I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o u r n a l o f E l e m e n t a r y E.7 d u, c ai ts is ou n e, 1 V3 1o-2 l6, I n t h i s a r t
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- Meagan Rice
- 5 years ago
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1 I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o ue rlne am l e not fa r y E d u c a t i o n, , ( 16 ). H o w R e a d i n g V o l u m e A f f e c t s b o t h R e a d i n g F l u e n c y a n d R e a d i n g Ac h i e v e m e n t R i c h a r d L. A L L I N G T O N U n i v e r s i t y o f T e n n e, sk sn eo ex v i l l e, T N, U S A R e c e i v e d : 31 O c t o b e r / R e vd i: s2e5 O c t o b e r / A c c e p t e d 3: 1 O c t o b e r A b s t r a c t L o n g o v e r l o o k e d, r e a dg i nv o l u m e i s a c t u a l l y c e n t r a l t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c i e s, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f f l u e n t r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c y. G e n e r a l l y n o o n e i n s c e h o o l s m o n i t o r s t h a c t u a l v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g t h a t c h i l d r e n e n g a g e i n. W e k n o w t h a t t h e c o m mcoonm lmy e ruc si eadl c o r e r e a d i n g p r o g r a m s p r o v i d e o n l y m a t e r i a l t h a t r e q u i r e s a b o u t 1 5 m i n u t e s o f r e a d i n g a c t i v i t y d a i l y. T h e r e m a i n i n g 7 5 m i n u t e o f r e a d i n g l e s s o n s i s f i l l e d w i t h m a n y o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s s u c h a s c o m p l e t i n g w o r k b o o k p a g e s o r r e s p o n d i n g t o -l l oe wv e l i tl e r a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t w h a t h a s b e e n r e a d. S t u d i e s d e s i g n e d t o e n h a n c e t h e v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g t h a t c h i l d r e n d o d u r i n g t h e i r r e a d i n g l e s s o n s d e m o n s t r a t e o n e w a y t o e n h a n c e r e a d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t. R e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s h a v e b e e n w i d e l y u s e d i n f o s t e r i n g r e a d i n g f l un ec y b u t w i d e r e a d i n g o p t i o n s s e e m t o w o r k f a s t e r a n d m o r e b r o a d l y i n d e v e l o p i n g r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c i e s, i n c l u d i n g o r a l r e a d i n g f l u e n c y. K e y w o r d s : V o l u m e, F l u e n c y, V o l u n t a r y r e a d i n g, C o m p r e h e n s ci co un r, a ca y. I n t r o d u c t i o n F o u r t h-g r a d e r A b d u l i s a g o o d r er a. d ef e w t e a c h e r s w o u l d t h e n b e s u r p r i s e d t o l e a r n t h a t A b d u l a l s o r e a d s v o l u n t a r i l y, h o o k e d c u r r e n t l y o n t h e D i a r y o f a W i m p y K i d b o o k s. I n m a n y r e s p e c t s, A b d u l i s a g o o d r e a d e r b e c a u s e h e r e a d s e x t e n s i v e l y v o l u n t a r i l y ( C i p i e l e w s k i & S t a n o v i c h, F) e. w te a c h e r s w o u l d b e s u r p r i s e d t o l e a r n t h a t A b d u l i s a l s o a f l u e n t o r a l r e a d e r, r e a d i n g w i t h b o t h a c c u r a c y a n d e x p r e s s i o n. A t t h e s a m e t i m e, t o o f e w t e a c h e r s r e a l i z e t h a t i t i s a t l e a s t a s m u c h t h e c a s e t h a t h i s e x t e n s i v e v o l u n t a r y r e a d i n g p r o d u c e d h i g h el v e l s o f r e a d i n g a c c u r a c y a s w e l l a s h i s a b i l i t y t o r e a d a l o u d a c c u r a t e l y a n d w i t e x p r e s s i o n. A b d u l, l i k e m a n y e f f e c t i v e y o u n g r e a d e r s h a s n e v e r p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a s i n g l e l e s s d e s i g n e d t o f o s t e r h i s f l u e n t r e a d i n g. H e h a s n e v e r e n g a g e d i n a n y a drienpge s a t e d r e a c t i v i t i e s. A b d u l j u s t r e a d s. A l o t. A n d v o l u n t a r i l y. A b d u l s d e v e l o p m e n t a s a r e a d e r r e p r e s e n t s t h e p a t h f o l l o w e d b y m a n y p r o f i c i e n t r e a d e r s, e s p e c i a l l y s t u d e n t s w h o c o m p l e t e-g d r afdi e r spt r i o r t o T h a t i s, b e f o r e r e a d i n g f l u e n c y w a s n a m e d o n eo f t h e f i v e s c i e n t i -b f iacsaeld l yp i l l a r s o f r e a d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t b y t h e N a t i o n a l R e a d i n g P a n e l ( ). R i c h a r d L. A l l i n g t Ao 2n 0, 9 B E C, U n i v e r s i t y o f T e n n e s s e e, K n o x v i l l e T N , , r a l l i n g u t k. e d u. I S S N : C o p y r i g h t I E J E E w w w. i e j e e. c o m
2 I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o u r n a l o f E l e m e n t a r y E.7 d u, c ai ts is ou n e, 1 V3 1o-2 l6, I n t h i s a r t i c l e I h o p e t o p r o v i d e a b r i e f h i s t o r y o f ri en a da im ne g r i fc la un e ne cd yu c a t i o n a n d t h e n s h a r e w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t uw e ne cn y f al n d r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c y b r o a d l y c o n s i d e r e d a n d r e a d i n g v o l u m e. I n t r u t h, t h i s c h a p t e r i s m o r e a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l l y p o w e r f u l, b u t t y p i c a l l y o v e r l o o k e d, r o l e o f r e a d i n g v o l u m e. T h e e v i d e n c e w e h a v e i s c o n s i s t e n t a n d c l e a r : C h i l d r e n w h o e l e c t to l urn et ad r i lv y d e v e l o p a l l s o r t s o f r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c i e s, n o t j u s t t h e a b i l i t y t o r e a d f l u e n t l y ( M o l & B u s, ). I n t h i s c h a p t e r, h o w w i l l l a r g e l y i g n o r e t h e o t h e r p r o f i c i e n c i e s f o s t e r e d t h r o u g h e x t e n s i v e v o l u n t a r y e n g a g e m e n t i n r e a d i n g a c t i v i t y f oa nc d u s o n v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g a n d i t s r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f f l u e n t r e a d e r s. I c o n c l u d e w i t h s t r a t e g i e s f o r e n h a n c i n g v o l u n t a r y r e a d i n g a m o n g e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s t u d e n t s. T h e r e s e a r c h o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e a d i n g v o l u m e a n d r e a d i n g f l u e n c y. W h i l e cals s r o o m t e a c h e r s h a v e p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o r e a d i n g f l u e n c y f o r a l o n g t i m e, r e s e a r c h e r s l a r g e l y i g n o r e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e a d i n g f l u e n c y u n t i l a b o u t 4 0 y e a r s a g o w h e n D a h l a n d S a m u e l s ( ) p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r c o n t r a s t i n g d r i l l o n w o r d r e c o g n i t io on n w in t h i s o l a t i r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g o f p a s s a g e s t o a t t a i n a s t a n d a r d r e a d i n g r a t e ( w o r d s p e r m i n u t e ). T h e y r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n d e v e l o p e d s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s r e a d i n g f l u e n c y, a c c u r a c y, a n d c o m p r e h e n s i o n f a r b e t t e r t h a n t h e t ra ap i nd li ny g a nt d o ar c