s e t w o e l e m e n t s w e r e p o i n t e d o u t as i m p o r t a n t in t h e a s s e s s m e n t of t h e r i s k of i n f r i n g e m e n t, as w e l l as the l a c k of n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n in G e r m a n y (at t h e t i m e of t h e d e c i s i o n ) a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s. A g a i n the a r g u m e n t o f p o s s i b l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n r e g i s t e r s a b r o a d is m e n t i o n e d. C o n c l u d i n g, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n s t r e s s e s t h e i n t e r e s t s of the e m p l o y e e s, s t a t i n g t h a t o n t h i s b a s i s, o n l y a s u b s e t m i g h t be c o m m u n i c a t e d a b r o a d - w h i c h, h o w e v e r, w a s n o t a c c e p t a b l e to S i e m e n s d u e to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e P I S A s y s t e m. O n t h i s b a s i s, t h e l i c e n s e w a s d e c l i n e d. A n a l y s i n g t h i s c a s e, it w o u l d s e e m v e r y d i f f i c u l t to r e l a t e t h e d e c i s i o n t o p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c m e a s u r e s o r to a q u e s t i o n of n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t. T h e i s s u e of n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y is m e n t i o ned, b u t is g i v e n a p l a c e in t h e a r g u m e n t s i n d i c a t i n g a n o n - d e c i s i v e c h a r a c t e r. It w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t is t h e q u e s t i o n of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. E x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n e d is t h e l a c k of n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, t h o u g h t h e m a j o r p o i n t
40 32 s e e m s to b e the c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e of the o r g a n i z a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g e m p l o y e e s. T h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t o t a l j o b e n v i r o n m e n t in c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h m a n a g e m e n t is c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t in the S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s - a n d S w e d e n h a s l e g i s l a t i o n on p r o c e d u r e s for c o o p e r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s. T h e u n i o n s h a v e a v e r y s t r o n g p o s i t i o n in the g e n e r a l e m p l o y m e n t p o l i c y in s o c i e t y. It m a y b e felt t h a t t h e e x t e n t i o n of the i n t e r e s t in e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n to t h e c o o p e r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s, is e x t e n d i n g t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n i s s u e s t o o far. B u t o u r b a s i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d a t a p r o t e c t i o n i n c l u d e s the i n t e r e s t in a d e q u a c y - t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e d a t a - s u b j e c t to c o - d e t e r m i n e w h i c h d a t a a r e r e l e v a n t to w h a t d e c i s i o n s. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s e x a c t l y to t h e e x p l i c i t i n t e r e s t of the TCO, a n d w h i c h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n m a i n t a i n e d it w o u l d l o s e t h r o u g h an e x p o r t o f data. O n e s h o u l d not d i s r e g a r d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n m i g h t w a n t less b e n e f i c i a r y u s e of t h e s y s t e m t h a n i n d i c a t e d b y t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n b y S i e m e n s. T h i s h a p p e n e d a t a t i m e w h e n t h e G e r m a n p o l i c y of " B e r u f s v e r b o t " w a s m e t w i t h a q u i t e c o n t r o v e r s i a l a t t i t u d e in t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s. T h i s is, h o w e v e r, o u r o w n e l a b o r a t i o n s o nly, w i t h no j u s t i f i c a t i o n in t h e e x p r e s s e d a r g u m e n t s. N e v e r t h e l e s s, it w o u l d s e e m t h a t t h e S i e m e n s c a s e is a n o b v i o u s e x a m p l e of h o w t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n h a s g i v e n p r i o r i t y t o t h e i n t e r e s t of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. (2) T h e T h o r n c a s e T h e T h o r n case, in c o n t r a s t t o the S i e m e n s c a s e, r e p r e s e n t s a t r i v i a l s i t u a t i o n, p e r h a p s i l l u s t r a t i n g b e t t e r t h e t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n n f II C i n n * * i 1 * - J
41 33 d e c i d e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n J a n u a r y 1 4th, (Dnr ). T h o r n H y r - T V A B is a S w e d i s h c o m p a n y a f f i l i t a t e d w i t h T h o r n T e l e v i s i o n R e n t a l s Ltd, S w i n d o n, E n g l a n d. J a n u a r y 10th, 1975 (a p r i o r d e c i s i o n a few d a y s e a r l i e r ), T h o r n S w e d e n w a s g r a n t e d l i c e n s e to o p e r a t e a r e g i s t e r of a p p r o x i m a t e l y c u s t o m e r s. T h e r e g i s t e r c o n t a i n e d - n a m e o f c u s t o m e r - a d d r e s s o f c u s t o m e r - m o d e l o f t e l e v i s o n set - m o n t h l y r e n t a l - c o n t r a c t n u m b e r - p a y m e n t d a t e - i n t a l l a t i o n d a t e - f o r m of p a y m e n t (bank, p o s t etc) - r e n t a l d e b e t s - r e n t a l c r e d i t s - r e n t a l t o t a l P I N s w e r e e x l u d e d f r o m the r e g i s t e r. T h e S w e d i s h c o m p a n y w a s t o o s m a l l t o e m p l o y e f f e c t i v l y t h e i r o w n c o m p u t e r s y s t e m. C o s t s f o r u s i n g t h e s e r v i c e s of a S w e d i s h b u r e a u w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l e c o m p a r e d w i t h u s i n g t h e e x i s t i n g s e r v i c e s in S w i n d o n. A c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h s i s t e r c o m p a n i e s in D e n m a r k, G e r m a n y a n d H o l l a n d f o r u s e of t h e S w i n d o n b u r e a u w a s p l a n n e d. T h e d a t a w e r e r e g i s t e r e d o n t o m a g n e t i c t a p e a n d c o m m u n i c a t e d t o S w i n d o n b y a t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n link. A l l d a t a w e r e in S w e d i s h, a n d t h e S w e d i s h c o m p a n y h e l d i t s e l f f u l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r i n t o u t s in t h e f o r m of p a y m e n t n o t i c e s, a c c o u n t e x t r a c t s etc. N o d a t a w e r e r e t a i n e d a f t e r p r o c e s s i n g b y t h e m o t h e r c o m p a n y. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n n o t e d t h a t t h e c a s e r e l a t e d t o a r a t h e r m o d e s t n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s, w h o w e r e a l l c u s t o m e r s of t h e c o m
42 34 p a n y. T h e p r o c e s s i n g r e l a t e d o n l y to t h e r e n t a l o f t e l e v i s i o n sets, a n d t h e d a t a w e r e n o t v e r y s e n s i t i v e. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e s t r e s s e d that t h e l a c k o f P I N r e d u c e d the r i s k o f m a t c h i n g w i t h o t h e r s y s t e m s. O n t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s y s t e m w o u l d be o u t s i d e S w e d i s h j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e - t h o u g h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of e x e r c i s i n g a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of c o n t r o l i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h the S w e d i s h c o m p a n y is p o i n t e d out. O n t h i s b a s i s. T h o r n w a s g r a n t e d a license. In t h i s c a s e, t h e i n t e r e s t in n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t is c l e a r l y g i v e n p r i o r i t y o v e r t h e i n t e r e s t in p r o t e c t i o n i s m. T h r o u g h a d e n i a l o f l i c e n s e o n e m i g h t h a v e f o r c e d T h o r n to u s e a m o r e e x p e n s i v e, b u t n a t i o n a l b u r e a u. (3) T h e A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C a s e T h e A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C o m p a n y o p e r a t e s, a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s, the A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C a r d s e r v i c e, a n d is o n e of t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o m p a n i e s w h i c h has v o i c e d c o n c e r n o v e r the r e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w ^. T h i s c a s e c o n c e r n e d the e x p o r t of d a t a o n c a r d m e m b e r s f r o m t h e S w e d i s h a f f i l i t a t e, A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C o m p a n y A k t i e b o l a g. It w a s d e c i d e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n o n A u g u s t 2nd, (Dnr ). T h e r e g i s t e r in q u e s t i o n c o n t a i n e d d a t a on h o l d e r s of A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s C a r d s in S w e d e n a n d o t h e r S c a n d i n a v i a n c o u n t r i e s (the c a r d s y s t e m w a s at t h a t t i m e o p e r a t e d f r o m S w e d e n ). T h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a w a s c o n t a i n e d in t h e register: P I N n a m e ad d rp R «i
43 35 - a c c o u n t n u m b e r - d e b i t e d s u m - p a y e d s u m T h e r e g i s t e r w a s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o s u b - r e g i s t e r s, o n e f o r d o l l ar c a r d s a n d o n e f o r S w e d i s h c r o w n c a r d s. A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s w a n t e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h e s e d a t a ( e x c e p t for t h e PIN) b y t e r m i n a l to B r i g h t o n, E n g l a n d, w h e r e t h e a c c o u n t s w e r e p r o c e s s e d. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n f o u n d t h e n u m b e r of d a t a - s u b j e c t s "not u n u s u a l l y l a r g e " a n d t h e d a t a o f l i m i t e d s e n s i t i v i t y. It f o u n d n o r e a s o n to f e a r u n a u t h o r i z e d a c c e s s a b r o a d, a n d g r a n t e d the l i c e n s e. A s a c o n d i t i o n, d a t a o n c u s t o m e r s w a s t o b e d e l e t e d a f t e r t h r e e y e a r s. In t h i s c a s e, t h e n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t i n t e r e s t is l e s s p r o n o u n c e d t h a n in the T h o r n c a s e, as t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n n o r e a l a l t e r n a t i v e to a p r o c e s s i n g in B r i g h t o n. N e v e r t h e l e s s, if any p r i n c i p l e h a s b e e n g i v e n p r i o r i t y, it m u s t h a v e b e e n t his. A n d in t h i s c a s e, t h e c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n i n t e r e s t is e v i d e n t. T h o u g h t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n p o i n t s o u t t h a t the d a t a e x p o r t e d is o f a n o n - s e n s i t i v e n a t u r e, t h e w h o l e c a s e s h o u l d b e a s s e s s e d in t h e c o n t e x t of c r e d i t r e p o r t i n g. A n d t h e t r a c k l e f t b y a c r e d i t c a r d w i l l u s u a l l y d i s c l o s e q u i t e a bit o f a p e r s o n ' s h a b i t s a n d p r e f e r e n c e s. T h o u g h t h e s e d a t a a r e c o m m u n i c a t e d f r o m t h e p o i n t o f s a l e s to A m e r i c a n E x p r e s s, a n d a r e n o t s u b j e c t to t h e S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, it c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c o n t e x t w i t h i n w h i c h t h e d e c i s i o n s h o u l d be a s s e s s e d. A n d t h e r e f o r e t h i s c a s e m a y b e c o n s t r u e d as an e x a m p l e w h e r e the p r i n c i p l e of n a t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t is g i v e n p r i o r i t y o v e r the p r i n c i p l e of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n.
