Mrs. Addesa Astronomy Room A137

Transcription

1 Mrs. Addesa Astronomy Room A37 Formatted: Left: 0.5", Right: 0.5", Top: 0.5", Bottom: 0.5", Width: ", Height: 8.5" Class Description This course will be an introduction to the universe and the techniques used to study it. Topics include laws of planetary motion, the solar system, types of stars, stages in a star s life, galaxies, cosmology, and telescopes and other instruments. Note: Basic mathematical skills, such as multiplication and division done on a calculator, are required in this course. Grading Policy Students will be graded as follows: 0 Labs 20% Homework/ Quizzes 20% Projects 520% 3 Unit Tests 200% Final 2520% TOTAL PERCENTAGE 00% Materials Needed: Folder or Binder (whichever is preferred) Pens and Pencils Class Expectations Class Expectations will be determined by the teacher and students, and will be posted in the classroom. Students are asked to follow all expectations posted in the classroom. Test/ Quiz Students will take a test on material covered in each unit. Quizzes will be given throughout each unit. It is a student s responsibility If you are absent for a test or quiz, it is your responsibility to mto makeup the a test or quiz the day you return if absent the day of. Failure to do so will result in a grade of zero on the test. Homework Homework will be given periodically. If you students are absent, it is your responsibility to turn in homework that was due the day you they were absent. It is also your the student s responsibility to see me to find out what you he/she missed. Labs

2 In addition to regular class assignments, students will also complete several a minimum of 0 lab activities.s At the end of the course, students will take a final exam based on the topics covered throughout the year. ***If looking for an evening activity, the BAA (Buffalo Astronomical Association) holds a public viewing night at their observatory at Beaver Meadows the first Saturday night of each month April through October. It is a great evening where members bring various telescopes and their expertise. The observatory also boosts a 20 Obsession Telescope (one of the largest in WNY) and computerized telescopes with which they capture some amazing images. Public night is held rain or shine. You can see a list of their current events at Topic Big Questions Lab/ Activities/ Projects Introduction Where are you & Earth in the Universe? Units & & the User s How does the time span of human civilization compare with the age of the universe? Conversions/ Guide to the Why study astronomy? Angles & Galaxy Coordinates The User s Guide to the Galaxy Light & Telescopes Cycles of the Sun & Moon How are names chosen for constellations and stars? How can you compare the brightness of stars? How does the sky appear to move as Earth rotates? What is light? How do telescopes work? What are the powers and limitations of telescopes? What kind of instruments so astronomers use to record and analyze light gathered by telescopes? Why must some telescopes be located in space? What causes the seasons? How do astronomical cycles affect Earth s climate? Why does the moon go through phases? Constellation Detective Activity Intro to Telescopes NAAP Moon Phase Simulator Lab; Standards.c.2.2a..a.b.c.d.g.2a HS-ESS-4 HS-ESS-7, Bold, Italic, Underline Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Level: + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5" Formatted: Font: 0 pt, Italic Formatted: Font: 0 pt Formatted: Font: 0 pt, Italic, Bold, Italic, Underline Formatted: Font: 0 pt Formatted: Font: 0 pt, Bold, Italic, Underline Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Level: + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5" Formatted: Font: 0 pt Formatted: Font: 0 pt Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Level: + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5", Bold, Italic

3 The Origin of Astronomy Atoms, Spectra, & Doppler Effect What causes lunar and solar eclipse? Lunar Cycle Flip book How did classical philosophers describe Earth s place in the universe? How did Copernicus revise that ancient history? Why was Galileo condemned by the Inquisition? How did Isaac Newton change humanity s view of nature? How do atoms interact with light to produce spectra? What are the types of spectra you can observe? What can you learn from spectra of celestial objects? The Sun What can you learn about the sun by observing its surface and atmosphere? What are the dark sunspots? Why does the sun go through and 22 year cycles of activity? What is the source of the sun s energy? Family of How far away are the stars? Stars/ Star How much energy do stars make? Formation & How do spectra of stars allow you to determine their temperatures? Structure How big are stars? How much mass do stars contain? How do astronomers study gas and dust between the stars, called the interstellar medium? How do stars form from the interstellar medium? How do stars maintain their stability? How do stars make energy? How do the luminosities and lifetimes of stars depend on their masses? Death of What happens to a star when it uses up the last of the hydrogen in its core? Stars, What evidence shows that the stars really evolve? Neutron Stars How will the sun die? Test upon completion/ Presentation on Influential Person in Astronomy Observation Lab Motions of the Sun Star Counting/ Star Dome? HR-Diagram Lab,..a.b.c.d.f.h.i HS-ESS-6.2 HS-ESS-2 HS-ESS-3 HS-ESS-3.2b HS-ESS-3.2b HS-ESS-3