c u r a t e l y r e a d w o r d s i n i s o l a t i o n. S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r, S a m u e l s ( ) p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r i n R e a d i n g T e a c h e r o n t h e r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g m e t h o d. S a m u e l s s e e m e d p r o m p t e d t o e x p l o r e r e a d i n g f l u e n c y p r i m a r i l y a s a r e s u l t o f h i s e a r l i e-a r u ct oh o r e d p a p er ( L a b e r g e & S a m u e l s, ) t h a t s e t f o r t h a u t o m a t i c i t y t h e o r y a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f e a r l y r e a d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t. B a s i c a l l y, t h i s t h e o r y a r g u e d t h a t a u t o m a t i c i t y i n v o l v e d d e v e l o p i n g l o w e r l e v e l p r o c e s s e s ( a s i n w o r d r e c o g n i t i o n ) t o f r e e u p a t t e n t i o n a l s p a c oe r f h i g h e-l r e v e l p r o c e s s e s ( c o m p r e h e n s i o n ). A s s o m e t i m e s h a p p e n i n e x p e r i m e n t s, t h e D a h l a n d S a m u e l s ( ) e x p e r i m e n t s u r p r i s i n g l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g w o r k e d b e t t e r t h a n i s o l a t e d t r a i n i n g o f w o r d r e c o g n i t i o n i n i s o l a t i o n. T h e i f i n d i n g s h a v eb e e n r e p l i c a t e d b y o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s o v e r t h e y e a r s ( H o m a n, K l e s i u s & H i t e, ; M o r g a n, S i d e r i s i s & H u a, ; V a d a s y, S a n d e r s & P e y t o n, ). I n o t h e r w o r d s, w h a t h a s n o w b e e n r e p e a t e d l y d e m o n s t r a t e d i s t h a t w o r k i n g t o f o s t e r a u t o m a t i c w o r d i d e n t i f itc ia o n t h r o u g h l e s s o n s t h a t f e a t u r e p r i m a r i l y w o r d l e v e l w o r k i s s i m p l y l e s s e f f e c t i v a t d e v e l o p i n g r e a d i n g f l u e n c y t h a n l e s s o n s t h a t e n g a g e r e a d e r s i n r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g a c t i v i t i e s. K u h n a n d S t a h l ( ) r e v i e w e d o v e r r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s o n r e p e a t s e d b ur t e a d i n g n o t e d t h a t t h e s t u d i e s w e r e a m i x t u r e o f m o d e l s i n c l u d i n g m a n y s t u d i e s w i t h n o t r u e c o n t r o l g r o u p a n d m o s t d i d n o t c o m p a r e r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s w i t h a n a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n. H o w e v e r, i n t h e t w o s t u d i e s w h e r e a r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s m o d e l w a s c o m pa a rceod n t tr o l g r o u p w h e r e s t u d e n t s r e a d i n d e p e n d e n t l y f o r c o m p a r a b l e a m o u n t s o f t i m e t h e y f o u n d n o d i f f e r e n c e i n f l u e n c y o u t c o m e s. O v e r a l l, t h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g m o d e l i m p r o v e s b o t h f l u e n c y a n d r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t. B a s e d o n t h e t w o n os t eu d i ea s b o v e, t h e y a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t i t m a y b e t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g t h a t s t u d e n t s d o w h e n e n g a g e d i n r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h a t u n d e r l i e s t h e s u c c e s s o b s e r v e d w i t h t h e u s e o f r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s i n d e v e l o p i n g f l u e n t r e a d i n g p e s r. f o r m a n c T h e s a m e y e a r t h a t K u h n a n d S t a h l p u b l i s h e d t h e i r r e v i e w, T h e r r i e n ( ) p r o v i d e d a m e t a -a n a l y s i s o f r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s s t u d i e s p u b l i s h e d s i n c e a n d f o u n d r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s t o b e a n e f f e c t i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e r e a d i n g f l u e n ec ry a l o f b o t h g a n d s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s. T h i -a s nmael tyas i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g w i t h a n a d u l t p r e s e n t p r o v e d t o b e m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n s w h e r e s t u d e n t s w e r e e n g a g e d w i t h a p e e r o r a n -ta au pd e i o r e c o r d i n g. A d d in ta il ol y, T h e r r i e n 1 4
3 H o w r e a d i n g v o l u m e a f f e c t s b o t h r e a d i n g f l u e n c y a n d r e a d i n g a c h i/ eavlel mienngtt o n r e p o r t s t h a t u s i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l l e v e l t e x t s a s o p p o s e d t o t h e m o r e d i f f i c u l t g r a d e l e v e l t a l s o p r o d u c e d f a s t e r a n d l a r g e r s t u d e n t f l u e n c y g a i n s. H o w e v e r, w h i l e r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g a c t i v i t i e s a r e m o r e p o w e r f u l i n f o s t e r i n g f l u e n t r e a d i n g t h a n a r e w o r d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n i s o l a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s, i t a l s o s e e m s t h a t r e d u c i n g t i m e s e n g a g i n g i n r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s a n d u s i n g t h a t t i m e t o e n g a g e s t u d e n t s i n w i d e r e a d i n g i s a n e v e n m o r e p o w e r f u l o p t i o n t h a n o f f e r i n g r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s a c tnie v. i ttiheis s ails o t h e m a j o r f i n d i n g f r o m a r e c e n t s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s o f b y K u h n a n d h e r c o l l e a g u e s ( K u h n, , K u h n, e t ; S c h w a n e n f l u g e l, e t a l, ; ). I n t h i s w o r k t h e y c o m p a r e d u s e o f t h e i r w i d e r e a d i n g f l u e n c y i n t e r v e n t i o n w i t h t h e t r a deipte iaot nead l rre a d i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n. M u c h l i k e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s ( e. g., H o m a n, e t a l, ) t h e y f o u n d t h a t r e d u c i n g t h e t i m e s p e n t o n r e p e a t r e a d i n g s w h i l e e x t e n d i n g t h e t i m e s p e n t r e a d i n g n e w t e x t s d e v e l o p e d f l u e n c y f a s t e r a n d d e v e l o p e d b o t h w o r d r e c o g n i t i o n d a cn o m p r e h e n s i o n b e t t e r t h a n a s t e a d y d i e t o f r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s. R e v i e w i n g p r i m a r i l y t h e i r p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s, K u h n, S c h w a n e n f l u g e l a n d M e i s i n g e r ( , p ) a r g u e, " T o m o v e b e y o n d t h i s s e r i a l p r o c e s s i n g a n d t o w a r d t h e a u t o n o m o u s w o r d r e c o g n i t i o n e n t a i lb ey d f l u e n t r e a d i n g, l e a r n e r s r e q u i r e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r e x t e n s i v e p r a c t i c e i n t h e r e a d i n g o f c o n n e c t e d I n t eoxtt h. e r w o r d s, w h i l e r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s a c t i v i t i e s t y p i c a l l y e x p a n d t h e v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g t h a t s t u d e n t d o ( a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l s k il l s i