44 36 (4) The PKbank case T h i s c a s e w a s d e c i d e d b y t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d S e p t e m b e r 15th, (D n r ). O n e o f the m a j o r S w e d i s h b a n k s, P o s t - o c h K r e d i t b a n k e n, g e n e r a l l y k n o w n as " P K b a n k e n ", a p p l i e d for l i c e n s e in o r d e r to p r o c e s s t h e i r r e g i s t e r o f d e p o s i t s. T h e m a j o r i t y of t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s w e r e f o r e i g n b a n k s a n d o t h e r l e g a l p e r s o n s - n o t b e i n g s u b j e c t to the S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. A s m a l l n u m b e r of p h y s i c a l p e r s o n s w e r e a l s o i n c l u d e d - at the t i m e of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o n l y s e v e n. T h e r e g i s t e r i n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s of data: - N a m e a n d a d d r e s s of c l i e n t - T y p e o f t r a n s a c t i o n ( d e p o s i t o r loan) - T y p e o f f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y - S u m - I n t e r e s t r a t e for d e p o s i t a n d loan - D u r a t i o n of t r a n s a c t i o n - S u m o f i n t e r e s t, ie s u m on t h e d a y of p a y m e n t - I n s t r u c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g p a y m e n t - S u m m a r i e s of all c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s w i t h c e r t a i n c l i e n t w i t h d e t a i l s of as i n d i c a t e d a b o v e - S u m m a r i e s of l i q u i d i t y a n d p e r i o d e s for the banks' o w n u s e w i t h o u t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of c l i e n t s T h e r e p o r t s b a s i c to the r e g i s t e r w a s to be m a i l e d o r t e l e x e d e a c h F r i d a y a n d t w o d a y s b e f o r e t h e l a s t b a n k i n g d a y of the m o n t h to t h e P K b a n k 1s d a u g h t e r b a n k in L u x e m b o u r g. H e r e the d a t a w e r e e n t e r e d i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d s y s t e m s h a r e d b e t w e e n t h e d a u g h t e r b a n k a n d a n o t h e r b a n k, u n d e r s u p e r v i s i o n of the p e r s o n e l l of the d a u g h t e r b a n k. T h e p r o c e s s i n g r e s u l t e d in a n u m b e r o f lists, s o m e p r o d u c e d e a c h w e e k, s o m e e a c h m o n t h. T h e s e WPTP i mm
45 37 t h e c o m p u t e r i z e d f i l e s w e r e d e l e t e d. It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d a t e m p o r a r y one, l a s t i n g for an e s t i m a t e d p e r i o d o f t w o y e a r s, w h i le t h e P K b a n k in S t o c k h o l m e s t a b l i s h e d its o w n c o m p u t e r i z e d s y s t e m. In a s s e s s i n g t h e c a s e, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d f o u n d no t h r e a t to t h e i n f r i n g e m e n t o f d a t a p r o t e c t i o n. T h e b o a r d p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the n u m b e r o f p e r s o n a l d a t a i t e m s w a s s m a l l, a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e c o m p u t e r i z e d o n l y for t h e p e r i o d n e c e s s a r y for t h e p r o d u c t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d l i s t s. A s t h e b a n k h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e n e e d w a s t e m p o r a r y, the l i c e n s e w a s l i m i t e d to l a s t i n g u n t i l D e c e m b e r 3 1st, ( s l i g h t l y m o r e t h a n t w o y e a r s ). In a s s e s s i n g t h i s c a s e, o n e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h i s r e g i s t e r w a s a t y p i c a l as a r e g i s t e r o f p e r s o n a l d a t a in t h e t e r m s of the S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. O n l y a v e r y s m a l l n u m b e r o f p h y s i c a l p e r s o n s w e r e i n c l u d e d - a n d t h e c o n t e x t w o u l d s e e m to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e a p p e a r e d as f i n a n c e r s r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s. O n e c e r t a i n l y is w i t h i n an a r e a w h e r e t r a d i t i o n a l " p r i v a c y " c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w o u l d n o t w e i g h h e a v i l y. L o o k i n g t o w a r d s t h e i n t e r e s t s i d e n t i f i e d as a b a s i s f o r the a n a l y s i s, o n e w i l l s e e t h a t t h e s e d a t a - s u b j e c t s a r e d e f i n i t e l y o f f e r e d e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. T h o u g h b r i e f l y p r o c e s s e d a b r o a d, the d a t a s t i l l a r e w i t h i n t h e s a m e S w e d i s h o r g a n i z a t i o n, t h e r e a r e a d e q u a t e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s t a k e n a b r o a d, a n d t h e u s e a n d s t o r a g e of t h e d a t a t a k e s p l a c e in S w e d e n. T h e p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c i n t e r e s t s a r e small, as t h i s is a t e m p o r a r y m e a s u r e of a S w e d i s h c o m p a n y u s i n g a f f i l i t a t e d s e r v i c e s a b r o a d. N e v e r t h e l e s s it is a c a s e w h e r e a f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u is g i v e n n o t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t. In c o n t r a s t to the t h r e e o t h e r c a s e s, t h i s d e c i s i o n c o n c e r n s a S w e d i s h p a r e n t c o m p a n y c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h a f o r e i g n a f f i l i a t e d c o m p a n y. T h i s m a y m a k e a d i f f e r e n c e in r e s p e c t of the i n t e r e s t
46 38 o f p r o t e c t i o n i s m - b u t as w e h a v e seen, t h i s i n t e r e s t h a s not b e e n p r e s e n t in t h e o t h e r c a s e s.
47 I m p o r t of d a t a It is o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d t h a t t h e S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n - as i n d e e d m o s t n a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n s - r e g u l a t e s o n l y t he e x p o r t of data, n o t t h e i m p o r t of d a t a. T h e r e a s o n is q u i t e o b v i o u s - t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s is g e n e r a l l y b a s e d o n the i n t e r e s t in e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. I m p o r t of d a t a i m p l i e s t h a t f o r e i g n e r s w i l l p o s s i b l y e n j o y t h e p r o t e c t i o n d e s i g n e d f o r n a t i o n a l s - but t h i s c r e a t e s n o p o l i c y i s s u e. H o w e v e r, it m a y be m e n t i o n e d t h a t a c o u p l e o f l i c e n s e s w h e r e i m p o r t of d a t a t a k e p l a c e, h a v e b e e n d i s c l o s e d. O n e s u c h l i c e n s e c o n c e r n s t h e W H O C o l l a b o r a t i o n C e n t e r on I n t e r n a t i o n a l D r u g M o n i t o r i n g ( d e c i d e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d o n M a r c h 8th, (Dnr ). T h e s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d to r e p o r t on s i d e - e f f e c t s of m e d i c a m e n t s. T h i s i n c l u d e s r e p o r t s f r o m n a t i o n a l W H O c e n t e r s - a l l t o g e t h e r 22 c e n t e r s, a n d at t h e t i m e of the a p p l i c a t i o n, a p p r o x i m a t e l y r e p o r t s w e r e p a r t of t h e s y s t e m. T h r o u g h a r e f e r e n c e n u m b e r t h e o r i g i n a l r e p o r t m a y be i d e n t i f i e d, b e i n g kept in p a p e r form. In t h i s o r i g i n a l, i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l g e n e r a l l y b e i d e n t i f i e d. T h e s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d to b e a c c e s s e d b y t e r m i n a l s, a n d at t h e t i m e o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n, o n e s u c h t e r m i n a l w a s l o c a t e d at W H O i n G e n e v a. In r e s p e c t t o t h i s c a s e, t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d f o u n d t h a t its e s t a b l i s h m e n t h a d b e e n d e c i d e d b y the g o v e r n m e n t, a n d that it w o u l d not h a v e a u t h o r i t y u n d e r t h e act t o r e f u s e l i c e n s e. T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n B o a r d m a y, h o w e v e r, in s u c h c a s e s d e c i d e o n t h e d e t a i l s of the o p e r a t i o n o f t h e r e g i s t e r, a n d a n u m b e r
48 40 o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w e r e m a d e in t h i s r e s p e c t. A s p e c i a l n o t e w a s m a d e of the r e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows, w h i c h w o u l d t a k e e f f e c t in c a s e d a t a w e r e e x p o r t e d in an i d e n t i f i a b le f o r m f r o m t h e r e g i s t e r. A s e c o n d c a s e c o n s e r n s the S w e d i s h s e r v i c e b u r e a u D a t e m a - l e t t e r o f M a r c h 27th, 1981 (Dnr ). T h i s b u r e a u a l s o s e r v e s N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s, a n d the D a t a I n s p e c t i o n r e m i n d s D a t e m a t h a t r e g i s t e r s, for i n s t a n c e in t h e f o r m of p e r s o n a l a c c o u n t s, a n d p r o c e s s e d on a b u r e a u c o n t r a c t for N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s, b e c o m e a r e g i s t e r in S w e d e n a n d s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e. A n d in o r d e r to r e e x p o r t t h e r e g i s t e r, D a t e m a r e q u i r e d a l i c e n s e as w e l l. A s p e c i a l s t a n d a r d m e t h o d w a s s u g g e s t e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n. D a t e m a is p a r t of o u r c a s e file, a n d w e w i l l r e t u r n to t h i s c a s e t h e r e. A t t h i s p o i n t w e p o i n t o u t the fact t h a t t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n m a y s o m e t i m e s w o r k c o n t r a r y to the i n t e r e s t s of the n a t i o n a l b u r e a u. A s s u b j e c t to a r a t h e r s t r i c t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, t h e i r c o m p e t i t i v e a b i l i t y t o w a r d s f o r e i g n b u r e a u x m a y b e r e d u c e d. T h i s is the o p p o s i t e e f f e c t i m p l i e d by t h e c r i t i c s of E u r o p e a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n - b u t does, of c o u r s e, o n l y a p p l y for t h o s e b u r e a u x t r y i n g to o p e r a t e on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t.
49 41 4. D e n m a r k 4. 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n R e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s in t h e D a n i s h l e g i s l a t i o n is m u c h m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e t h a n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e g u l a t i o n in t h e S w e d i s h (and N o r w e q i a n ) l e g i s l a t i o n. D e n m a r k h a s t w o s t a t u t e s, o n e for the p r i v a t e a n d o n e f o r t h e p u b l i c s e c tor. O n l y the p r i v a t e s e c t o r l é g i s l a t i o n c o n t r o l s t r a n s n a t i o nal d a t a f l o w s d i r e c t l y, a n d is o b v i o u s l y of m o s t i n t e r e s t in o u r c o n t e x t. L i c e n s e of t h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e Au'-hority is r e q u i r e d o n l y in t w o c a s e s ( p r i v a t e s e c t o r a c t s e c t 21): (1) if t h e d a t a a r e c o l l e c t e d in D e n m a r k for i n c l u s i o n in a s y s t e m s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e ( c : e d i t r e p o r t i n g or b l a c k l i s t i n g ), o r s e n s i t i v e d a t a a r e c o l l e c t e d for i n c l u s i o n in a f o r e i g n r e g i s t e r ; or (2) e x p o r t of a r e g i s t e r a s s u c h f o r p r o c e s s i n g a b r o a d, if t h e r e g i s t e r i n c l u d e s s e n s i t i v e d.ita. In a d d i t i o n, t h e e x p o r t e r in t h e l a t t e r c a s e is o b l i g e d by c o n t r a c t t o e s t a b l i s h a d e q u a t e s e c u r i t y in t h e f o r e i g n b u r e a u ( p r i v a t e s e c t o r a c t s e c t 7) - a f o r m of e x p o r t o f D a n i s h s t a n d a r d s t h r o u g h c o n t r a c t. A l s o, a D a n i s h s e r v i c e b u r e a u s h o u l d n o t e x p o r t r e g i s t e r s for p r o c e s s i n g a b r o a d w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e o w n e r of tlie r e g i s t e r ( p r i v a t e s e c t o r a c t s e c t 20). F i n a l l y, o n e s h a l l n o t e a n e g a t i v i ai e c of D a n i s h law ( p r i v a t e s e c t o r a c t s e c 21(2)) - e v e n if a r e g i s t e r includc-s s e n s i t i v e data, n< l i c e n s e is r e q u i r e ] w i t h r e s p e c t
50 42 "... t o a r e g i s t e r w h i c h is f o u n d in D e n m a r k s o l e l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e of u n d e r g o i n g e l e c t r o n i c d a t a p r o c e s s i n g ". T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t if a D a n i s h b u r e a u is p r o c e s s i n g r e g i s t e r s f or a c l i e n t in a n o t h e r c o u n t r y, a n d t h i s r e g i s t e r i n c l u d e s s e n s t i v e d a t a, the i m p o r t, p r o c e s s i n g a n d e x p o r t m a y t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t t r i g g e r i n g o f f a n y c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s. T h i s m a y be c o m p a r e d to t h e s i t u a t i o n in S w e d e n, w h e r e in this s i t u a t i o n t h e r e g i s t e r w o u l d b e c o m e s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e u n d e r S w e d i s h law. T h u s, t h e D a n i s h l e g i s l a t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t has f o u n d a f l e x i b l e s o l u t i o n e c o u r a g i n g the n a t i o n a l s e r v i c e i n d u s t r y - w h i c h m a y p e r h a p s b e s e e n as a m e a s u r e to m a k e the n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x m o r e c o m p e t i t i v e o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t. L o o k i n g at t h i s set of r e g u l a t i o n in the p e r s p e c t i v e of o u r i n t e r e s t, w e s e e that p r o t e c t i o n i s m is h a r d l y a m a j o r c a u s e b e h i n d t h e r u l e s. O n l y in the c a s e s w h e r e r e g i s t e r s c o n t a i n s e n s i t i v e d a t a a r e t h e r e r e s t r i c t i o n s on the u s e of f o r e i g n b u r e a u x - a n d o b v i o u s l y t h i s w i l l be a t y p i c a l c a s e in w h i c h t he e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a c e n t r a l p o i n t. T h i s is e v e n m o r e so w i t h r e s p e c t to r e g i s t e r s for c r e d i t r e p o r t i n g a n d b l a c k l i s t i n g - t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s h e r e o b v i o u s l y m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to a v o i d e s c a p e f r o m D a n i s h j u r i s d i c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l t h r o u g h i n t e r n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o c e s s i n g. T h e c l a u s e s for i m p l e m e n t i n g s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s t h r o u g h c o n t r a c t is a l s o a d e v i c e f o r e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. T y p i c a l l y, n o l i c e n s e a n d n o r e s t r i c t i o n w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y in D e n m a r k for u s i n g f o r e i g n s e r v i c e s. In t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e, it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d that t h e r e e x i s t few l e g a l p r e c e d e n t s on t h i s p o i n t.