4 & Black What happens if an evolving star is in a binary system? Holes How do massive stars die? How does theory predict the existence of neutron stars? How do astronomers know neutron stars really exist? How does theory predict the existence of black holes? How can astronomers be sure that black holes really exist? Milky Way What is the evidence that we live in a galaxy? Galaxy What is the evidence that our Milky Way is a spiral galaxy, and what are the spiral arms? What lies at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy? How did the Milky Way Galaxy form and evolve? Galaxies How do astronomers know what galaxies are like? Do other galaxies contain dark matter and supermassive black holes, as does our own galaxy? Why are there different kinds of galaxies? Why do some galaxies produce tremendous eruptions? The Solar What are the observed properties of the solar system as a whole? System How did the solar system form? How do planets form? What do astronomers know about other planetary systems? Earth & Moon, Mercury, Venus, & Mars Outer Solar System How do the Earth and its moon compare with other Terrestrial worlds? How has Earth changed and evolved since it formed? Why is the moon airless, heavily cratered. And geologically inactive? How are the histories of Earth and the moon connected? How is Mercury similar to, and different from, Earth s moon? How does distance from the sun affect a planet and its atmosphere? How does size determine the geologic activity and evolution of a planet? What is the evidence that Venus and Mars were once more Earth-like, and why did they change? What are the properties of the Jovian planets? What is the evidence that some moons in the outer solar system have been geologically active? Test Upon Completion Eclipsing Binary Simulator Cosmic Distance Ladder Lab; Galaxy Sorting Activity Scale Model of Solar System Activity Planets Lab Habitable Zones Project: Planet Art.2b HS-ESS-2 HS-ESS-3.2a HS-ESS-2 HS-ESS-3.2a HS-ESS-4..a.b.2a.2c.2d.2e HS-ESS-4 HS-ESS-6.b.d.2c.2d HS-ESS-4 HS-ESS-6

5 Astrobiology, Review NYS Science Standards 207 HS-ESS-2 HS-ESS-3 HS-ESS-4 How are planetary rings formed and maintained? What do Pluto and the other Kuiper belt objects tell us about the formation of the solar system? Where do meteors and meteorites come from? What are asteroids? What are comets? What happens when asteroids and comets hit Earth and other planets? What is life? How did life originate on Earth? Does life exist on other worlds? Can humans communicate with intelligent beings on other worlds?.b.2c.2d HS-ESS-6.2h Develop a model based on evidence to illustrate the life span of the Sun and the role of nuclear fusion in the Sun's core to release energy that eventually reaches Earth in the form of radiation. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the energy transfer mechanisms that allow energy from nuclear fusion in the Sun's core to reach Earth. Examples of evidence for the model could include observations of the masses and lifetimes of other stars, as well as the ways that the Sun's radiation varies due to sudden solar flares ("space weather"), the - year sunspot cycle, and non-cyclic variations over centuries.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include details of the atomic and sub-atomic processes involved with the Sun's nuclear fusion.] Construct an explanation of the Big Bang theory based on astronomical evidence of light spectra, motion of distant galaxies, and composition of matter in the universe. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the astronomical evidence of the red shift of light from galaxies as an indication that the universe is currently expanding at an accelerated rate, the cosmic microwave background as the remnant radiation from the Big Bang, and the observed composition of ordinary matter of the universe, primarily found in stars and interstellar gases (from the spectra of electromagnetic radiation from stars), which matches that predicted by the Big Bang theory (3/4 hydrogen and /4 helium).] Communicate scientific ideas about the way stars, over their life cycle, produce elements. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how nucleosynthesis varies as a function of the mass of a star and the stage of its lifetime.] [Assessment Boundary: Details of the many different nucleosynthesis pathways for stars of differing masses are not assessed.] Use mathematical or computational representations to predict the motion of orbiting objects in the solar system. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on Newtonian gravitational laws governing orbital motions, which apply to human-made satellites as well as planets and moons.] [Assessment Boundary: Mathematical representations for the gravitational attraction of bodies and Kepler's Laws of orbital motions should not deal with more than two bodies, nor involve calculus.], Bold, Italic Formatted: List Paragraph, Bulleted + Level: + Aligned at: 0.25" + Indent at: 0.5" Formatted: Font: 0 pt Formatted: Font: 0 pt, Bold, Underline, Font Formatted: No bullets or numbering, Font Formatted Table, Font, Font, Font