n i s o l a t i o n w o r k p r o v i d e d b y w o r k s h e e t s a n d s k i l l s d r i l l s ), s i m p l y e x p a n d i n g n o t o n t h e v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g b u t a l s o e x p a n d i n g t h e n u m b e r s o f t e x t s s t u d e n t s r e a d f o s t e r s f l u e n c y d e v e l o p m e n t f a s t e r. I m p r o v i n g r e a d i n g f l u e n c y b y e x p a n d i n g s t u d e n t n g r e av do il u m e i s p r e d i c t e d b y i n s t a n c e t h e o r y ( L o g a n, ). L o g a n e x p l a i n e d i n s t a n c e t h e o r y i n t h i s w a y : " T h e t h e o r y m a k e s t h r e e m a i n a s s u m p t i o n s : F i r s t, i t a s s u m e s t h a t e n c o d i n g i n t o m e m o r y i s a n o b l i g a t o r y, u n a v o i d a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e o f a t t e n t i o n. ta o t t a e n sd ti in mg u l u s i s s u f f i c i e n t t o c o m m i t i t t o m e m o r y. I t m a y b e r e m e m b e r e d w e l l o r p o o r l y, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f a t t e n t i o n, b u t i t w i l l b e e n c o d e d. S e c o n d, t h e t h e o r y a s s u m e s t h a t r e t r i e v a l f r o m m e m o r y i s a n o b l i g a t o r y, u n a v o i d a b l e c o n s e q u e n ct e t e on f t i ao n. A t t e n d i n g t o a s t i m u l u s i s s u f f i c i e n t t o r e t r i e v e f r o m m e m o r y w h a t e v e r h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t i n t h e p a s t. R e t r i e v a l m a y n o t a l w a y s b e s u c c e s s f u l, b u t i t o c c u r s n e v e r t h e l e s s. E n c o d i n g a n d r e t r i e v a l a r e l i n k e d t h r o u g a t t e n t i o n ; t h e s a m e oa f c t a t t e n t i o n t h a t c a u s e s e n c o d i n g a l s o c a u s e s r e t r i e v a l. T h i r d, t h e t h e o r y a s s u m e s t h a t e a c h e n c o u n t e r w i t h a s t i m u l u s i s e n c o d e d, s t o r e d, a n d r e t r i e v e d s e p a r a t e l y. T h i s m a k e s t h e t h e o r y a n i n s t a n c e t h e o r y... " ( p ) A s c h i l d r e n r e a d t h e y e n c o u n t e r w, o ridf s t h e s e w o r d s a r e c o r r e c t l y p r o n o u n c e d t h e n a u s e f u l i n s t a n c e h a s o c c u r r e d. T h u s, e f f o r t s t o e x p a n d r e a d i n g v o l u m e n e e d t o e n s u r e t h a t s t u d e n t s a r e r e a d i n g t e x t s w i t h a h i g h l e v e l o f W haact c uwr e a cvy e. l e a r n e d i n t h e p a s t 2 5 y e a r s i s t h a t i t tea rk y e s f evw i n s t a n c e s o f c o r r e c t l y p r o n o u n c i n g a w o r d b e f o r e i t b e c o m e s r e a d i l y r e c o g n i z e d w h e n n e x t e n c o u n t e r e d. I n s t a n c e t h e o r y u n d e r l i e s t h e -t e as ce hl if n g h y p o t h e s i s p r o p o s e d b y S h a r e ( ; ) w h o h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t w h i l e r e a d i n g c h i l d r e n t uaar le l y a ca l s o a c q u i r i n g o r t h o g r a p h i c k n o w l e d g e o f b o t h w h o l e w o r d s a n d w o r d s e g m e n t s. R e a d e r s u s e t h i s o r t h o g r a p h i c k n o w l e d g e t o f a c i l i t a t e p r o n u n c i a t i o n w h e n t h e y n e x t e n c o u n t e r t h e s a m e w o r d o r a n i d e n t i c a l w o r d s e g m e n t o c c u r r i n g i n a d i f f e r e n t w o ri d s., Tp hr ao t n o u n c i n g t h e w o r d s e g m e n t i s m i n t h e w o r d r a c i s m m a y a s s i s t t h e r e a d e r i n p r o n o u n c i n g t h e w o r d s c h i s m t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e s a m e s e g m e n t. T h i s s o r t -to ef a cs he il nf g, w h i c h i s d e r i v e d f r o m i n s t a n c e t h e o r y, i s o n e m e c h a n i s m b y w h i c h r e a d i n g f l u e n c cy h i es v ead. S e-t l fe a c h i n g i s a l s o a n i m p o r t a n t m e c h a n i s m t h a t s u p p o r t s d e v e l o p i n g o t h e r r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c i e s, s u c h a s v o c a b u l a r y k n o w l e d g e ( S w a n b o r n & D e G l o p p e r, ). 1 5
4 I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o u r n a l o f E l e m e n t a r y E.7 d u, c ai ts is ou n e, 1 V3 1o-2 l6, A d i f f e r e n t r o l e f o-t r e sa ec lh fi n g i s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o r e s e t o f w o r d s, r eian d esrks i la l e d h u g e c o r e o f w o r d s, t h a t c a n b e p r o n o u n c e d i n s t a n t l y, w o r d s t h a t w e c a l l s i g h t w o r d s. T h e l a r g e r t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s t h a t c a n b e i n s t a n t l y r e c o g n i z e d i s i n l a r g e p a r t w h a t s e p a r a t e s s k i l l e d r e a d e r s f r o m d e v e l o p i n g ( o r e m e r g e n t ) r e a d e ris l. i tty h e t o a br e c o g n i z e m a n y w o r d s w i t h l i t t l e c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t a l s o u n d e r l i e s t h e a b i l i t y t o r e a d a l o u d w i t h f l u e n c y. S h a n y a n d B i e m i l l e r ( ) p r o v i d e o n e e x a m p l e w h e-t r e a cs he il nf g s e e m s t o h a v e o c c u r r e d. T h e y s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t s o f -atse saic shteerd r e an dg i a n d t a p e-a s s i s t e d r e a d i n g o n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t. T h e s t u d y c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e g r o u p s : o n e c o n t r o l g r o u p a n d t w o e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s. O n e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p r e c e i v e d 3 0 m i n u t e s o f e x t r a r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e w i t h a d u l t a s s i s t a n c e ( p r o n o u n c i n g a n y m i s p r oe nd o uw no cr d s ) w h i l e t h e o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p r e c e i v e d 3 0 m i n u t e s o f e x t r a r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e w-ti at ph e d a u rd ei co o r d i n g s o f t h e t e x t s t o a s s i s t t h e r e a d i n g. S t u d e n t s i n b o t h e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s r e a d m o r e b o o k s i n a n d o u t o f t h e c l a s s r o o m t h a n t h e c o n t r o ul p. g Mr o s t s u b j e c t s " r e a d " t h r o u g h 2. 