51 C o l l e c t i o n of d a t a in D e n m a r k S u c h c o l l e c t i o n is s u b j e c t t o l i c e n s e in t h r e e c a s e s : If the d a t a is t o b e i n c l u d e d i n t o a f o r e i g n s y s t e m w i t h t h e p u r p o s e of - c r e d i t r e p o r t i n g, or - b l a c k l i s t i n g, or - a f o r e i g n s y s t e m c o n t a i n i n g s e n s i t i v e data. O b v i o u s l y t h i s r e g u l a t i o n h a s a p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t o n t h e u s e of f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x, as l i c e n s e w o u l d h a v e to be o b t a i n e d for t h e D a n i s h c l i e n t if t h e f o r e i g n s y s t e m h a d o n e of t h e t w o q u a l i f i e d p u r p o s e s, o r if the d a t a t o b e i n c l u d e d w e r e of a s e n s i t i v e n a t u r e. T h i s r e m a i n s, h o w e v e r, o n l y a p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t. T h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y h a d (by 1980) r e c e i v e d no a p p l i c a t i o n f o r s u c h a c t i v i t i e s. A n u m b e r o f r e q u e s t s w a s m a d e b y c i t i z e n s on t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e i r p e r s o n a l d a t a in f o r e i g n m a i l o r d e r s y s t e m s. T h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y f o u n d t h a t t h e s e d a t a g e n e r a l ly h a d b e e n b o u g h t t h r o u g h a D a n i s h a g e n c y, an a c t i v i t y b e i n g in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h D a n i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n.
52 E x p o r t of s e n s i t i v e r e g i s t e r s In t h e s p e c i a l c a s e w h e r e a r e g i s t e r of a s e n s i t i v e n a t u r e is e x p o r t e d for p r o c e s s i n g a b r o a d, a l i c e n s e is r e q u i r e d. A l s o in t h i s r e s p e c t, the D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y l a c k s d e c i s i o n s. A c a s e m a y be m e n t i o n e d in w h i c h t h e S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n i n f o r m e d the D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y o f t h e i r l i c e n s i n g of t h e p r o c e s s i n g of a r e g i s t e r on D a n i s h e m p l o y e e s at a S w e d i s h b u r e a u ( Å r s b e r e t n i n g :91). T h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y i n v e s t i g a t e d this c a s e, a n d f o u n d t h a t the D a n i s h c l i e n t w.?s an o r g a n i z a t i o n of e m p l o y e e s. In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h p r i v a t e s e c t o r act sect 7, t h i s c l i e n t h a d c o n t r a c t e d f o r s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s, w h i c h w e r e f o u n d a d e q u a t e, a n d p o i n t e d a l s o to t h e S w e d i s h l i c e n s e as a g u a r a n t e e of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. T h e r e g i s t e r d i d not c o n t a i n s e n s i t i v e d a t a e l e m e n t s, a n d the b u s i n e s s t r a n s a c t i o n w a s in p e r f e c t a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e D a n i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n.
53 S e r v i c e b u r e a u x By 1980, t h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y h a d i d e n t i f i e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 o r g a n i z a t i o n s e n g a g e d in a c t i v i e s as c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e b u r e a u x a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e r m s of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n. Of t h e s e o n l y h a l f w e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i t h the m a i n p u r p o s e of d a t a p r o c e s s i n g f o r t h i r d p a r t i e s. A c c o r d i n g to t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r act s e c t 20, a r e g i s t e r m a y n o t be p r o c e s s e d a b r o a d b y t h e b u r e a u u n l e s s p e r m i s s i o n f r o m the o w n e r (ie the c l i e n t ) is s e c u r e d. T o w h a t e x t e n t t h i s t a k e s p l a c e c a n n o t be d e r i v e d for i n f o r m a t i o n h e l d at t h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y, as a c a s e w o u l d be b r o u g h t t o t h e i r n o t i c e o n l y w h e n e i t h e r t h e r e g i s t e r c o n t a i n e d s e n s i t i v e data a n d t h e r e f o r e the e x p o r t w o u l d r e q u i r e a l i c e n s e ( a b o v e at (2)), or t h e o w n e r f o u n d t h a t t h e b u r e a u v i o l a t e d t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e act. N o s u c h c a s e s h a v e b e e n found. T h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y has, h o w e v e r, m a d e a s t a t e m e n t on t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the s t a t u t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s of c o n s e n t ( A r s m e l d i n g : ) : "T h e s t a t u t e h a s not l a i d d o w n v e r y f o r m a l p r o c e d u r e s to t h e c o n s e n t w h i c h the o w n e r o f t h e r e g i s t e r is t o g i v e b e f o r e s t o r a g e o r p r o c e s s i n g b y o t h e r b u r e a u x or a b r o a d m a y t a k e p l a c e. A n o r a l c o n s e n t w i l l a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e s u f f i c e n t, b u t in r e s p e c t t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of e v i d e n c e, o n e s h o u l d g i v e s u c h a c o n s e n t in a w r i t t e n form. In a d d i t i o n o n e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r t h e c o n s e n t h a s to b e c o n c r e t e, ie w h e t h e r t h e o w n e r of t h e r e g i s t e r h a v e to c o n s e n t t o p r o c e s s i n g at a c e r t a i n b u r e a u o r to t h e s t o r a
54 46 g e of c o p i e s at a c e r t a i n p l a c e. W h e n s t o r i n g o r p r o c e s s i n g of r e g i s t e r s b y o t h e r s in the c o u n t r y, a g e n e r a l c o n s e n t w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t to s a t i s f y the s t a t u t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s. But w h e n s t o r i n g or p r o c e s s i n g t a k e s p l a c e a b r o a d, the o w n e r s h o u l d i n c l u d e a s p e c i f i c a t i o n of the n a m e a n d a d d r e s s of t h e f o r e i g n b u r e a u in q u e s t i o n." T h u s o n e w i l l f i n d h e r e a s l i g h t p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c taint, as the r e q u i r e m e n t s for c o n s e n t a r e s o m e w h a t m o r e s p e c i f i c w i t h r e s p e c t to f o r e i g n t h a n n a t i o n a l b u r e a u x. T h i s, h o w e v e r, s e e m s to h a v e b e e n d o n e m a i n l y t o f a c i l i t a t e the o w n e r ' s c o n t r o l w i t h h i s o w n r e g i s t e r, a n d w o u l d s e e m to be a m i n o r p o i n t in the c o n t r o l o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows.
55 C o n c l u s i o n A s the l e g i s l a t i v e b a c k g r o u n d l e a d s us to b e l i e v e, l i t t l e is to be f o u n d in t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e D a t a S u r v e i l l a n c e A u t h o r i t y on t h e c o n t r o l of t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s. It w o u l d s e e m s a f e to c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e i m p a c t o n t h i s f l o w h a s b e e n m i n o r, a n d c e r t a i n l y t h a t n o p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c u s e of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n is to be found.
56 48 5. N o r w a y O n e o f t h e m o r e o u t s p o k e n c o n f r o n t a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e c r i t i c s of E u r o p e a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n, is r e l a t e d to the N o r w e g i a n l e g i s l a t i o n. T h e r e a s o n m a y be t h a t N o r w a y, as o n e of t h e few c o u n t r i e s so far, h a s i n c l u d e d c o n t r o l o f d a t a a l s o on l e g a l p e r s o n s in its d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, t h e r e b y e x t e n d i n g t h e s c o p e of t h e l e g i s l a t i o n b e y o n d t h o s e l i m i t s w h i c h a r e r e a s o n a b l y r e l a t e d to w h a t is c o n s i d e r e d " p e r s o n a l p r i v a c y ". T h i s m a y be, h o w e v e r, m a i n l y a w o r d - p l a y, s i n c e the E u r o p e a n l e g i s l a t i o n is n o t so m u c h r e l a t e d to the t r a d i t i o n a l " p e r s o n a l p r i v a c y " as t o a m o r e p r o c e d u r a l " d a t a p r o t e c t i o n ". T h e c o n t f r o n t a t i o n w a s i n i t i a t e d b y C o n g r e s s i o n a l R e c o r d N o 53 for M a y 1982, in w h i c h s e n a t o r H a r t c i t e d a n a r t i c l e by A r t h u r A B u s h k i n, a f o r m e r s p e c i a l a s s i s t a n t for i n f o r m a t i o n p o l i c y at T h e N a t i o n a l T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d I n f o r m a t i o n A d m i n i s t r a tion, a n d w h o a l s o h a s t a k e n p a r t in t h e O E C D c o m m i t t e e s on t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s. H i s a r t i c l e a p p e a r e d in L o s A n g e l e s T i m e s, M a y 3rd, 1 982, a n d c i t i n g N o r w e g i a n l e g i s l a t i o n as an e x a m p l e of a l e g i s l a t i o n b e i n g u s e d to r e d u c e t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows. R e s p o n d i n g to t his, t h e d i r e c t o r of the N o r w e g i a n D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e s t r o n g l y r e f u t e d t h a t any p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c f e a t u r e s are to be f o u n d in t h e N o r w e g i a n law or p r a c t i c e ( A f t e n p o s t e n A u g u s t 10th, ). He t a k e s the p o s i t i o n as d e m o n s t r a t e d in e a r l i e r i n t e r v e n t i o n s on h i s p art, t h a t no e v i d e n c e c a n be i d e n t i f i e d for s u c h an a s s e s s m e n t. In a r e s p o n s e to a r e p o r t p u b l i s h e d b y t h e U S S p e c i a l T r a d e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e of M a r c h 27th, 1981, S e i p s t a t e s q u i t e b l u n t l y (1981:33)
57 49 "... it is s u f f i c i e n t to s t a t e f i r m l y t h a t n o p r o t e c t i o n - s it m o t i v e s e x i s t f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f N o r w e g i a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. S u c h m o t i v e s a r e n e i t h e r i n d i c a t e d b y t h e l e g i s l a t i v e h i s t o r y o f t h e A c t n o r b y t h e w a y it h a s m a d e i t s e l f f e l t in p r a c t i c e. " N o r w a y h a s in p r i n c i p l e q u i t e a s t r i c t r e g u l a t i o n o f e x p o r t of d a t a (but, a g i a n - o n l y o n e x p o r t - as t o i m p o r t t h e r e a r e no r e s t r i c t i o n s ), c f r s e c t 36. In p r i n c i p l e a l i c e n s e is r e q u i r e d if d a t a is to be i n c l u d e d i n t o a s y s t e m w h i c h w o u l d h a v e r e q u i r e d l i c e n s e p r o v i d e d t h a t it h a d b e e n u n d e r N o r w e g i a n j u r i s d i c t i o n, or t h e e x p o r t o f r e g i s t e r s a r e e i t h e r c o m p u t e r i z e d or c o n t a i n s e n s i t i v e d a t a. T h i s s t r i c t r u l e has, h o w e v e r, b e e n r e d u c e d to a d u t y o f g i v i n g n o t i c e to t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e t h r o u g h r e g u l a t o r y law p u r s u a n t to s e c t 36. T h e n u m b e r o f s u c h n o t i c e s h a v e b e e n r a t h e r s m a l l. B y S e p t m e - b e r 20th, 1982 o n l y 34 n o t i c e s w e r e r e g i s t e r e d at t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. In n o n e of t h e s e c a s e s t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e h a d u s e d i t s a u t h o r i t y t o f o r b i d t h e f low, a n d o n l y in t w o c a s e s its a u t h o r i t y h a s b e e n u s e d t o s e t m o r e d e t a i l e d c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r a b r o a d. T h i s a s p e c t h a s n o t b e e n m e n t i o n e d in t h e f i r s t t w o a n n u a l r e p o r t s of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e (for a n d 1981). T h e t w o c a s e s in w h i c h c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r a b r o a d w e r e set, c o n c e r n e d S m o k e n d e r s a n d IBM. S m o k e n d e r s N o r g e A / S is a c o m p a n y s p e c i a l i z i n g in c o u r s e s f a c i l i t a t i n g s m o k e r s to s t o p s m o k i n g. In o r d e r to c u s t o m i z e t h e i r s e r v i c e s, a n u m b e r of d a t a o n t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e c o l l e c t e d, a n d this r e g i s t e r w a s g i v e n l i c e n s e u n d e r N o r w e g i a n law. It c o n t a i n e d a n u m b e r o f i n t i m a t e a n d s e n s i t i v e data:
58 50 - r e g i s t r a t i o n n u m b e r - name - a d d r e s s - t e l e p h o e - d a t e of b i r t h - h e i g h t - w e i g h t - sex - m a r t i a l s t a t u s - c h i l d r e n - job, e m p l o y e r, p o s i t i o n - e d u c a t i o n - h o b b i e s - c o n s u m a t i o n of t o b a c c o - b r a n d of t o b a c c o - age - w h e n s t a r t e d s m o k i n g, n u m b e r of y e a r s - e a r l i e r a t t e m p t s to s t o p - h a b i t s of s p o u s e, if any, a n d v i e w on s m o k i n g o f o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s - s m o k i n g as c a u s e of c a r a c c i d e n t s - s m o k i n g as c a u s e of f i r e s - r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f f o r m e r p a r t i c i p a n t s - o p t i o n a l : r e l i a n c e on drugs, a l c h o h o l or o t h e r s t i m u l a n t s - d a t e o f l a s t r o e n g t e n test, a d v i c e of s m o k i n g a n d s t o p p i n g - w e e k l y c o n s u m a t i o n of c o f f e e, tea a n d c o l a - a s s e s s m e n t of o w n w e i g h t - m a y i n f o r m a t i o n on r e s u l t be c o m m u n i c a t e d to d e n t i s t or m e d i c a l d o c t o r - n a m e a n d a d d r e s s In t h e l i c e n s e, s e c t 4.3, t h e s e d a t a w e r e p e r m i t t e d c o m m u n i c a t e d t o the p a r e n t c o m p a n y in the US, but o n l y in a n o n y m i z e d v e r s i o n for the p r o d u c t i o n of s t a t i s t i c s. A l s o, a w r i t t e n c o n s e n t f r o m the d a t a s u b j e c t w a s r e q u i r e d for a n y c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f d a t a to t h i r d D a r t i p s.