6 HS-ESS-6 Apply scientific reasoning and evidence from ancient Earth materials, meteorites, and other planetary surfaces to construct an account of Earth's formation and early history. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on using available evidence within the solar system to reconstruct the early history of Earth, which formed along with the rest of the solar system 4.6 billion years ago. Examples of evidence could include the absolute ages of ancient materials (obtained by radiometric dating of meteorites, moon rocks, and Earth's rocks and minerals), the sizes and compositions of solar system objects, and the impact cratering record of planetary surfaces.], Font HS-ESS-7 Construct an explanation using evidence to support the claim that the phases of the moon, eclipses, tides and seasons change cyclically. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis of the explanation should include how the relative positions of the moon in its orbit, Earth, and the Sun cause different phases, types of eclipses or strength of tides. Examples of evidence could include various representations of relative positions of the Sun, Earth and moon.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include mathematical computations to support explanations but rather relies on conceptual modeling using diagrams to show how celestial bodies interact to create these cyclical changes.], Font NYS Earth Science Standards The Earth and celestial phenomena can be described by principles of relative motion and perspective.. Students explain complex phenomena, such as tides, variations in day length, solar insolation, apparent motion of the planets, and annual traverse of the constellations.a Most objects in the solar system are in regular and predictable motion. These motions explain such phenomena as the day, the year, seasons, phases of the moon, eclipses, and tides. Gravity influences the motions of celestial objects. The force of gravity between two objects in the universe depends on their masses and the distance between them. Formatted: Font: Bold, Underline, Font Formatted Table, Font, Font Nine planets move around the Sun in nearly circular orbits..b The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun located at one of the foci. Earth is orbited by one moon and many artificial satellites., Font.c.d Earth's coordinate system of latitude and longitude, with the equator and prime meridian as reference lines, is based upon Earth's rotation and our observation of the Sun and stars. Earth rotates on an imaginary axis at a rate of 5 degrees per hour. To people on Earth, this turning of the planet makes it seem as though the Sun, the moon, and the stars are moving around Earth once a day. Rotation provides a basis for our system of local time; meridians of longitude are the basis for time zones., Font, Font

7 .e The Foucault pendulum and the Coriolis effect provide evidence of Earth's rotation. Earth's changing position with regard to the Sun and the moon has noticeable effects., Font.f Earth revolves around the Sun with its rotational axis tilted at 23.5 degrees to a line perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, with the North Pole aligned with Polaris. During Earth's one-year period of revolution, the tilt of its axis results in changes in the angle of incidence of the Sun's rays at a given latitude; these changes cause variation in the heating of the surface. This produces seasonal variation in weather., Font.g Seasonal changes in the apparent positions of constellations provide evidence of Earth's revolution..h The Sun's apparent path through the sky varies with latitude and season..i Approximately 70 percent of Earth's surface is covered by a relatively thin layer of water, which responds to the gravitational attraction of the moon and the Sun with a daily cycle of high and low tides. Describe current theories about the origin of the universe and solar system., Font, Font, Font.2 Students describe current theories about the origin of the universe and solar system The universe is vast and estimated to be over ten billion years old. The current theory is that the universe was created from an explosion called the Big Bang. Evidence for this theory includes:, Font.2a cosmic background radiation a red-shift (the Doppler effect) in the light from very distant galaxies., Font Stars form when gravity causes clouds of molecules to contract until nuclear fusion of light elements into heavier ones occurs. Fusion releases great amounts of energy over millions of years..2b The stars differ from each other in size, temperature, and age. Our Sun is a medium-sized star within a spiral galaxy of stars known as the Milky Way. Our galaxy contains billions of stars, and the universe contains billions of such galaxies., Font.2c Our solar system formed about five billion years ago from a giant cloud of gas and debris. Gravity caused Earth and the other planets to become layered according to density differences in their materials. The characteristics of the planets of the solar system are affected by each planet's location in relationship to the Sun. The terrestrial planets are small, rocky, and dense. The Jovian planets are large, gaseous, and of low density., Font