5 y e a r s w o r t h o f b a s a l s t o r i e s i n 6 4 d a y s ( o r 3 2 h o u r s ) o f Tprreaa cttmie cn e t! s t u d e n t s r e a d 5 t o 1 0 t i m e s a s m a n y w o r d s a s t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p s t u d e n t s d u r i n g t h i s 1 6 w e e k s t u d y. ( p ) S h a n y a n d B i e m i l l e r ( ) e vea d l u adt i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t, c o m p a r i n g t h e t w o e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s t o e a c h o t h e r a s w e l l a s t o t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p. T h e y f o u n d t h a t s t u d e n t s i n b o t h t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n, l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e nn s, i oa n d r e a d i n g s p e e d a n d a c c u r a c y, t h a n t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p t h a t c o m p l e t e d l e s s r e a d i n g a c t i v i t y. C o m p a r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t -a s, s s it sh te e d t a p e g r o u p s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t t e r i n l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n. T h e r e w e r e s i m i l a r g a i n s i n r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n, rdeian g s p e e d a n d a c c u r a c y b e t w e e n t h e t w o t r e a t m e n t s a n d t h e s e g a i n s w e r e h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n e d b y t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p s t u d e n t s. N e i t h e r t r e a t m e n t i m p r o v e d w o r d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n i s o l a t i o n, n o r d e c o d i n g p r o f i c i e n c y o n t h e W o o d c o c k R e a d i n g M a s t e r y T e s t. e T ha u t h o r s, n o n e t h e l e s s, c o n c l u d e d t h a t, " i n c r e a s e d r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e l e d t o i n c r e a s e d r e a d i n g c o m p e t e n c e. " ( p ) I n t h i s s t u d y, t h e n, s i m p l y e x p a n d i n g t h e v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g, w i t h o r w i t h o u t t e a c h e r f e e d b a c k, r e s u l t e d i n i m p r o v e d f l u e n c y ( a s m e a s u r e d y b r e a d i n g r a t e a n d r e a d i n g a c c u r a c y ) a n d i m p r o v e d r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n. I n o t h e r w o r d s, t h e g r o u p s t h a t c o m p l e t e d t h e g r e a t e r v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g a c t i v i t y d e m o n s t r a t e d a l a r g e r g a i n i n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t t h a n t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p s t u d e n t s. T h e p o t e n t i a l r o lo e f r e a d i n g v o l u m e i n d a i l y c l a s s r o o m r e a d i n g l e s s o n s w a s d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a l a -s r gcea l e o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d y c o n d u c t e d b y F o o r m a n, S c h a t s c h n e i d e r, E a k i n s, F l e t c h e r, M o a t s a n d F r a n c i s ( ). T h e y r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e k e y f a c t o r o f t h e r e a d i i n s t r u c t i o n o fe fd e rb y o v e r o b s e r v e d 1 s t a n d 2 n d g r a d e t e a c h e r s w a s t h e t i m e t h a t t h e y a l l o c a t e d t o t e x t r e a d i n g. K e y b e c a u s e i t w a s t h i s m e a s u r e o f r e a d i n g v o l u m e d u r i n g r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t e x p l a i n e d a n y v a r i a n c e o b s e r v e d o n a n y o f t h e o u t c o m e m e a s u r e s i n c l u d i n g w o r d r e c o g n i t i o n, d e c o d i n g, a n d r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n sn io on n e. o f o t h e r t i m e f a c t o r s, i n c l u d i n g t i m e s p e n t o n p h o n e m i c a w a r e n e s s, w o r d r e c o g n i t i o n o r d e c o d i n g w e r e r e l a t e d t o r e a d i n g g r o w t h. T h e s e f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t t e a c h e r s s h o u l d d e s i g n t h e ih r tl he as t s o n s s u c s t u d e n t r e a d i n g v o l u m e i s e x p a n d e d, p e r h a p s b y r e d u c i n g t h e t i m e p l a n n e d f o r o t h e r, n o t v e r y u s e f u l, a c t i v i t i e s t h a t t o o o f t e n r e p l a c e w i d e r r e a d i n g. T h e o u t c o m e s f r o m t h e s e s t u d i e s n o t e d a b o v e s h o u l d n o t b e u n e x p e c t e d. T o r g e s o n a n d H u d s o n ( ) rv ei e w e d s e v e r a l s t u d i e s, e a c h w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t n e i t h e r i m p r o v i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o f w o r d s o f i n i s o l a t i o n n o r i m p r o v i n g d e c o d i n g p r o f i c i e n c i e s i m p r o v e d e i t h e r r e a d i n g f l u e n c y o r c o m p r e h e n s i o n. I n o t h e r w o r d s, r e a d i n g f l u e n c y a n d r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n d e ve l o p l a r g e l y s e p a r a t e f r o m w o r d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d Id n e c ot hd ie n g c. a s e o f s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s, t o o m a n y h a v e h u g e d e f i c i t s i n r e a d i n g v o l u m e a n d t h e r e f o r e h u g e 1 6
5 H o w r e a d i n g v o l u m e a f f e c t s b o t h r e a d i n g f l u e n c y a n d r e a d i n g a c h i/ eavlel mienngtt o n d e f i c i t s i n t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s t h e y c a n r e c o g n i z e a u t o m a t i c a l l y, w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e i r a c h i e vi n g p e e r s. A s T o r g e s o n a n d H u d s o n ( ) c o n t e n d, " T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r a p p e a r s t o i n v o l v e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n m a k i n g u p f o r t h e h u g e d e f i c i t s i n a c c u r a t e r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e t h e o l d e r s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s h a v e a c c u m u l a t e d b y t h e t i m e t h e y r e a c h l a t e r e l eamrey n t s c h o o l... O n e o f t h e m a j o r r e s u l t s o f t h i s l a c k o f r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e i s a s e v e r e l i m i t a t i o n i n t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s t h e c h i l d r e n w i t h r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t c a n r e c o g n i z e a u t o m a t i c a l l y, o r a t a s i n g l e g l a n c e... S u c h ' c a t c h i n g u p ' w o u l d s e e m t o r e q u i a n ex t e n s i v e p e r i o d o f t i m e i n w h i c h t h e r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e w a s a c t u a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e i r p e e r s. ( p ) I f e d u c a t o r s h o p e t o i m p r o v e e i t h e r t h e o r a l r e a d i n g f l u e n c y o r t h e r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f s t r u g g l i n g r eras d e t h e n e x p a n d i n g r e a d i n g v o l u m e, i t s e e m s, m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y b e c o n s i d e r e d. C o n s i d e r e d a s i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e r e a d i n g v o l u m e o f e v e r y s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r a s a f i r s t t a s k t o c o m p l e t e p r i o r t o a t t e m p t i n g t o d e s i g n a n i n t e r v e n t i o n a d d r e s s t h e s t u d e n t s r e a d i nf fg i c u l t i e s. A n u n f o r t u n a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c u r r e n t m o d e l s f o r d i a g n o s i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s s o m e c h i l d r e n e x h i b i t w i t h r e a d i n g a c q u i s i t i o n i s a l m o s t t o t a l n e g l e c t o f a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h r e a d i n g v o l u m e d e f i c i t s a r e l i k e l y a m o r e c r i t i c a l nfoawc lteodr g e t hoaf n tkh e s o u n d s l i n k e d t o v o w e l d i g r a p h s. W h i l e d i a g n o s t i c i a n s a n d s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s r o u t i n e l y e v a l u a t e s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s p r o f i c i e n c i e s w i t h d e c o d i n g w o r d s i n i s o l a t i o n a n d t h e i r p r o f i c