59 51 T h i s w o u l d s e e m to be q u i t e a t r i v i a l e x a m p l e, i n t e r e s t i n g m a i n l y d u e to t h e e x t e n s i v e a n d i n - d e p t h r e g i s t r a t i o n of p e r s o n a l data. T h e r e s t r i c t i o n o n t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s w o u l d n o t s e e m s e v e r e - t h e h o m e c o m p a n y r e q u i r e d d a t a o n l y f o r s t a t i s t i c a l p u r p o s e s, a n d t h e e x c l u s i o n of i d e n t i f y i n g e l e m e n t s w o u l d t h e n s e e m to b e a m i n i m u m a c t i o n t a k e n t o s e c u r e e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n of t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s. T h e s e c o n d c a s e c o n c e r n e d n o t i c e f r o m I B M ( N o r w a y ) A / S on t r a n s f e r o f d a t a o n e m p l o y e e s to t h e h e a d o f f i c e in P a r i s. T h e c a s e is q u i t e s i m i l a r to t h e S i e m e n s c a s e m e n t i o n e d f r o m S w e den, b u t t h e p u r p o s e of t h e I B M s y s t e m w a s o n l y t h e p r o d u c t i o n of s t a t i s t i c s. T h e t r a n s f e r w a s n o t e d w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n m a d e e x p l i c i t t h a t the d a t a s h o u l d n o t i n c l u d e i d e n t i f y i n g p a r t i c u l ars. It was, h o w e v e r, a f a c t t h a t t h e N o r w e g i a n s t a f f w a s t o o s m a l l for t h e d e l e t i o n of u n i q u e i d e n t i f y e r s l i k e e m p l o y e e n u m b e r, n a m e a n d P I N to s e c u r e a n o n y m i t y. T h i s i n d i r e c t p o s s i b i l i t y of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w a s, h o w e v e r, a c c e p t e d by t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. A g a i n, t h i s m a y be s e e n as an u n c o m p l i c a t e d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e act. A s t h e p u r p o s e w a s s t a t i s t i c a l, t h e i d e n t i f y e r s w e r e t h o u g h t u n n e c e s s a r y a n d e x c l u d e d in o r d e r t o s t r e n g t h e n e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. F r a n c e, o f c o u r s e, h a s a d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n - a n d p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e l e v e l of p r o t e c t i o n are p r o b a b l y n o t t h e c a u s e for t h e r e s t r i c t i o n. It m a y p e r h a p s be f o u n d in c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e in t h e S i e m e n s c a s e in S w e d e n - s e c u r i n g e m p l o y e e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e c o - d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e u s e o f the d ata, w h i c h is a c e n t r a l p o i n t in the N o r w e g i a n r e g i m e of e m p l o y e e d a t a. It is o b v i o u s f r o m t h i s r e v i e w t h a t t h e N o r w e g i a n s i t u a t i o n is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a far f r o m r e s t r i c t i v e p o l i c y. T h o u g h the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n o f f e r s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s e v e r e c o n t r o l r e g i m e, t h i s is r e d u c e d to a d u t y o f n o t i f i c a t i o n in r e g u l a t o r y law. T h e s m a l l n u m b e r o f n o t i c e s c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a tes t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f e x p o r t s s u b j e c t to t h e l a w s t i l l
60 52 t a k e s p l a c e w i t h o u t a n o t i c e b e i n g f i l e d w i t h t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. B u t of t h e c a s e s b r o u g h t to the a t t e n t i o n of t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e, n o s e v e r e m e a s u r e s h a v e b e e n t a k e n - a n d t h e t w o c a s e s in w h i c h c o n d i t i o n s h a v e b e e n e x p l i c i t l y f o r m u l a t e d, t h e s e c a n n o t s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e s i s that d a t a f l o w s a r e b e i n g r e d u c e d. O n e m a y i n d e e d be s o m e w h a t c o n c e r n e d that t h e i m p r e s s i o n of h a v i n g i m p o s e d a s t r i c t r e g i m e, c o n v e y e d by the w o r d s of the a c t i t s e l f a n d f o r e i g n c o m m e n t s, m a y h a v e d e f l e c t e d c r i t i c i s m a n d i n t e r e s t s in the p r a c t i c e of t h e law. T h e r e m a y t o d a y be p e r h a p s a r a t h e r t o o l a r g e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the r e g i m e as i m p l i e d b y the s t a t u t e, a n d t h e law in a c t i o n as set o u t b y the r e g u l a t o r y law a n d the p r a c t i c e o f t h e D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. P e r h a p s o n e m o r e n e g a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s h o u l d be e x p r e s s e d. T h e f a c t t h a t the N o r w e g i a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n i n c l u d e s d a t a o n l e g a l p e r s o n s d o e s n o t at a l l s e e m to h a v e h a d a n y i n f l u e n c e on the p r a c t i c e o f the D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e. T h e r e is a l a c k of r e f e r e n c e to of t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e in t h e c a s e s. F i n a l l y, it s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e r e are no i n d i c a t i o n s of t h i s l e n t i e n t p o l i c y to be c h a n g e d in a m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e d i r e c t i o n. O n t h e c o n t r a r y, c u r r e n t s i g n a l s h e r a l d a l i b e r a l i z a t i o n.
61 53 6. T h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y T h e G e r m a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n i n s t i t u t e s the f e d e r a l D a t e n s c h u t z b e a u f t r a g t e r, b u t t h i s o f f i c e h a s a v e r y m o d e s t r o l e w i t h r e s p e c t to the r e g u l a t i o n o f u s e of f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u x. T h e G e r m a n B D S G s e c t 24 s t a t e s t h a t t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l d a t a is a l l o w e d if it s e r v e s a "... c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p o r q u a s i - c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p... p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t o f p e r s o n s w a r r a n t i n g p r o t e c t i o n a r e n o t h a r m e d t h e r e b y ". U s e of a f o r e i g n s e r v i c e b u r e a u w i l l p r e s u m e a c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p, a n d t h e u s e of s u c h a b u r e a u is c o n s e q u e n t l y p e r m i t t e d u n d e r t h e G e r m a n act. T h e o n l y p r o b l e m w o u l d be w h e t h e r t h i s r e d u c e s the p r o t e c t i o n of t h e d a t a s u b j e c t s t o s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t t h e y a r e " h a r m e d t h e r e b y ". O b v i o u s l y, it is t h e i n t e r e s t o f " e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n " w h i c h is g i v e n p r i o r i t y by the G e r m a n l e g i s l a t i o n. O n l y w h e n t h i s i n t e r e s t is r e l e v a n t, r e s t r i c t i o n s m a y b e i m p o s e d o n t h e u s e of f o r e i g n b u r e a u x. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e " l e v e l o f p r o t e c t i o n " in t h e r e l e v a n t c o u n t r y is i m p o r t a n t. T h e f e d e r a l c o m m i s s i o ner, H a n s - P e t e r B u l l, h a s s t a t e d ( : 1 4 ) that t h o u g h c a u t i o n s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d in t h e s e c a s e s, as a r u l e "... i n t e r e s t s w a r r a n t i n g p r o t e c t i o n a r e n o t l i k e l y t o be h a r m e d p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e d a t a c o m m u n i c a t e d a r e l i m i t e d to t h e c u s t o m e r ' s n a m e a n d the f a c t t h a t h e h a s o r d e r e d a s p e c i f i c c o m m o d i t y. " In t h e c a s e of f o r e i g n b u r e a u x, h o w e v e r, m a n y m o r e d a t a w o u l d b e c o m m u n i c a t e d. T h e r e f o r e, t h e G e r m a n l e g i s l a t i o n w i l l be r e s t r i c t i v e w h e n the b u r e a u is l o c a t e d in a j u r i s d i c a t i o n l a c
62 54 k i n g n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. M r B u l l has, h o w e ver, i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s m a y be s o l v e d by c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t s ( lc 14), a c o n t r a c t e n s u r i n g the d a t a s u b j e c t s a b r o a d t h e s a m e p r o t e c t i o n g r a n t e d t h o s e w i t h i n t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c. O n e w i l l r e c o g n i z e t h i s s o l u t i o n a s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t m a d e s t a t u t o r y in t h e D a n i s h law o n d a t a s e c u r i t y. T h e r e w o u l d s e e m in the F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c no g r e a t i n i t a t i v e t o w a r d s an a m e n d m e n t of t h i s r e g u l a t i o n (cfr B u l l : 1 4 ). T h i s r e g u l a t i o n w o u l d a l s o h a r d l y s e e m to be p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c, b u t f i r m l y f o u n d e d on t h e p r i o r i t y of e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n. If e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n is o f f e r e d in the j u r i s d i c t i o n in w h i c h the b u r e a u is l o c a t e d, no r e s t r i c t i o n s a p p l i e s t o the u s e o f t h a t b u r e a u. T h e r e has, h o w e v e r, b e e n o n e i n c i d e n t w h i c h c r e a t e d q u i t e an i m p a c t, a n d w h i c h at t h a t t i m e w a s t h o u g h t to be an e x a m p l e of p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c m e a s u r e s. A n i n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e B u n d e s p o s t o f D e c e m b e r 27th, 1978 a n n o u n c e d t h a t it w a s c l o s i n g d o w n a few i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e a s e d l ines w h i c h d i d n o t c o m p ly w i t h t h e B u n d e s p o s t c u r r e n t s t a n d a r d s. T h e u s e r s w e r e o f f e r e d t h e u s e o f the p u b l i c p a c k e t o r c i r c u i t s w i t c h e d n e t w o r k. T h e i n t e r i m p e r i o d w a s e x t e n d e d u n t i l J a n u a r y 1st, 1982 by a n o t h e r i n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n of A p r i l 2nd, T h e n u m b e r of u s e r s e f f e c t e d by t h i s r e g u l a t i o n w a s 16. E a c h of t h e u s e r s w e r e c o n t a c t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y by the B u n d e s p o s t, a n d b y s p r i n g 1980 a b o u t half of t h e m h a d n e g o t i a t e d a s o l u t i o n. T h i s a c t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e B u n d e s p o s t was, by s o m e o b s e r v e r s, s e e n as u s i n g d a t a p r o t e c t i o n for p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c m e a n s. T h i s o b v i o u s l y is a m i s c o n c e i v e d v i e w. A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the C o m p u t i n g S e r v i c e s A s s o c i a t i o n (UK) s u m m e d up his v i e w in this w a y ( E y e i o n s : 5 ) :
63 55 t h e t w o m o s t p r o f i t a b l e p u b l i c s e r v i c e s. T e l e x a n d t h e p u b l i c s w i t c h e d t e l e p h o n e n e t w o r k, b e c a u s e t r a f f i c is b e i n g d i v e r t e d o n t o t h e m o r e e c o n o m i c p r i v a t e l e a s e d lines. P T T s a r e a l s o l o s i n g c o n t r o l o v e r m u l t i p l e u s e of l e a s e d l i n e s w h i c h c a n b e u s e d for d i r e c t t e r m i n a l - t o - t e r m i n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s or m e s s a g e s w i t c h i n g in v i o l a t i o n of l e a s e d - l i n e s t a r i f f s a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s. M o r e o ver, w h e r e t h e P T T s h a v e i n c u r r e d h u g e e x p e n s e by i n v e s t i n g in n e w p u b l i c n e t w o r k s, t h e y h a v e to f o r c e c u s t o m e r s a w a y f r o m l e a s e d l i n e s o n t o t h e n e t w o r k e i t h e r b y p r i c i n g s t r u c t u r e o r b y r e g u l a t i o n. I b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s is the s i m p l e e c o n o m i c e x p l a i n t a t i o n for t h e p r e s e n t r e s t r i c t i o n o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e a s e d l i n e s in G e r m a n y. " E y e i o n s a l s o s t a t e s t h a t o n e h a s not f o u n d a n y m e m b e r of the C o m p u t i n g S e r v i c e s A s s o c i a t i o n a d m i t t i n g a d v e r s e e f f e c t s of t h e B u n d e s p o s t r e g u l a t i o n. T h i s c a s e d oes, of c o u r s e, i l l u s t r a t e t h a t a n u m b e r of p o s s i b le r e g u l a t o r y m e a s u r e s m a y b e t a k e n w i t h an e f f e c t o n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. It a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t an e f f e c t is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a n i n d i c a t i o n of p r o t e c t i o n i s m. T h e r e g u l a t i o n of l e a s e d l i n e s m a y o b v i o u s l y be u s e d as p r o t e c t i o n i s t i c m e a n s, b u t d o e s n o t - in t h i s c a s e - s e e m to b e u s e d in s u c h a way. I n o u r c o n t e x t, t h e m a i n p o i n t is, h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e B u n d e s p o s t c a s e w a s n o t r e l a t e d t o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n in a n y w a y. It d o e s s t r i c t l y fall o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e of o u r d i s c u s s i o n, a n d is m e n t i o n e d o n l y b e c a u s e t h e d i s c u s s i o n at o n e s t a g e p o i n t e d t h i s o u t as an e f f e c t o f t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n of t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c.
64 56 7. C a s e s t u d i e s In o r d e r to s u p p l e m e n t a n d c o m p l e m e n t the s t u d i e s of p r a c t i c e f r o m the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s, the p r o j e c t c o n t a c t e d t h r e e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f f e r i n g c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y. T h e c a s e s t u d i e s a r e b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n t h r o u g h i n t e r v i e w s, b u t t h e o p i n i o n s a n d d i s c u s s i o n b e l o w do, o f c o r s e, n o t n e c e s s a r y r e f l e c t the v i e w s h e l d by t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o n t a c ted. T h e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d by the o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h t e a m (Dag F r o y s t a d a n d A r n s t e i n Ø d e g å r d ), a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n b e l o w is b a s e d on t h e i r e x t e n s i v e n o t e s. T h e t i m e o f the i n t e r v i e w s w e r e
65 D a t e m a D a t e m a is p a r t o f t h e A x e l J o h n s e n g r o u p, w i t h t h e i r h e a d o f f i c e in S w e d e n. It is b e l i e v e d t o b e o n e of t h e l a r g e r s e r v i c e b u r e a u x in E u r o p e w i t h a t o t a l of e m p l o y e e s a n d an a n n u a l t u r n o v e r (1981) o f m i l l i o n N O K. T h e N o r w e g i a n b r a n c h of D a t e m a w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in w i t h (1981) 26 e m p l o y e e s a n d a t u r n o v e r of 26 m i l l i o n N O K. T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r of s u b s i d i a r i e s a l s o t o the N o r w e g i a n c o m p a n y. D a t e m a s e r v i c e s a n u m b e r o f m a j o r c u s t o m e r s, a m o n g t h e m bank, i n s u r a n c e a n d f i n a n c i a l c o m p a n i e s. O n e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r e d i t c a r d c o m p a n y ( D i n e r ' s C l u b ) is a l s o u s i n g t h e i r s e r v i c e s. A s to t h e N o r w e g i a n b r a n c h, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 95 p e r c e n t of t h e c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t in S t o c k h o l m. T h e N o r w e g i a n b r a n c h c h a n n e l s t h e N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s t h r o u g h t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s w i t h S t o c k h o l m. D a t e m a p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of l i c e n s i n g r e g i s t e r s a n d g i v i n g n o t i c e s o n t r a n s n a t i o n a l t r a n s f e r s r e s t s w i t h t h e c u s t o m e r. In p r a c t i c e, h o w e v e r, t h e b u r e a u h a s t o a s s i s t t h e c u s t o m e r. O n e m a y m e n t i o n t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e of D a t e m a w a s c o m m e n t e d u p o n in a l e t t e r f r o m t h e S w e d i s h D a t a I n s e p c t i o n o f M a r c h 2 7th, (Dnr ). In t h i s l e t t e r, it w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t r e g i s t e r s e s t a b l i s h e d o n b e h a l f of N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s in S w e d e n a r e s u b j e c t to l i c e n s e u n d e r S w e d i s h law, a n d a s p e c i a l s c h e m e w a s s u g g e s t e d, c o m p r i s i n g
66 58 - i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m D a t e m a to N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s on the l i c e n s e s y s t e m, a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n of a l t e r n a t i v e forms, o n e f o r t h e n o r m a l case, a s e c o n d for t h e c a s e w h e n the d a t a w i l l b e r e e x p o r t e d to N o r w a y for f u r t h e r d a t a p r o c e s s i n g ( w h i c h w i l l r e q u i r e l i c e n s e u n d e r s e c t 11 of the S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n ) - a p p l i c a t i o n b y t h e c u s t o m e r, u s i n g t h e f o r m s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e - D a t e m a c o l l e c t s a n d s e n d t h e f o r m s t o t h e S w e d i s h D a t a I n s p e c t i o n - T h e D a t a I n s p e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s, l e v y i n g t h e t a r i f f o n D a t e m a - D a t e m a d i s t r i b u t e s the l i c e n s e s w h e n c o n v e n i e n t, a n d i n c l u d e s t h e t a r i f f in t h e i r i n v o i c e t o t h e c u s t o m e r - N e w c u s t o m e r s a r e p r o c e s s e d in t h e s a m e w a y u n d e r r e f e r e n c e to t h i s l e tter. A f t e r t his, D a t e m a r e p o r t s t h a t a s a t i s f a c t o r y r o u t i n e has b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d. L i k e o t h e r b u r e a u x, D a t e m a a t t e m p t s to m a i n t a i n a g o o d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the D a t a I n s p e c t o r a t e, and h a v e n o n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s. C o m p a r i n g t h e N o r w e g i a n a n d S w e d i s h l e g i s l a t i o n (which are t h o s e t w o d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a c t s w h i c h r e g u l a t e s m o r e d e t a i l e d the t r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a flows) s o m e c o m p l i c a t i o n s h a v e b e e n e x p e r i e n c e d. A s to the d i f f e r e n t r e g i s t e r s i n c l u d e d in an a c c o u n t i n g s y s t e m, a d i f f e r e n c e in S w e d i s h a n d N o r w e g i a n p r a c t i c e i m p l i e d t h a t N o r w e g i a n c u s t o m e r s u s i n g D a t e m a ' s s e r v i c e s w o u l d h a v e to a p p l y (and pay) for a l i c e n s e in S w e d e n, w h i l e c u s t o m e r s of c o m p e t i n g N o r w e g i a n b u r e a u x d i d not h a v e to do t h i s d u e to e x e m p t i o n in N o r w e g i a n r e g u l a t o r y law. A h a r m o n i -
67 59 A s to d a t a s e c u r i t y, D a t e m a f o u n d t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s i d e n t i c a l w i t h that of t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s, a n d r e p o r t e d a l s o that c u s t o m e r s w e r e b e c o m i n g m o r e " s e c u r i t y c o n s c i o u s ". T h e s e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s w e r e n o t p r i m a r i l y m o t i v a t e d b y d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t r a t h e r b y l o n g t e r m c o m p a n y p o l i cy. D a t e m a a l s o r e p o r t e d n o i m p a c t of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n o n the t r a d e in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. O n e had, h o w e v e r, c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g d o m e s t i c s u b s i d a r i e s if r e s t r i c t i o n s w e r e i m p l e m e n t e d. A s to the N o r w e g i a n m a r k e t, D a t e m a w a s m o r e c r i t i c a l to t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m b u r e a u x s p o n s o r e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t or l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s.
68 G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c T h e G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e A / S is a N o r w e g i a n c o m p a n y f u l l y o w n e d by the US c o r p o r a t i o n. U n t i l 1976, the s e r v i c e w a s t e r m e d M a r k III, but is c u r r e n t l y (1982) m a r k e t e d u n d e r t h e t r a d e n a m e G E I S. T h e G E I S o f f e r s all t y p e s of c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. D u e to t h e i r w e l l d e v e l o p e d n e t w o r k s e r v i c e s, t h e G E I S is e s p e c i a l l y o r i - t e n t e d t o w a r d s c u s t o m e r s w i t h g e o g r a p h i c a l l y w i d e s p r e a d a c t i v i t i e s. A s t o t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, n o s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s h a v e a r i s e d, n e i t h e r w i t h r e s p e c t to the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s n o r t o d a t a s u b j e c t s. T h e N o r w e g i a n b r a n c h r e p o r t s t h a t no d a t a s u b j e c t h a s r e q u i r e d a c c e s s to t h e i r o w n f i l e s h e l d b y t h e G E I S. G E I S d o e s, h o w e v e r, k e e p a c l o s e e y e on n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s. W h e n t h e N o r w e g i a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n w a s i n t r o d u c e d, a s t a n d a r d l e t t e r w a s m a i l e d to all c u s t o m e r s on t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e n e w act. S e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s a r e n o t i m p l e m e n t e d to c o m p l y w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t of t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t to be in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h c o m p a n y p o l i c y. N o t r a d e b a r r i e r s w e r e s e e n in the c u r r e n t d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n, b u t G E I S h a d e x p e r i e n c e d p r o b l e m s w i t h r e s p e c t to t a x e s a n d c u s t o m s o n c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s.
69 IB M I n t e r v i e w s w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of I B M d i s c l o s e d s o m e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e S w e d i s h d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n o n t h e i r i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l r e g i s t e r s. E a r l i e r IBM h a d a c e n t r a l r e g i s t e r a l s o in P a r i s, b u t a f t e r t h e S i e m e n s c ase, t h i s w a s d i s c o n t i n u e d. T h e r e m a y be an i n d i c a t i o n of m u l t i n a t i o n a l s t a k i n g t h e s i g n a l s of p r e c e d e n t s a n d d i c o n t i n u i n g an a c t i v i t y w h i c h t h e y f o r e s e e w i l l n o t m e e t t h e a p p r o v a l of data p r o t e c t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s. T h i s a d v e r s e e f f e c t w o u l d t h e n be i n v i s i b l e f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of the d a t a p r o t e c t i o n a g e n c i e s. In t h e S i e m e n s c a s e I B M h a s o b v i o u s l y r e a l i z e d the i m p o r t a n c e of t r a d e u n i o n s. I B M is c l e a r l y c o n c e r n e d o v e r t h e d a t a p r o t e c t i o n i s s u e s, b u t r e p o r t s n o p r o b l e m s in i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s. It has c r e a t e d a c e r t a i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o v e r h e a d, a n d a r e v i e w of i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y h a s t a k e n a n e s t i m a t e d t o t a l of 6 m a n m o n t h s, ie a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 h o u r s p r e a c h o f the r e g i s t e r s in q u e s t i o n. O n e c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e w a s c i t e d f r o m A u s t r i a, w h i c h h a s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n in its d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n. O n e x p o r t, t h e I B M h e a d q u a r t e r h a d t o d e c l a r e t h a t the d a t a w o u l d be r e t u r n e d to A u s t r i a if t h e n a t i o n a l d a t a p r o t e c t i o n w a s i m p a i r e d. T h e m a j o r c o n c e r n of I B M w o u l d s e e m to be t h e e x t e n t i o n of d a t a p r o t e c t i o n to t h e i s s u e o f l e g a l p e r s o n s, w h e r e the p r i n c i p l e o f a c c e s s to o n e ' s o w n f i l e w o u l d s e e m t o b e r a t h e r p r o b l e m a t i c. In c o n c l u s i o n, I B M w o u l d s e e m to m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e d a t a p r o
70 62 t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n has h a d a m i n o r i m p a c t, a n d n o t at a'. 1 on t h e t r a d e in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s.