i e n c y w i t v a r i o u s d e c o d i n g s u b c o m p o n e n t s, I h a v e y e t d t o a f is ni n g l e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t w h o a t t e m p t e d t o t r a c k a n d e s t i m a t e t h e d a i l y r e a d i n g v o l u m e o f s t u d e n t s w i t h r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t t h e y a r e e v a l u a t i n g. T h u s, r e a d i n g v o l u m e d e f i c i t s a r e l a r g e l y o v e r l o o k w h e n e x p l a n a t i o n s o f r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l tliuees n c( y o r p rfo b l e m s ) a r e o f f e r e d a n d o v e r l o o k e d i n d e s i g n i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n l e s s o n s t o r e m e d i a t e t h e r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t y. R e a d i n g v o l u m e i s t y p i c a l l y n o t a d d r e s s e d i n I n d i v i d u a l E d u c a t i o n P l a n s ( I E P ) d e v e l o p e d f o r p u p i l s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s e v e n t h o u g h s o m e 8 0 e npt e rocf t h e s e s t u d e n t s e x h i b i t r e a d i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s. T h u s, w e h a v e a s e r i e s o f r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s n o t i n g t h a t p u p i l s s e r v e d b y s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s r e a d l e s s t h a n d o g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s ( A l l i n g t o n -F r& a n zm ce n G, i l l ; V a u g h n, M o o d y & S c h u m m, ; Y s s e l d y k e, A l g o z z i n e, S h i n n & M c G u e, ; Y s s e l d y k e, O S u l l i v a n, T h u r l o w & C h r i s t e n s o n, ) a n d t h a t s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s o f a l l s t r i p e s r e a d l e s s d u r i n g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n c l a s s r o o m r e a d i n g l e s s o n s t h a n d o a c h i e v i n g r e a d e r s ( A l l i n g t o n, ; ; Hei b e r t, ). O u t s i d e o f d a i l y r e a d i n g l e s s o n s s t u d e n t s h a v e o t h e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o e x p a n d t h e i r r e a d i n g v o l u m e. L e w i s a n d S a m u e l s ( ) c o n d u c t e d a -a nmaeltyas i s o f 4 9 s t u d i e s o f p r o v i d i n g s t u d e n t s w i t h i n d e p e n d e n t r e a d i n g t i m e d u r i n g t h e s c ht oh oe l y dc ao y n. c l u d e d t h a t, " n o s t u d y r e p o r t e d s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e r e s u l t s ; i n n o i n s t a n c e d i d a l l o w i n g s t u d e n t i m e f o r i n d e p e n d e n t r e a d i n g r e s u l t i n a d e c r e a s e i n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t. " ( p. 1 3 ) T h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t s i z e f o r t h e e i g h t t r u e e x p e r i m e n t s w a s i c d a = t 0 i. n 4g 2 a i nmdo d e r a t e a n d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t f o r v o l u m e o f r e a d i n g, T h e y a l s o c o n d u c t e d a n a n a l y s i s o f s t u d i e s t h a t w e r e i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r i n c l u d i n g i-a n n at lh ye s ims e. t a T h e r e w e r e s t u d e n t s a m p l e s i n t h e s e 4 3 s t u d i e s. O f t h e s e 1 0 8, s a8m5 p l oe f s t h e s a m p l e s w e r e s t u d e n t s w h o i m p r o v e d t h e i r r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t a f t e r p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s o m e f o r m o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t r e a d i n g a c t i v i ti y n. f o u r t e e n s a m p l e s t h e r e w e r e r e p o r t e d n o p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t, a n d n i n e r e p o r t e d n e g a t i ve e c t es f fo n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t. A l l o f t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t i n g n o e f f e c t s o r n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t w e r e d o n e w i t h o l d e r s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n m i d d l e o r s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s. T o p p i n g, S a m u e l s a n d P a u l ( ) p r o v i d e o t h e r n e c e s s a r y a s p e c t s t o c o n s i d e r w h e n a t t e m p t i n g t o e x p a n d t h e r e a d i n g v o l u m e o f s t u d e n t s. T h e i r a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e c o r d s o f s o m e 1 7
6 I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o u r n a l o f E l e m e n t a r y E.7 d u, c ai ts is ou n e, 1 V3 1o-2 l6, , s t u d e n t s ( p r i m a r i-6 l y s tk u d e n t s ) d r e w f r o m t h e n a t i o n a l d a t a b a s e c o m p i l e d b y t h e A c c e l e r a t e d R e a d e r f i r m. T h e y r e p o r t t h a t u n t i l q u i t e g oco od m prreea hdeinn sgi o n ( a t l e a s t 8 0 % c o m p r e h e n s i o n ) w a s a c h i e v e d t h e a d d e d e n g a g e m e n t i n r e a d i n g a d d e d l i t t l e, i f a n y, g r o w t h. A s T o p p i n g, e t a l ( ) n o t e : " T h e c u r r e n t s t u d y s u g g e s t e d t h a t s i m p l e i n f o-p r mr ao tc ie os ns i n g m o d e l s o f r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e w e r e i n a d e q u a. t ev o l u m e o f p r a c t i c e i s o n l y o n e r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e, a n d n o t a l l p r a c t i c e i s t h e s a m e. P u r e q u a l i t y o f i n d e p e n d e n t r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e a n d c l a s s r o o m p l a c e m e n t w e r e a s i m p o r t a n t a s q u a n t i t y o f r e a d i n g p r a c t i c e. T h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l s n e e d t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h r e e a rv i a b l e s n o t o n e, a n d d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a f f o r d a n c e s a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y a r e a c t i v e l y u t i l i z e d. " ( p ) T o p p i n g a n d c o l l e a g u e s ( ) m a y h a v e p r o v i d e d u s w i t h a b a s i s f o r e x p l a i n i n g w h y t h e r e s e a r c h o n e x p a n d i n g r e a d i n g a c t i v i t y m a y s e e m s iis nt ce on nt. N o n e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s o f e x t e n s i v e r e a d i n g t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e a t t e m p t e d t o c o n t r o l f o r 1 ) t h e l e v e l a c c u r a c y t h a t w a s a c h i e v e d w h i l e r e a d i n g, 2 ) t h e l e v e l o f c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l r e a d, 3 ) t h e v a r i e t y o f t e x t s t h a t b al re e t ao v as iu lb aj e c t s, 4 ) t h e r o l -s e eolf e cst ei lo fn o f t e x t s t o b e r e a d, o r 5 ) t h e c l a s s r o o m c o n t e x t o f s t u d e n t s w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d ie n a c th h e o f s t u d i e s. t h e s e f i v e f a c t o r s, h o w e v e r, d o s e e m r e l a t e d t o t h e o u t c o m e s o b s e r v e d. S o w e h a v e a r e s e a r c h b a s i s f o mr i na g s s ut h a t e x p a n d i n g r e a d i n g a c t i v i t y w i l l i m p r o v e r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t a n d r e a d i n g f l u e n c y a s w e l l. T h e r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s m o d e