71 63 L i t e r a t u r e A r s b e r e t n i n q 1980 (1981) R e g i s t e r t i l s y n e t, C o p e n h a g e n. B ing, J o n (1980) " T r a n s n a t i o n a l d a t a f l o w s a n d t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n l e g i s l a t i o n " ; S c a n d i n a v i a n S t u d i e s in L a w B ull, H a n s - P e t e r (1981) " R e g u l a t i o n of t r a n s b o r d e r d a t a flow u n d e r G e r m a n d a t a p r o t e c t i o n act"; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1 / B u r t e n, W a r r e n E (1980) ( u n t i t l e d ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1/22 E y e i o n s, D o u g (1980) " T h e f l o w of d a t a a n d the c o s t of f r e e dom"; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1/5. F r e e m a n, H a r r y (1980) ( u n t i t l e d ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1/11 N a c a m u l i, A l e x a n d e r I (1980) " S W I F T : O b j e c t i v e s, s t a n d a r d i z a tion, a v a i l a b i l i t y, a u d i t a b i l i t y, s e c u r i t y, p r i v a c y a n d l i a b i l i t y " ; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 6 / O n s t a d, P h i l i p C (1980) ( u n t i t l e d ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1 / R e p o r t (1978) o f t h e C o m m i t t e e on D a t a P r o t e c t i o n ; H MSO, L o n d o n S e i p, H e l g e (1981) " U n f a i r c o m p e t i t i o n in c o m p u t e r s e r v i c e s " ; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 8 / 3 3 S O U : 5 4 P e r s o n r e q i s t e r - d a t o r e r - i n t e g r i t e t ; D ALK, S t o c k h o l m T u r n, R e i n (1981) T r a n s b o r d e r d a t a f l o w s (vol 1-2); A f i p s, W a s h i n g t o n V e k e m a n, L u c (1980) " S W I F T i n t e r b a n k t r a n s a c t i o n n e t w o r k e x p a n d s to 27 c o u n t r i e s " ; T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 6/7 W a l k e r,r o b e r t EL ( u n t i t l e d ) T r a n s n a t i o n a l D a t a R e p o r t 1 /
72
73 T i d l i g e r e u t g i t t 1 s k r i f t s e r i e n C o m p L e x C o m p L e x 1 /Sl Jolis H a n s e n ist S D B - s y s t e m l o r a n a l y s e av r e t t s l i g e a v g j u r e l s e r C o m p L e x 2/81 J o h s H a n s e n (red) K o t a t e r om d e o n t i s k e s y s t e m e r C o m p L e x 3 / Q 1 V i d a r S o r e n s e n I n f o r m a s j o n s s y s t e m mm f o r N o r g e s G e o t e k n i s k e I n s t i t u t t C o m p L e x 4 /ti 1 K j e t i l J o h n s e n S y s t e m t e k n i s k e K o n s e k v e n s e r ev p e r s o n d a t a l o v g i v n i n g e n C o m p L e x 6/81 / iarit T h o r v a l d s e n T e l e d a t a o g r e t t s i n f o r m a s j o n C o m p L e x 6/81 An n e K i r s t i Bruäkke P o s t m o n o p o l e t C o m p L e x 7/81 K n u t S S e l m e r (ed) The L A W D A T A P a p e r s C o m p L e x 1 /82 N o r s k f o r e n i n g for j u s o g e d b Ce. S v e n s k a foereningeri 1'oer a a b och j u r i d i k N o r d i s k e p e r s o n r e g i s t e r l o v e r, C o u n c i l of E u r o p e C o n v e n t i o n and O E C D g u i d e l i n e s C o m p L e x 2 / 8 2 H a r a l d Brtand o g V i d a r S ø r e n s e n O l j e v e r n : B r u K e r b e h o v o g k i l d e m a t e r i a l e C o m p L e x 3 / 8 2 J o n E i n g o g D a g f r o y t a d R e t t s k i l d e b r u k C o m p L e x 4 / 8 2 T h o m a s P r e b e n s e n S t e e n P o s t - o g t e l e v e r k e t s r e g u l e r t e a n s v a r C o m p L e x 5 / 8 2 D a t a t i l s y n e t. r s m e l d i n g iyb1
74 CompLex 6/82 Birger Eckhoff i s a m a r b e i d m e d J o n B ing, D u g K r ø y s t a d o g A n j a O s k a m p CATT3: Computerized program for teaching text retrieval systems C o m p L e x 7 / 8 2 J o n B i n g Info r m a s j o n s s y s t e m e r f o r T r y g d e r e t t e n s k j e n n e l s e r C o m p L e x 8 / 8 2 d e H u l d e r, O s K a m p, van d e r lleyden o g G u b b y S e n t e n c i n g b y c o m p u t e r : An e x p e r i m e n t C o o p L e x y / 8 2 C o l i n T a p p e r A n e x p e r i m e n t in the u s e o f c i t a t i o n v e c t o r s in the a r e a of l e g a l d a t a CompLex 1/83 Arve Køyen Utredning om endringer i personregisterloven C o m p L e x 2 / 8 3 S t e i n S c h j ø l b e r g Computers and penal legislation CompLex 3/83 John S Gulbrandsen og Terje Hoffmann Rettigheter i idrettsarrangementer C o m p L e x 4 / 8 3 S a l l y M o o n a n d A n j a O s k a m p The Law of Legal Information Systems: Two essays CompLex 5/83 Datatilsynet Årsmelding 1982 CompLex 6/83 Olav Torvund Betalingsformidling CompLex 7/83 Else Ryen Lov og lovmottaker CompLex 6/83 Daniel Stripinis Probability theory and circumstantial evidence CompLex 9/83 Frede Cappelen Edb/basert informaljonasysten for forvaltningens praksis C o m p L e x 1 0 / 8 3 I-iOHDI P RO Le/;al a c c e p t a n c e ot' i nt.r rruihnr..,! tr..iu. i«.*
75 C o m p L e x 1 1 / 8 3 J o r d e n H a f s t a d o g "'horaas P r e b e n s e n S t e e n T e l e k a r e t t o g m e r v e r d i a v g i f t p;1 p r o g r a m v a r e C o m p L e x 1 2 / 6 3 K r i s t i n K j e l l a n d - f i ø r d r e O m f o r e n k l i n g av r e g l e r C o m p L e x 1 3 / 8 3 J o n B i n g Edb: M u l i g h e t e r o g p r o b l e m ved f o r e n k l i n g av r e g e l v e r n CorapLex 1 4 / 8 3 T a r j e i S t e n s a a s e n (red) U t v a l g t e e m n e r i j u s o g e d b (3- utg) C o m p L e x 1 5 / 8 3 A n e t t e K l a f 3 t a d o g U l f Alex. S a m e r Plan for et f o r a i k r i n g s r e t t s l i g i n f o r m a a j o n s s y s t e m C o m p L e x 1 / 6 4 Jon E r l i n g 3 k j ø r s n a m m e r K a b e l n e t t : B y g n i n g 3 - o g e k s p r o p r i r i s j o n a l o v C o m p L e x 2 / 8 4 T o r e A n d r e a s H a u g l i e o g D a g W i e s e o c h a r t u m F o r a l a g til et h e l a e r e t t s l i g inforoias j o n s a y a t e m C o m p L e x 3 / 8 4 J u a t i a d e p a r t e m e n t e t D e n e l e k t r o n i a k e g r u n n b o k C o m p L e x 4 / 8 4 D a t a t i l a y n e t Æ r s m e l d i n g 1983 C o m p L e x 5 / 8 4 T o v e F j e l d v i g T e k s t o ø k i n g : T e o r i, m e t o d e r o g s y s t e m e r C o m p L e x 6 / 8 4 J o n B i n g O f f e n t l i g h e t s l o v e n og edb C o m p L e x 7 / 8 4 G u n n a r B a c h, B e a t e J a c o b s e n and V i d a r S t e n s l a n J T h e N a t i o n a l Social. I n s u r a n c e S y s t e m of N o r w a y C o m p L e x 8 / 8 4 D a g F r ø y s t a d D a t a P r o t e c t i i o n in P r a c t i c e I I d e n t i f y i n g and H a t c h i n g E l e m e n t s C o m p L e x 9 / 8 4 T o v o F j e l d v i g o g A n n e G o l d e n A u t o m a t i s k r o t l e m m a t i s e r i n g - et l i n g v i s t i s k njelpomidtlel tekstsakir.g for
76 C o m p L e x 1 0 / ä 4 E l l i n g ü y c h a u g Ose R e t s t l d e n d e soia i n f o r m a s j o n s s y s t e m
77 DSA - n ett verksarkitektu r for fremtiden Honeywell Bull Tollbugt 32 - O slo 1 Tit (02) Avd kontor Sandnes - Bergen Ålesund - Trondheim Harstad Tromso
78 Norsk Data ISBN
ARC 202L. Not e s : I n s t r u c t o r s : D e J a r n e t t, L i n, O r t e n b e r g, P a n g, P r i t c h a r d - S c h m i t z b e r g e r
ARC 202L C A L I F O R N I A S T A T E P O L Y T E C H N I C U N I V E R S I T Y D E P A R T M E N T O F A R C H I T E C T U R E A R C 2 0 2 L - A R C H I T E C T U R A L S T U D I O W I N T E R Q U A
More informationS U E K E AY S S H A R O N T IM B E R W IN D M A R T Z -PA U L L IN. Carlisle Franklin Springboro. Clearcreek TWP. Middletown. Turtlecreek TWP.
F R A N K L IN M A D IS O N S U E R O B E R T LE IC H T Y A LY C E C H A M B E R L A IN T W IN C R E E K M A R T Z -PA U L L IN C O R A O W E N M E A D O W L A R K W R E N N LA N T IS R E D R O B IN F
More informationI M P O R T A N T S A F E T Y I N S T R U C T I O N S W h e n u s i n g t h i s e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e, b a s i c p r e c a u t i o n s s h o
I M P O R T A N T S A F E T Y I N S T R U C T I O N S W h e n u s i n g t h i s e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e, b a s i c p r e c a u t i o n s s h o u l d a l w a y s b e t a k e n, i n c l u d f o l
More informationBeechwood Music Department Staff
Beechwood Music Department Staff MRS SARAH KERSHAW - HEAD OF MUSIC S a ra h K e rs h a w t r a i n e d a t t h e R oy a l We ls h C o l le g e of M u s i c a n d D ra m a w h e re s h e ob t a i n e d
More informationSTEEL PIPE NIPPLE BLACK AND GALVANIZED
Price Sheet Effective August 09, 2018 Supersedes CWN-218 A Member of The Phoenix Forge Group CapProducts LTD. Phone: 519-482-5000 Fax: 519-482-7728 Toll Free: 800-265-5586 www.capproducts.com www.capitolcamco.com
More informationA L A BA M A L A W R E V IE W
A L A BA M A L A W R E V IE W Volume 52 Fall 2000 Number 1 B E F O R E D I S A B I L I T Y C I V I L R I G HT S : C I V I L W A R P E N S I O N S A N D TH E P O L I T I C S O F D I S A B I L I T Y I N
More informationDangote Flour Mills Plc
SUMMARY OF OFFER Opening Date 6 th September 27 Closing Date 27 th September 27 Shares on Offer 1.25bn Ord. Shares of 5k each Offer Price Offer Size Market Cap (Post Offer) Minimum Offer N15. per share
More informationGrain Reserves, Volatility and the WTO
Grain Reserves, Volatility and the WTO Sophia Murphy Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy www.iatp.org Is v o la tility a b a d th in g? De pe n d s o n w h e re yo u s it (pro d uc e r, tra d e
More informationSPU TTERIN G F R O M A LIQ U ID -PH A SE G A -IN EUTECTIC ALLOY KEVIN M A R K H U B B A R D YALE UNIVER SITY M A Y
SPU TTERIN G F R O M A LIQ U ID -PH A SE G A -IN EUTECTIC ALLOY KEVIN M A R K H U B B A R D YALE UNIVER SITY M A Y 1 9 8 9 ABSTRACT S p u t t e r i n g f r o m a L i q u i d - P h a s e G a - I n E u t
More informationc. What is the average rate of change of f on the interval [, ]? Answer: d. What is a local minimum value of f? Answer: 5 e. On what interval(s) is f
Essential Skills Chapter f ( x + h) f ( x ). Simplifying the difference quotient Section. h f ( x + h) f ( x ) Example: For f ( x) = 4x 4 x, find and simplify completely. h Answer: 4 8x 4 h. Finding the
More informationH STO RY OF TH E SA NT
O RY OF E N G L R R VER ritten for the entennial of th e Foundin g of t lair oun t y on ay 8 82 Y EEL N E JEN K RP O N! R ENJ F ] jun E 3 1 92! Ph in t ed b y h e t l a i r R ep u b l i c a n O 4 1922
More informationgender mains treaming in Polis h practice
gender mains treaming in Polis h practice B E R L IN, 1 9-2 1 T H A P R IL, 2 O O 7 Gender mains treaming at national level Parliament 25 % of women in S ejm (Lower Chamber) 16 % of women in S enat (Upper
More informationInformation System Desig
n IT60105 Lecture 7 Unified Modeling Language Lecture #07 Unified Modeling Language Introduction to UML Applications of UML UML Definition Learning UML Things in UML Structural Things Behavioral Things
More informationClass Diagrams. CSC 440/540: Software Engineering Slide #1
Class Diagrams CSC 440/540: Software Engineering Slide # Topics. Design class diagrams (DCDs) 2. DCD development process 3. Associations and Attributes 4. Dependencies 5. Composition and Constraints 6.
More informationThe Ability C ongress held at the Shoreham Hotel Decem ber 29 to 31, was a reco rd breaker for winter C ongresses.