l i s l i k e l y t o e x p a n d s t u d e n t s o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e a d a n d t h i s m a y b e t h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r i t s o b s e r v e d s u c c e s s i n d e v e l o p i n g f cl y u. e n S i m p l y e x p a n d i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o r e a d s e e m s t o g e n e r a l l y p r o d u c e i m p r o v e d r e a d i n g f l u e n c y a n d r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n ( K r a s h e n, ). T h u s, p e r h a p s, r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s l e s s o n s a r e n o t a c t u a l l y n e c e s s a r y o r c a n b e u s e f u l w h e n u s e d f o r o n l y a s h o rrt i opd e o f t i m e. W h y m a n y c h i l d r e n n e v e r a c q u i r e f l u e n t r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c i e s a n d w h a t t o d o a b o u t i t. W h i l e t h e r e s t r i c t e d r e a d i n g v o l u m e o f s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s, w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e i r h i g h e r a c h i e v i n g p e e r s, h a s a s t r o n g r e s e a r c h b a s e a s a n i m p o r tian n t t hfe a c dt eo vr e l o p m e n t, o r t h e l a c k o f d e v e l o p m e n t, o f r e a d i n g f l u e n c y, t h e r e i s a l s o e v i d e n c e t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t, b e y o n d d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a d i n g v o l u m e, m a y a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o d y s f l u e n t r e a d i n g b e h a v i o r. F o r i n snty a nsc te r, u gmgal i n g r e a d e r s r e a d a l o u d w o r d -b y -w o r d w i t h l i t t l e p h r a s i n g o r i n t o n a t i o n. T h i s s o r t o f d y s f l u e n t r e a d i n g m a y b e t h e r e s u l t o f b e i n g g i v e n a t e x t t h a t w a s s i m p l y t o o d i f f i c u l t g i v e n t h e i r l e v e l o f r e a d d e v e l o p m e n t. F l u e n t r e a d i n g o n l y o c c u r s ow rh ae l n r e a d i n g a c c u r a c y i s h i g h. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d, m a n y s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s s t i l l r e-b a d y -w o r d e v e n w h e n g i v e n a t e x t t h a t t h e y c a n r e a d q u i t e a c c u r a t e l y. T h e s e r e a d e r s s e e m t o h a v e h a b i t u a t e d r e a d i n g -b ya-w s o ra d w o r d r e a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e. T h i r t y-f i v e y e a r s a g o I p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r ( A l l i n g t o n, ) d o c u m e n t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o b s e r v e d d u r i n g o r a l r e a d i n g s e g m e n t s o f r e a d i n g l e s s o n s i n t h e p r i m a r y g r a d e s. U s i n g a u d i o-t a p e s o f t h e o r a l r e a d i n g s e g m e n t s o f t h e r e a d i n g l e s s o n s p r i m a r y g r a d e t e a c h e r s p r o v i de d, I n o t e d t h a t w h e n w o r k i n g w i t h t h e s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s i n t h e c l a s s r o o m ( a s c o n t r a s t e d w i t h w o r k i n g w i t h t h e a c h i e v i n g r e a d e r s ), t h e t e a c h e r s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y t o : 1 ) i n t e r r u p t t h e o r a l r e a d i n g o f s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s, 2 ) i n t e r r u p t s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s qmu oi rc e k l y, a n d 3 ) a f t e r i n t e r r u p t i n g o f f e r d i f f e r e n t v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s t o s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s a n d a c h i e v i n r e a d e r s. 1 8
7 H o w r e a d i n g v o l u m e a f f e c t s b o t h r e a d i n g f l u e n c y a n d r e a d i n g a c h i/ eavlel mienngtt o n T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e a c t u a l l y q u i t e s t r i k i n g w i t h a l m o s t e v e r y m i s c u e m a d e b y s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s r e s u l t i n g i n a n i m m e d i a t e t e a c h e r i on n t e rwrhu ip lt e i m a n y m i s c u e s m a d e b y a c h i e v i n g r e a d e r s p r o d u c e d n o r e s p o n s e f r o m t h e t e a c h e r. W h e n t e a c h e r s r e s p o n d e d t o a c h i e v i n g r e a d e r m i s c u e s t h e y t y p i c a l l y t a r g e t -m e d a k is ne g n s eo r s i m p l y r e r e a d i n g t h e s e n t e n c e. T e a c h e r r e s p o n s e s t o s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e rls l y t yt pa ir cg ae t e d l e t t e r s o r s o u n d s a n d r a r e l y t a r g e t e d s e-m n as ke i n g. P e r h a p s, I a r g u e d, t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e a c h e r r e s p o n s e s t o m i s c u e s o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h t h e t e a c h e r i n t e r r u p t e d t h e t w o g r o u p s r e a d e r s ( a c h i e v i n g a n d s t r u g g l i n g ) d i f f e r e ad c. h if eo v i n g r e a d e r s t h e m o s t c o m m o n p o i n t o f t e a c h e r i n t e r r u p t i o n, w h e n a n i n t e r r u p t i o n w a s o b s e r v e d, c a m e a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e n t e n c e t h a t w a s b e i n g r e a d w h e n t h e m i s c u e o c c u r r e d. F o r s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s t h e m o s t c o m m o n p o i n t o f i n t e r r u p t i o n w a s t h e u t tcee r a on f a n i n c o r r e c t w o r d o r l e t t e r H os fo fu mn ad n., e t a l ( ) l a t e r r e p o r t e d t h a t i m m e d i a t e i n t e r r u p t i o n s h a d a d e t r i m e n t a l i m p a c t o n s t u d e n t s r e a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e s w h e n c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r, m o r e d e l a y e d i n t e r r u p t i o n o p t i o n s. I h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e ( A lt lo in n, g ) t h a t t h e c o m m o n p a t t e r n b o t h H o f f m a n a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s ( ) a n d I o b s e r v e d, i n t e r r u p t i n g s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s i m m e d i a t e l y w h e n t h e y m i s c u e, c r e a t e s b o t h p a s s i v e a n d -r en fo ln e c t i v e r e a d e r s a s w e l l a-b s y -w w oorrd d r e a d e r s. I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c io n ut e d u s e o f s u c h i n t e r r u p t i v e p r a c t i c e w i l l s t y m i e a l l a t t e m p t s t o p r o d u c e r e a d i n g f l u e n c y. C r e a t i n g a n -i o nn t e r r u p t i v e r e a d i n g e n v i r o nwmheant t. w e a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o p r o d u c e i s a c t i v e a n d r e f l e c t i v e s i l e n t r e- at dh ea rt s i s, r e a d e r s w h o a r e e n g a g e d t hw e i tsh t o r y a n d w h o n o t i c e w h e n t h e y m i s c u e a n d t h e n a t t e m p t t o -cso er lr fe c t t h e i r m i s c u e. B u t a n i m m e d i a t e t e a c h e r i n t e r r u p t i o n a f t e r a n o r a l r e a d i n g m i s c u e u n d e r m i n e s b o t h o f t h e s e g o a l s. I n t e r r u p t i o n s a l w a y s i n t e r f e r e w i t h r e a d i n g e n g a g e m e n t a n d p r to o m p t s o u n d i t o u t, t o l o o k a t t h e f i r s t l e t t e r, o r a s k i n g w h a t i s t h e s o u n d o f t h e v o w e l t a k e a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m m a k i n g s e n s e o w h a t w a s r e a d.p e r h a p s a s t e a d y d i e t o f i m m e d i a t e i n t e r r u p t i o n s a n d l e t t e r a n d s o u n d f o c u s e d p r o m p t s a c t u a l l y f o s t e r o tn h-re e fn l e c t i v e a n d w o-b ryd -w o r d r e a d i n g s o c o m m o n l y o b s e r v e d w i t h s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s. I t i s w i t h t h e s e s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s w h o r -b e ayd -w ow ro d r d e v e n w h e n t h e y a r e r e a d i n g a c c u r a t e l y t h a t r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s c a n b e a n e f f e c t i v e P esroh laupts i otn h. i s i s b e ce a uisn m o s t c a s e s t h e r e p e a t e d r e a d i n g s a r e d o n e w i t h o u t a t e a c h e r i n t e r r u p t i n g t o c o r r e c t e a c h m i s c u e. W i t h o u t t e a c h e r i n t e r r u p t i o n s s t u d e n t s r e a d a l o n g w i t h g r e a t e r f l u e n c y. T h e r e i s n o n e e d t o r e a d s l o w l y a n d t o l o o k u p a t t h e t e a c h e r w h e n y o u ea n cwoou rn d t e rt h a t i s u n k n o w n. A s s u m i n g t h e t e x t i s b e i n g r e a d w i t h a h i g h l e v e l o f a c c u r a c y, i t a l s o m e a n s t h a t m o r e i n s t a n c e s o f c o r r e c t w o r d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a r e a c c u m u l a t i n g. E v e r y i n s t a n c e o f c o r r e c t p r o n u n c i a t i o n l e a d s t o a n o t h e r t r a c e o n t h e r e a d etr h as t bwrialil n m a k e t h e r e s p o n s e t o t h e n e x t e n c o u n t e r o f t h a t w o r d m o r e l i k e l y a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e. T h e p o i n t i s t h i s, i f w e w a n t t o f o s t e r f l u e n t r e a d i n g t h e n w e n e e d t o c r e a t e a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e f l u e n t r e a d i n g i s f o s t e r e d n o t Ss uh pi pft ri en sg s ead w. a y f r o m i m m e d i a t e l y i n t e r r u p t i n g s t u d e n t s w h e n t h e y m i s c u e o n a w o r d a n d m o v i n g t o w a r d s a d e l a y e d r e s p o n s e t h a t f o c u s e s o n m a k i n g s e n s e r a t h e r t h a n o n s u r f a c e l e v e l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o t h e m i s r e a d w o r d w i l l b o t h f o s t e r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f f leufe lnet c tain vd e rr e a d i n g. A d o p t i n g w h a t I h a v e d u b b e d t h e P a-p u sr eo m p t -P r a i s e -P ( P-P ) i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n w h i l e l i s t e n i n g t o s t u d e n t s r e a d i n g a l o u d i s o n e s t r a t e g y f o r b e c o m i n g a m o r e p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e o n s t u d e n t s s t r u g g l i n g w i t h f l u e n c y. I-P n -P t hp e a t Pt e r n t h e t e a c h e r w a i t s u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e s e n t e n c e w h e n a s t u d e n t i s r e a d i n g a l o u d a n d m i s r e a d s a w o r d. W h e n t h e s t u d e n t h a s r e a c h e d t h e e n d o f t h e s e n t e n c e, t h e t e a c h e r s i m p l y a s k s. D o e s t h a t s e n t e n c e t h a t y o u j u s t r e a d m a k e s e n s e t o y o u? O r, D i d t ht ae t n c se e ns o u n d r i g h t t o y o u? T h e g o a l i s t o s t i m u l a t e s e l f-r e g u l a t i o n t h e a b i l i t y t o m o n i t o r o n e s o w n r e a d i-m n g o. n i ts oe rl if n g i s c e n t r a l t o t h e 1 9
8 I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o n i c J o u r n a l o f E l e m e n t a r y E.7 d u, c ai ts is ou n e, 1 V3 1o-2 l6, d e v e l o p m e n t o f f l u e n t r e a d i n g a n d -m so en li ft o r i n g i s c e n t r a l t o -c osr er le fc t i n g r e s p o n s e s w h e n o r a l r e a d i n g sm ci u e s o c c u r ( C l a y, ). B r e a k o u t B o x P a u s e W a i t u n t i l t h e r e a d e r h a d f i n i s h e d r e a d i n g t h e s e n t e n c e b e f o r e y o u i n t e r r u p t a n d c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m i s c u e. P r o m p t T h e k e y p r o m p t y o u w a n t t o m a k e i s t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o m a k i n g s e n s e w h i l e r e a d i n g. P r a is e - - T w o p o s s i b i l i t i e s h e pr re a i s e m a k i n g s e n s e o r p r a i s e t h e e f f o r t t o m a k e s e n s e. I f y o u w a n t t o f o s t e r b e t t e r u s e o f a v a i l a b l e d e c o d i n g k n o w l e d g e, f i n e, b u t n o t i n t h e m i d d l e o f a n o r a l r e a d i n g s e g m e n t. N o t e t h e m i s c u e a n d a f t e r t h e r e a d i n g s e g m e n t i s c o m p l e t e d y o u c a n d i s c u s s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d e c o d i n g s t r a t e g y t h e c h i l d m i g h t h a v e u s e d. M a n y s t r u g g l i n g r e a d e r s d o b e t t e r w i t h d e c o d i n g i n i s o l a t i o n t h a n d e c o d i n g w o r d s w h i l e r e a d i n g. E n h a n c i n g r e a d i n g v o l u m e b y e x p a n d i n g a c c e s s t o O n ct e x ty s o. u h a v e cera t e d a n o n- i n t e r r u p t i v e c l a s s r o o m r e a d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t y o u c a n f o c u s o n d e v e l o p i n g a c l a s s r o o m w h e r e a l l s t u d e n t s c a n l o c a t e b o o k s t h e y r e a l l y w a n t t o r e a d a n d c a n r e a d w i t h a h i g h l e v e l o a c c u r a c y, s a y w i t h 9 8 % w o r d s c o r r e c t l y p r o n o u n c e d o r h i g gh te or n,( A Ml cl Ci un i s t o n & B i l l e n, i n p r e s s ). T h i s t y p i c a l l y m e a n s y o u w i l l d e nv e el d o p t oa c l a s s r o o m l i b r a r y o f b o o k s t h a t p r o v i d e t e x t s a c r o s s t h e r a n g e o f r e a d i n g l e v e l s a n d i n t e r e s t s o f s t u d e n t s i n y o u r c l a s s r o o m. W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r a n g e o f d i f f i c utl ht e y to ef x t s y o u w i l l n e e d i n y o u r c l a s s r o o m l i b r a r y r e m e m b e r t h a t, a s H a r g i s ( ) d e m o n s t r a t e d s o p o w e r f u l l y, t h-g a t r a di e n s e c o n d y o u c a n e x p e c t t o h a v e s o m e c h i l d r e n s t i l l r e a d i n g a t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g r e a d i n g l e v e l s ( e. g p r i m e r, f i r s t r e a d e r ) a n d c sh oi ml ed r e n w h o c a n r e a d f o u- ra tn hd f i f t-g hr a d e t e x t s. B y f o -u r t h g r a d e t h i s g a p b e t w e e n y o u r b e s t a n d w o r s t r e a d e r s w i d e n s e v e n f u r t h e r w i t h s o m e c h i l d r e n r e a d i n g a t t h e f-g i r as dt e l e v e l a n d o t h e r s a t t h e -gnr ia nd te h l e v e l! ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) R e a d i n g G r a d e E q u i v a l e n t O n t h e l e f t s i d e o f t h e g r a p h i s t h e s t u d e n t c u r r e n t g r a d e p l a c e m e n t l e v e tl t. o m A c ar ro e s s t ht e h e g rb ao d e l e v e l e q u i v a l e n c i e s. T h e a r r o w h e a d o n t h e l e f t i n d i c a t e s t h e l o w e s t s c o r i n g c h i l d r e n a n d te hs e f ro ar n gte h e o f s c o r l o w e s t 2 5 % o f s t u d e n t s. T h e a r r o w h e a d o n t h e r i g h t i n d i c a t e s t h e r e a d i n g l e v e l o f tuh de e nttos p asncd o r i n g s t t h e l e n gh t o f t h e a r r o w i n d i c a t e s t h e r a n g e o f r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c y o f t h e t o p 2 5 % o f s t u d e n t es n. T h e a r e a b e t w e t h e b r a c k e t s i s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e m i d d l e 5 0 % o f s t u d e n t s. F i g u r e 1. R a n g e o f r e a d i n g l e v e l s f o u n d t y p i c a l l y i n A m e r i c a n e l e m e n t a r y c l a s s r o o m s ( D e v e l o p e d f r o m t h e d a t a i n H a r g i s, ) 2 0