The Ability C ongress held at the Shoreham Hotel Decem ber 29 to 31, was a reco rd breaker for winter C ongresses. Attended by m ore than 3 00 people, all seem ed delighted, with the lectu res and sem
More informationP a g e 5 1 of R e p o r t P B 4 / 0 9
P a g e 5 1 of R e p o r t P B 4 / 0 9 J A R T a l s o c o n c l u d e d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e i n t e n t o f N e l s o n s r e h a b i l i t a t i o n p l a n i s t o e n h a n c e c o n n e
More informationFunctional territories in a eastern Norway and western Sweden perspective Armagh 16. November
Functional territories in a eastern Norway and western Sweden perspective Armagh 16. November Dr. Bjørnar Sæther Professor in Human Geography Eastern Norway Research Institute (ENRI) University of Oslo
More informationForm and content. Iowa Research Online. University of Iowa. Ann A Rahim Khan University of Iowa. Theses and Dissertations
University of Iowa Iowa Research Online Theses and Dissertations 1979 Form and content Ann A Rahim Khan University of Iowa Posted with permission of the author. This thesis is available at Iowa Research
More informationTrade Patterns, Production networks, and Trade and employment in the Asia-US region
Trade Patterns, Production networks, and Trade and employment in the Asia-U region atoshi Inomata Institute of Developing Economies ETRO Development of cross-national production linkages, 1985-2005 1985
More informationResults as of 30 September 2018
rt Results as of 30 September 2018 F r e e t r a n s l a t ion f r o m t h e o r ig ina l in S p a n is h. I n t h e e v e n t o f d i s c r e p a n c y, t h e Sp a n i s h - la n g u a g e v e r s ion
More informationLU N C H IN C LU D E D
Week 1 M o n d a y J a n u a ry 7 - C o lo u rs o f th e R a in b o w W e w ill b e k ic k in g o ff th e h o lid a y s w ith a d a y fu ll o f c o lo u r! J o in u s fo r a ra n g e o f a rt, s p o rt
More information(A -A )/(M IL -T )
Kulka M ilitary C las s (A -A -5 9 12 5 )/(M IL -T -5 5 16 4 ) M ilitary C las s : C lo s e d B ac k T h e s e m ilita ry b lo c k s fe a tu re m o ld e d -in te rm in a ls in a n im p ro v e d K u lk
More informationTh e E u r o p e a n M ig r a t io n N e t w o r k ( E M N )
Th e E u r o p e a n M ig r a t io n N e t w o r k ( E M N ) H E.R E T h em at ic W o r k sh o p an d Fin al C o n fer en ce 1 0-1 2 Ju n e, R agu sa, It aly D avid R eisen zein IO M V ien n a Foto: Monika
More informationTV Breakaway Fail-Safe Lanyard Release Plug Military (D38999/29 & D38999/30)
y il- y l l iliy (/9 & /0) O O O -..... 6.. O ix i l ll iz y o l yi oiio / 9. O / i --, i, i- oo. i lol il l li, oi ili i 6@0 z iiio i., o l y, 00 i ooio i oli i l li, 00 o x l y, 0@0 z iiio i.,. &. ll
More information8. Relax and do well.
EM 1515.001 Exam III John III. Gelder November 7, 2001 Name TA's Name Lab Section INSTRUTIONS: 1. This examination consists of a total of 9 different pages. The last three pages include a periodic table,
More informationC o r p o r a t e l i f e i n A n c i e n t I n d i a e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f
C H A P T E R I G E N E S I S A N D GROWTH OF G U IL D S C o r p o r a t e l i f e i n A n c i e n t I n d i a e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f i n a v a r i e t y o f f o r m s - s o c i a l, r e l i g i
More informationA Crash Course in Spatial History
A Crash Course in Spatial History Combining Geographic and Historical Inquiry Leisl Carr Childers, Ph.D. Historical Inquiry The concepts of Historical Inquiry are embedded in the 5Cs. Change over Time
More information2006 Supplemental Tax Information for JennisonDryden and Strategic Partners Funds
2006 Supplemental Information for JennisonDryden and Strategic Partners s We have compiled the following information to help you prepare your 2006 federal and state tax returns: Percentage of income from
More informationGeometric Predicates P r og r a m s need t o t es t r ela t ive p os it ions of p oint s b a s ed on t heir coor d ina t es. S im p le exa m p les ( i
Automatic Generation of SS tag ed Geometric PP red icates Aleksandar Nanevski, G u y B lello c h and R o b ert H arp er PSCICO project h ttp: / / w w w. cs. cm u. ed u / ~ ps ci co Geometric Predicates
More informationTable of C on t en t s Global Campus 21 in N umbe r s R e g ional Capac it y D e v e lopme nt in E-L e ar ning Structure a n d C o m p o n en ts R ea
G Blended L ea r ni ng P r o g r a m R eg i o na l C a p a c i t y D ev elo p m ent i n E -L ea r ni ng H R K C r o s s o r d e r u c a t i o n a n d v e l o p m e n t C o p e r a t i o n 3 0 6 0 7 0 5
More informationLesson Ten. What role does energy play in chemical reactions? Grade 8. Science. 90 minutes ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS
Lesson Ten What role does energy play in chemical reactions? Science Asking Questions, Developing Models, Investigating, Analyzing Data and Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information ENGLISH
More informationExecutive Committee and Officers ( )
Gifted and Talented International V o l u m e 2 4, N u m b e r 2, D e c e m b e r, 2 0 0 9. G i f t e d a n d T a l e n t e d I n t e r n a t i o n a2 l 4 ( 2), D e c e m b e r, 2 0 0 9. 1 T h e W o r
More informationT h e C S E T I P r o j e c t
T h e P r o j e c t T H E P R O J E C T T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S A r t i c l e P a g e C o m p r e h e n s i v e A s s es s m e n t o f t h e U F O / E T I P h e n o m e n o n M a y 1 9 9 1 1 E T
More informationUse precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST D
Lesson eight What are characteristics of chemical reactions? Science Constructing Explanations, Engaging in Argument and Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS Reading
More informationSoftware Process Models there are many process model s in th e li t e ra t u re, s om e a r e prescriptions and some are descriptions you need to mode
Unit 2 : Software Process O b j ec t i ve This unit introduces software systems engineering through a discussion of software processes and their principal characteristics. In order to achieve the desireable
More informationContents. Characteristics. Breaking capacity performance levels. Trip Units performance levels. Compact NSX100 to 250 A
Contents performance levels NSX to... NSX to Substitution for magnetic trip units... Substitution for trip units... NSX4/ Substitution for magnetic trip units... Substitution for trip units... .. I p us
More information600 Billy Smith Road, Athens, VT
600 Billy Smith Road, Athens, VT Curtis Trousdale, Owner, Broker, Realtor Cell: 802-233-5589 curtis@preferredpropertiesvt.com 2004 Williston Road, South Burlington VT 05403 www.preferredpropertiesvt.com
More informationm e m b e r s c o m e to feel less a m b i v a l e n t a b o u t t h e w o r k e r a n d r e l a t e
131 m e m b e r s c o m e to feel less a m b i v a l e n t a b o u t t h e w o r k e r a n d r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y to h i m a n d t h e i r peers. G r o u p m e m b e r s, f e e l i n g m o r
More informationAgenda Rationale for ETG S eek ing I d eas ETG fram ew ork and res u lts 2
Internal Innovation @ C is c o 2 0 0 6 C i s c o S y s t e m s, I n c. A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d. C i s c o C o n f i d e n t i a l 1 Agenda Rationale for ETG S eek ing I d eas ETG fram ew ork
More informationOH BOY! Story. N a r r a t iv e a n d o bj e c t s th ea t e r Fo r a l l a g e s, fr o m th e a ge of 9
OH BOY! O h Boy!, was or igin a lly cr eat ed in F r en ch an d was a m a jor s u cc ess on t h e Fr en ch st a ge f or young au di enc es. It h a s b een s een by ap pr ox i ma t ely 175,000 sp ect at
More information176 5 t h Fl oo r. 337 P o ly me r Ma te ri al s
A g la di ou s F. L. 462 E l ec tr on ic D ev el op me nt A i ng er A.W.S. 371 C. A. M. A l ex an de r 236 A d mi ni st ra ti on R. H. (M rs ) A n dr ew s P. V. 326 O p ti ca l Tr an sm is si on A p ps
More informationw h e r e e v e r t h e y live. It is an i n d u s t r i a l i z e d form of t e a c h i n g and
3 b D i s t a n c e E d u c a t i o n - In India S o c i o - L e g a l A n a l y s i s A- D i s t a n c e E d u c a t i o n - C o n c e p t D i s t a n c e T e a c h i n g or E d u c a t i o n is a m e
More informationVERITAS L1 trigger Constant Fraction Discriminator. Vladimir Vassiliev Jeremy Smith David Kieda
VERITAS L trigger Constant Fraction Discriminator Vladimir Vassiliev Jeremy Smith David Kieda Content Night Sky Background Noise Traditional Threshold Discriminator Constant Fraction Discriminator CFD:
More informationUse precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST D
Lesson seven What is a chemical reaction? Science Constructing Explanations, Engaging in Argument and Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS Reading Informational Text,
More informationINTERIM MANAGEMENT REPORT FIRST HALF OF 2018
INTERIM MANAGEMENT REPORT FIRST HALF OF 2018 F r e e t r a n s l a t ion f r o m t h e o r ig ina l in S p a n is h. I n t h e e v e n t o f d i s c r e p a n c y, t h e Sp a n i s h - la n g u a g e v
More informationThe geographical dimension of interactive learning. Rune Dahl Fitjar, IRIS and UCLA Andrés Rodríguez-Pose, LSE and IMDEA
The geographical dimension of interactive learning Rune Dahl Fitjar, IRIS and UCLA Andrés Rodríguez-Pose, LSE and IMDEA Interaction and innovation Interaction as a central theme in wide range of theories
More informationIntegrated II: Unit 2 Study Guide 2. Find the value of s. (s - 2) 2 = 200. ~ :-!:[Uost. ~-~::~~n. '!JJori. s: ~ &:Ll()J~
Name: 1. Find the value of r., (r + 4) 2 = 48 4_ {1 1:. r l f 11i),_ == :r (t~ : t %J3 (t:; KL\J5 ~ ~ v~~f3] ntegrated : Unit 2 Study Guide 2. Find the value of s. (s 2) 2 = 200 ~ :!:[Uost ~~::~~n '!JJori
More informationCapacitor Discharge called CD welding
TROUBLE SHOOTING OF STUD WELDING (EQUPMENT) We see several time, that the two main principles of Studwelding are mixed up therefor I will start to repeat short the welding methods. Capacitor Discharge
More informationNumerical studies of dispersion due to tidal flow through Moskstraumen, northern Norway
Numerical studies of dispersion due to tidal flow through Moskstraumen, northern Norway Lynge B.K. 1,2 Berntsen J. 3 Gjevik B. 1 Department of Mathematics, University of Oslo 1 Norwegian Hydrographic Service
More informationI zm ir I nstiute of Technology CS Lecture Notes are based on the CS 101 notes at the University of I llinois at Urbana-Cham paign
I zm ir I nstiute of Technology CS - 1 0 2 Lecture 1 Lecture Notes are based on the CS 101 notes at the University of I llinois at Urbana-Cham paign I zm ir I nstiute of Technology W hat w ill I learn
More informationFourier series. (sine and cosine)( ) ... : w h ere 2 (1 1)
Fourier series... 3. 4. 5. 6 ( (sie ad osie( ( (... u A si t A si t u A o s t A o s t w h ere (. (.(frequey ( (omplex( i t e os t i si t ( A z A e i t ( ( ( 3 z (Argad.(Argad diagram ( z x iy A (os t i
More information8. Relax and do well.
EM 1515.001-006 Exam II John II. Gelder March 5, 2002 Name TA's Name Section INSTRUTIONS: 1. This examination consists of a total of 8 different pages. The last three pages include a periodic table, a
More informationThe financial reports included in your board packet represent IHLS Financial Activities through July 31, 2018.
Attachment 5.1 To: From: Date: RE: IHLS Board of Directors Adrienne L. Elam August 28, 2018 IHLS Financial Reports as of July 31, 2018 FY2017-18 System Area & Per Capita Grant (SAPG) Status As of July
More informationPROPAINT. Modelling of air quality for paintings in microclimate frames. Indoor Air Quality, IAQ 2010 Chalon-sur-Saône, 22 nd April 2010
Modelling of air quality for paintings in microclimate frames and Experiences of the Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) in providing Air Quality Services for Cultural Heritage Professionals Indoor
More informationProduct Data Sheet KyoRack 2
series - PANEL MOUNT PRINTERS Page 1 of 10 5-8Vdc, 4A peak 5-8Vdc, 2A peak 10-35Vdc Features Easy Open paper feature High resolution thermal printing 5-8Vdc standard, 10-35Vdc / low power options Kwik
More informationYears. Marketing without a plan is like navigating a maze; the solution is unclear.
F Q 2018 E Mk l lk z; l l Mk El M C C 1995 O Y O S P R j lk q D C Dl Off P W H S P W Sl M Y Pl Cl El M Cl FIRST QUARTER 2018 E El M & D I C/O Jff P RGD S C D M Sl 57 G S Alx ON K0C 1A0 C Tl: 6134821159
More informationExtreme sea levels and the assessment of future coastal flood risk
Downloaded from orbit.dtu.dk on: Dec 18, 2017 Extreme sea levels and the assessment of future coastal flood risk Nilsen, J. E. Ø. ; Sørensen, Carlo Sass; Dangendore, S. ; Andersson, H. ; Arns, A. ; Jensen,
More informationThe Ind ian Mynah b ird is no t fro m Vanuat u. It w as b ro ug ht here fro m overseas and is now causing lo t s o f p ro b lem s.
The Ind ian Mynah b ird is no t fro m Vanuat u. It w as b ro ug ht here fro m overseas and is now causing lo t s o f p ro b lem s. Mynah b ird s p ush out nat ive b ird s, com p et ing for food and p laces
More informationREFUGEE AND FORCED MIGRATION STUDIES
THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF REFUGEE AND FORCED MIGRATION STUDIES Edited by ELENA FIDDIAN-QASMIYEH GIL LOESCHER KATY LONG NANDO SIGONA OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS C o n t e n t s List o f Abbreviations List o f
More informationMarine Base Maps in Coastal Norway: A Case for Developing Sustainable Blue Growth in Coastal Communities
Marine Base Maps in Coastal Norway: A Case for Developing Sustainable Blue Growth in Coastal Communities Minika Ekanem Project Manager IMDIS 2018 The Norwegian Coastal Areas 422 municipalities in Norway
More informationSoftware Architecture. CSC 440: Software Engineering Slide #1
Software Architecture CSC 440: Software Engineering Slide #1 Topics 1. What is software architecture? 2. Why do we need software architecture? 3. Architectural principles 4. UML package diagrams 5. Software
More informationDigitized for FRASER Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE PLATES
MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE PLATES 4 9 3-4 9 8 MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. P late No. 493 494 T itle. 1. Annual number of marriages: 1887-1906. 2. Marriages per 10,000 estimated population for geographic divisions,
More informationLSU Historical Dissertations and Theses
Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 1976 Infestation of Root Nodules of Soybean by Larvae of the Bean Leaf Beetle, Cerotoma Trifurcata
More informationCircle the letters only. NO ANSWERS in the Columns!
Chemistry 1304.001 Name (please print) Exam 5 (100 points) April 18, 2018 On my honor, I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on this exam. Signed Date Circle the letters only. NO ANSWERS in
More informationheliozoan Zoo flagellated holotrichs peritrichs hypotrichs Euplots, Aspidisca Amoeba Thecamoeba Pleuromonas Bodo, Monosiga
Figures 7 to 16 : brief phenetic classification of microfauna in activated sludge The considered taxonomic hierarchy is : Kingdom: animal Sub kingdom Branch Class Sub class Order Family Genus Sub kingdom
More informationI n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o u r n a l o f E l e m e n t a r y E.7 d u, c ai ts is ou n e, 1 V3 1o-2 l6, I n t h i s a r t
I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o ue rlne am l e not fa r y E d u c a t i o n, 2 0 1 4, 1 37-2 ( 16 ). H o w R e a d i n g V o l u m e A f f e c t s b o t h R e a d i n g F l u e n c y
More informationEconomic and Societal Impacts of TORNADOES KEVIN M. SIMMONS AND DANIEL SUTTER AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY
Economic and Societal Impacts of TORNADOES KEVIN M. SIMMONS AND DANIEL SUTTER AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY The Economic and Societal Impacts of Tornadoes 2011 by Kevin M. Simmons and Daniel Sutter.
More informationIndirect Taxes in Multisectoral Macroeconomic Models
Indirect Taxes in Multisectoral Macroeconomic Models A Contribution from the Inforum group Maurizio Grassini Università di Firenze Italy (Some) Matrices behind a Macroeconomic Multisectoral Model Supply
More informationNew Business and Commercial Building Applicants
New Business and Commercial Building Applicants A Helpful Guide - Z o n i n g P e r m i t A p p l i c a t i o n - B u s i n e s s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e - P r e -Ap p ro va ls f o r C o n s t r u c
More informationSub Sri Thai Property Fund (SSTPF)
ก ก Sub Sri Thai Property Fund (SSTPF) ก ก ก ก กก ก กก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก 28.47 ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ( ก ) Sub Sri Thai Property Fund SSTPF ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก ก 675,000,000 ( ก ) 10.00 ก 67,500,000
More informationAP Calculus AB. Sample Student Responses and Scoring Commentary. Inside: Free Response Question 1. Scoring Guideline.
218 AP Calculus AB Sample Student Responses and Scoring Commentary Inside: Free Response Question 1 RR Scoring Guideline RR Student Samples RR Scoring Commentary 218 The College Board. College Board, Advanced
More informationCryptanalysis of PRESENT-like ciphers with secret S-boxes
Cryptanalysis of PRESENT-like ciphers with secret S-boxes Julia Borghoff Lars Knudsen Gregor Leander Søren S. Thomsen DTU, Denmark FSE 2011 Cryptanalysis of Maya Julia Borghoff Lars Knudsen Gregor Leander
More informationThe Baltic Soil Survey
The Baltic Soil Survey C. Reimann, U. Siewers, T. Tarvainen, L. Bityukova, J. Erikson, A. Gilucis, V. Gregorauskiene, V. Lukashev, N. Matinian & A. Pasieczna PROJECT AIM: create a comparable database
More informationArizona Division of Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 800 W. Washington Street, Phoenix, AZ Consultation:
ADOSH Arizona Division of Occupational Safety and Health Administration 800 W. Washington Street, Phoenix, AZ 85007 Consultation: 602-542-1769 GLOBALLY HARMONIZED SYSTEM for HAZARD COMMUNICATION Steven
More informationMarine Clusters. Vilhjálmur Jens Árnason. Matis - A workshop on coastal fisheries in the North Atlantic
Marine Clusters Strengthening cooperation and best practices between clusters around the North Atlantic Ocean and how it can lead to new opportunities Vilhjálmur Jens Árnason Matis - A workshop on coastal
More informationI/O7 I/O6 GND I/O5 I/O4. Pin Con fig u ra tion Pin Con fig u ra tion
2M x 8 HIGH SPEED LOW POWER ASYRONOUS CMOS STATIC RAM Ex tended Tem per a ture TTS2MWV8 FEATURES High Speed access times 25, 35ns High-perfromace, low power CMOS process Multiple center power and ground
More informationEKOLOGIE EN SYSTEMATIEK. T h is p a p e r n o t to be c i t e d w ith o u t p r i o r r e f e r e n c e to th e a u th o r. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY.
EKOLOGIE EN SYSTEMATIEK Ç.I.P.S. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE POLLUTION IN NORT H SEA. TECHNICAL REPORT 1971/O : B i o l. I T h is p a p e r n o t to be c i t e d w ith o u t p r i o r r e f e r e n c e to
More information9.9 L1N1F_JL 19bo. G)&) art9lej11 b&bo 51JY1511JEJ11141N0fM1NW15tIr1
thunyitmn tn1 zni f1117n.nllfmztri Lrs v wu 4 t t701 f 171/ ti 141 o&oiv,3 if 042 9.9 L1N1F_JL 19bo vitioluutul fly11.1.g)onoo b5 et Nn`15fiwnwiymri1 nrikl5fini1nvi Ltol : Aeniln,flvnu 6m,wiutrmntn15Y
More informationM Line Card Redundancy with Y-Cab l es Seamless Line Card Failover Solu t ion f or Line Card H ardw or Sof t w are Failu res are Leverages hardware Y-
Line Card Redundancy with Y-Cab l es Technical Overview 1 M Line Card Redundancy with Y-Cab l es Seamless Line Card Failover Solu t ion f or Line Card H ardw or Sof t w are Failu res are Leverages hardware
More informationTITLE Brazilian tensile strength test: post-failure behavior of Jurassic and Cretaceous shales from Svalbard
TITLE Brazilian tensile strength test: post-failure behavior of Jurassic and Cretaceous shales from Svalbard AUTHORS Mohsin Abbas 1, Bahman Bohloli 2, Elin Skurtveit 2, Nazmul Hague Mondol 1, 2, Lars Grande
More information[ ]:543.4(075.8) 35.20: ,..,..,.., : /... ;. 2-. ISBN , - [ ]:543.4(075.8) 35.20:34.
.. - 2-2009 [661.87.+661.88]:543.4(075.8) 35.20:34.2373-60..,..,..,..,.. -60 : /... ;. 2-. : -, 2008. 134. ISBN 5-98298-299-7 -., -,,. - «,, -, -», - 550800,, 240600 «-», -. [661.87.+661.88]:543.4(075.8)
More informationThe Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research: an overview
A PRESENTATION OF THE The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research: an overview The aim of the Bjerknes Centre is to understand and quantify the climate system for the benefit of society Tore Furevik, Ph.D.
More informationSPECIFICATION SHEET : WHSG4-UNV-T8-HB
SPECIFICATION SHEET : WHSG4UNVT8HB ELECTRICAL DATA (120V APPLICATION) INPUT VO LT : 120V ± 10%, 50/60H z LAM P W ATTS/T YPE F17T8 F25T8 F30T8 F 32T8 F32T 8( 25W ) F32T8(28W ) F32T8(30W ) FB31T 8 FB32T8
More information1000 General Fund 1030 Tax Collector Licenses, Fees and Permits Fees - NSF Check
General Ledger Budget Analysis User: Printed: Fiscal Year: vnoel 04/23/2018-2:13PM 2019 2016 2017 2018 2018 1000 General Fund 1030 Tax Collector R20 Licenses, Fees and Permits 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1031-1000-41010Fees
More informationGLASS/MINERALS LENSES PRODUCT GUIDE CLEAR & PHOTOCHORMIC FINISHED & SEMI FINISHED
2014-2015 GLASS/MINERALS LENSES PRODUCT GUIDE CLEAR & PHOTOCHORMIC FINISHED & SEMI FINISHED CR- F I N I 39 S H FE ID N IS I HN EG D L E S IV NI GS I LO E N VG I SL IA OS NS 1.523 1.523 Crown Stock Finished
More informationEmefcy Group Limited (ASX : EMC) ASX Appendix 4D Half Year Report and Interim Financial Statements for the six months ended 30 June 2016
Emefcy Group Limited (ASX EMC) ASX Appendix D Half Year Report and Interim Financial Statements for the six months ended June 6 Melbourne Australia and Caesarea Israel 6 August 6 he Company s ASX Appendix
More informationStart of Norwegian glaciological research on Svalbard and in Kongsfjorden Olav Orheim, formerly Norsk Polarinstitutt Contents Early glaciological
Start of Norwegian glaciological research on Svalbard and in Kongsfjorden Olav Orheim, formerly Norsk Polarinstitutt Contents Early glaciological research on Svalbard The link from Ahlmann/Sverdrup to
More informationWill it float? The New Keynesian Phillips curve tested on OECD panel data
Phillips curve Roger Bjørnstad 1 2 1 Research Department Statistics Norway 2 Department of Economics University of Oslo 31 October 2006 Outline Outline Outline Outline Outline The debatable The hybrid
More informationDATA SHEET. BF908WR N-channel dual-gate MOS-FET. Philips Semiconductors DISCRETE SEMICONDUCTORS Apr 25
DISCRETE SEMICONDUCTORS DATA SHEET File under Discrete Semiconductors, SC7 1995 Apr 25 Philips Semiconductors FEATURES High forward transfer admittance Short channel transistor with high forward transfer
More informationPlanning & Zoning Commission
Request Applicant Owner Zoning Location Attachments Subdivision of 50.03 acres of previously unplatted property to create one lot for the construction of a K-6 th Grade Education Village for Dickinson
More informationIllinois Heartland Library System Statement of Revenues and Expenditures Fund #10 - General Fund. YTD Budget (07/01/ /31/2019)
Fund #10 - General Fund Attachment 5.1 - IHLS Percentage b State Grants 549,978.11 1,209,700.32 2,550,525.21 (1,340,824.89) 3,400,700.32 (2,191,000.00) (64.43)% 3,400,700.32 Fees for Services and Materials
More informationPetroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics
Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics Petroleum Geoscience: From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics With contributions from Per Avseth, Jan Inge Faleide, Roy H. Gabrielsen,
More informationPI4GTL bit bidirectional low voltage translator
Features 2-bit bidirectional translator Less than 1.5 ns maximum propagation delay to accommodate Standard mode and Fast mode I2Cbus devices and multiple masters Allows voltage level translation between
More information1980 Annual Report / FEDERAL R ESER V E BA N K OF RICHMOND. Digitized for FRASER Federal Reserve Bank of St.
1980 Annual Report / FEDERAL R ESER V E BA N K OF RICHMOND IS S N 0164-0798 L IB R A R Y OK C O N G R E SS C A T A L O G C A R D N U M B E R : 16-72o4 Additional <
More informationMajor human activities affecting Norwegian coastal marine ecosystems; present status and challenges
Major human activities affecting Norwegian coastal marine ecosystems; present status and challenges Erlend Moksness PICES Annual Meeting - Science Board Symposium 26. October 2009, Jeju, Korea FUTURE:
More informationUse of the underground in Norway
Lecture at Nanyang Technical University 13th January 2015 Use of the underground in Norway Professor emeritus Einar Broch NTNU; Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim, Norway 1 Geology
More informationMOLINA HEALTHCARE, INC. (Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)
UNITED STATES SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION Washington, D.C. 20549 FORM 8-K Current Report Pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 Date of Report (Date of earliest event
More informationIce surveys, meteorological and oceanographic data What is available and up-to-date?
Ice surveys, meteorological and oceanographic data What is available and up-to-date? Leader of the Norwegian Ice Service +47 77 62 13 15 - nick.hughes@met.no Norwegian Meteorological Institute met.no 1
More informationFinance Department. Denton City Council Department Presentation
Denton City Council Department Presentation 1 FTE s By Functional Area FTE s By Functional Area FY 2014-15 FY 2015-16 FY 2016-17 Budget FY 2017-18 Baseline Accounting 9 9 9 9 Accounts Payable 4 4 4 4 Budget
More information