9 H o w r e a d i n g v o l u m e a f f e c t s b o t h r e a d i n g f l u e n c y a n d r e a d i n g a c h i/ eavlel mienngtt o n A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e r a1 n gt e h e o f r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c y w i d e n s a s c h i l d r e n g o t h r o u g h t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l y e a r. T h e d a t a i n t h e F i g u r e s h o w i n g t h e r a n g e o f r e a d i n g p r o f i c i e n c y a t e a c h g r a d e l e v e l i s a g o o d g u i d e a s y o u d e v e l o p y o u r c l a s s r o o m l i b r a r y. T h e b r e a d t h o f p r o f i c i e n c y le el vs a t e a c h g r a d e i s w h y y o u s h o u l d p l a n o n a c q u i r i n g 1, i n d i v i d u a l t i t l e s f o r y o u r c l a s s r o o m l i b r a r y. C l a s s r o o m l i b r a r i e s p r o v i d e c h i l d r e n w i t h e a s y a c c e s s t o a r a n g e o f b o o k s t h a t h a v e b e e n s e l e c t e d a t a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l s o f d i f f i c u l t y. C l as s s rt o o m b o ao ck cs e i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n s c h o o l s w h e r e m a n y c h i l d r e n l i v e i n p o v e r t y. C l a s s r o o m a c c e s s i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e s o m a n y p o o r c h i l d r e n o w n n o t a s i n g l e b o o k, m u c h l e s s h a v e a h o m e l i b r a r y s u c h a s t h e o n e s y o u c a n f i n d i n m a n y m i d d l e c l a s s h o m e s. T h e n u m b e r o f b o o k s i n t h e h o m e i s a p o w e r f u l a n d s i g n i f i c a n t p r e d i c t o r o f c h i l d r e n s r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t ( S c h u b e r t & B e c k e r, ), e v e n w h e n f a m i l y i n c o m e, p a r e n t a l e d u c a t i o n, l a n g u a g e u s e d i n t h e h o m e a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s a r e c o n t r o l l e d. I n a 2 7 n a t i o n i n te r n a t i o n a l s t u d y w i t h o v e r 7 0, c a s e s E v a n s, K e l l y, S i k o r a a n d T r e i m a n ( ) r e p o r t t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f b o o k s i n t h e h o m e, a f t e r c o n t r o l l i n g f o r S E S, f a t h e r s o c c u p a t i o n, a n p a r e n t a l e d u c a t i o n t h e y r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f h o m e a c c e s s t o bbo ou ot k s t hwe a s a s a m e a s p a r e n t a l e d u c a t i o n, t w i c e a s l a r g e a s f a t h e r s o c c u p a t i o n, a n d s t r o n g e r t h a n f a m i l S E S. I t i s c h i l d r e n f r o m -i nlco owm e f a m i l i e s t h a t r o u t i n e l y l a c k a c c e s s t o b o o k s. T h e y r a r e l y h a v e h o m e l i b r a r i e s o f b o o k s. T h e y l i v e i n n e i g h b o r h ro e o d s f e w h eb o o k s a r e a v a i l a b l e, e i t h e r t o p u r c h a s e o r t o c h e c k o u t o f a c o m m u n i t y l i b r a r y. W o r s e s t i l l, i n t h e s c h o o l s t a t t e n d b o t h t h e s c h o o l l i b r a r y a n d t h e c l a s s r o o m l i b r a r i e s h a v e f a r f e w e r b o o k s t h a n a r e f o u n d i n m i d d l e c l a s s s c h o o l s a n d l i b r aur miae n s &( N ec e l a n o, ; P r i b e s h, G a v i g a n & D i c k i n s o n, ) ). T h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h i l d r e n s b o o k s a r e s t r i k i n g. N e u m a n a n d C e l a n ( ) r e p o r t t h a t t h e r e w e r e b o o k s f o r s a l e a t t h e f o u r s t o r e s t h a t c a r r i e d c h i l d r e b o o k s i n t h e hi-p g o v e r t y n e i g h b o r h o o d t h e y s t u d i e d. A t t h e s a m e t i m e, i n a n e a r- b y m i d d l e c l a s s c o m m u n i t y t h e r e w e r e 1 6, c h i l d r e n s b o o k s a v a i l a b l e f o r p u r c h a s e. O f c o u r s e, t h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s d i f f e r e d n o t j u s t o n a v e r a g e f a m i l y i n c o m e b u t a l s o i n t h e n u m b e r s o f b o o k s a v a i l a b l e f o r p u r c h a s e f r o m m e r c h a n t s w h o s o l d c h i l d r e n s b o o k s. S c h o o l l i b r a r i e s i n t h e s e t w o c o m m u n i t i e s o n e p o o r a n d t h e o t h e r n o t p o ofr o l l o w e d t h e s a m e p a t t e r n. T h e r e w e r e 2 6 b o o k s p e r c h i l d a v a i l a b l e i n -cmliadsds l e s c h o o l l i b r a r i e s b u t h a l uf m btehr a t n a v a i l a b l e p e r c h i l d ( 1 3 ) i n t h e s c h o o l l i b r a r i e s l o-p coa vt e rd t y i n c ohmimguhn i t i e s. P r i b e s h a n d c o l l e a g u e s ( ) e x t e n d t h i s f i n d i n g a n d n o t e t h a t s c h o o l s a t t e n d e d b y c h i l d r e n f r o m h i g h e r-i n c o m e f a m i l i e s p u r c h a s e m o r e t h a n t w i c e a s m a n y b o otkhs e fsocr h o o l l i b r a r i e s a s d o s c h o o l s e n r o l l i n g m o s t l y c h i l d r e n f r-i onm c ol moe w f a m i l i e s. A c c e s s t o b o o k s i s, o f c o u r s e, l i n k e d t o v o l u n t a r y r e a d i n g a c t i v i t y ( M c Q u i l l a n & A u, A n d, n o m a t t e r h o w y o u l o o k a t t h e i s s u e, p o o r c h i l d r e n h a v e s u b s tr ae n tl iamli lty e d m o a c c e s s t o b o o k s t h a n d o m i d-c d l ae s s c h i l d r e n.. B u t w h e n y o u l i v e i n a b o o k d e s e r t, a s d o t o o m a n y c h i l d r e n f r o m l-i onw c o m e f a m i l i e s, o n e s h o u l d n o t e x p e c t t h a t t h e s e c h i l d r e n w i l l e n g a g e i n m u c h v o l u n t a r y r e a d i n g. I n c r e a s i n g c h i l d r e n s as c cteo s b o o k s h a s b e e n s h o w n t o h a v e d r a m a t i c a l l y p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s o n r e a d i n g g r o w t h a n d a c h i e v e m e n t ( L i n d s a y, ). Y e t, e v e n w i t h t h i s b o d y o f r e s e a r c h e s t a b l i s h i n g t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n -i f rno cm o mle o wf a m i l i e s h a v e r e s t r i c t e d a c c e s s t o b o o k s a n d t h a t a l t eg r itnh e s i t u a t i o n s o t h a t e a s e o f a c c e s s t o b o o k s i s i m p r -o v e d f o r l o w i n c o m e c h i l d r e n i m p r o v e s t h e i r r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t w e l a r g e l y i g n o r e t h e d a t a a n d a t t r i b u t e t h e l i m i t e d p r o f i c i e n c i e s i n r e a d i n g a m o n g p o o r c h i l d r e n t o o t h e r f a c t o r s a n d t h e f o c u s o n t h oe s o t h e r f a c t o r s w h e n d e s i g n i n g o u r i n t e r v e n t i o n s! 2 1
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