8 Asteroids, comets, and meteors are components of our solar system..2d Impact events have been correlated with mass extinction and global climatic change. Impact craters can be identified in Earth's crust. Formatted Table....2e Earth's early atmosphere formed as a result of the outgassing of water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and lesser amounts of other gases from its interior..2h The evolution of life caused dramatic changes in the composition of Earth's atmosphere. Free oxygen did not form in the atmosphere until oxygen-producing organisms evolved. The Following Standards will be address throughout the coursework of the year unless specified per topic in chart above: Math & Science Standards MST.C.MA..a MST.C.MA.2.a MST.C.SI..a MST.C.SI..b MST.C.SI.2.a MST.C.SI.2.b MST.C.SI.3.a MST2.C.ED..b MST2.C.ED..c MST6.C.2.b MST6.C.3.b MST6.C.4.a MST6.C.5.a Students use algebraic and geometric representations to describe and compare data. Students use deductive reasoning to construct and evaluate conjectures and arguments, recognizing that patterns and relationships in mathematics assist them in arriving at these conjectures and arguments. Students elaborate on basic scientific and personal explanations of natural phenomena, and develop extended visual models and mathematical formulations to represent their thinking. Students hone ideas through reasoning, library research, and discussion with others, including experts. Students devise ways of making observations to test proposed explanations. Students refine their research ideas through library investigations, including electronic information retrieval and reviews of the literature, and through peer feedback obtained from review and discussion. Students use various means of representing and organizing observations (e.g., diagrams, tables, charts, graphs, equations, matrices) and insightfully interpret the organized data. Students prepare multimedia presentations demonstrating a clear sense of audience and purpose. Students access, select, collate, and analyze information obtained from a wide range of sources such as research data bases, foundations, organizations, national libraries, and electronic communication networks, including the Internet. Students collect information about the behavior of a system and use modeling tools to represent the operation of the system. Students extend their use of powers of ten notation to understanding the exponential function and performing operations with exponential factors. Students describe specific instances of how disturbances might affect a system's equilibrium, from small disturbances that do not upset the equilibrium to larger disturbances (threshold level) that cause the system to become unstable. Students use sophisticated mathematical models, such as graphs and equations of various algebraic or trigonometric functions. NYS Common Core Standards Reading in Science and Technical Subject -2.RST. -2.RST.2 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts, attending to important distinctions the author makes and to any gaps or inconsistencies in the account. Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; summarize complex concepts, processes, or information presented in a text by paraphrasing them in simpler but still accurate terms. Formatted Table...

9 Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks; analyze the specific -2.RST.3 results based on explanations in the text. Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context -2.RST.4 relevant to grades -2 texts and topics. -2.RST.5 Analyze how the text structures information or ideas into categories or hierarchies, demonstrating understanding of the information or ideas. Analyze the author's purpose in providing an explanation, describing a procedure, or discussing an experiment in a text, identifying important issues that -2.RST.6 remain unresolved. Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., quantitative data, video, multimedia) in order to address -2.RST.7 a question or solve a problem. Evaluate the hypotheses, data, analysis, and conclusions in a science or technical text, verifying the data when possible and corroborating or challenging -2.RST.8 conclusions with other sources of information. Synthesize information from a range of sources (e.g., texts, experiments, simulations) into a coherent understanding of a process, phenomenon, or concept, -2.RST.9 resolving conflicting information when possible. Speaking and Listening -2.SL. Initiate and participate effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grades -2 topics, texts, and issues, building on others' ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. Come to discussions prepared, having read and researched material under study; explicitly draw on that preparation by referring to evidence from texts and -2.SL.a other research on the topic or issue to stimulate a thoughtful, well-reasoned exchange of ideas. -2.SL.b Work with peers to promote civil, democratic discussions and decision making, set clear goals and deadlines, and establish individual roles as needed. Propel conversations by posing and responding to questions that probe reasoning and evidence; ensure a hearing for a full range of positions on a topic or issue; -2.SL.c clarify, verify, or challenge ideas and conclusions; and promote divergent and creative perspectives. Respond thoughtfully to diverse perspectives; synthesize comments, claims, and evidence made on all sides of an issue; resolve contradictions when possible; -2.SL.d and determine what additional information or research is required to deepen the investigation or complete the task. -2.SL.e Seek to understand other perspectives and cultures and communicate effectively with audiences or individuals from varied backgrounds. Integrate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, orally) in order to make informed decisions and -2.SL.2 solve problems, evaluating the credibility and accuracy of each source and noting any discrepancies among the data. Evaluate a speaker's point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric, assessing the stance, premises, links among ideas, word choice, points of -2.SL.3 emphasis, and tone used. Present information, findings, and supporting evidence, conveying a clear and distinct perspective, such that listeners can follow the line of reasoning, -2.SL.4 alternative or opposing perspectives are addressed, and the organization, development, substance, and style are appropriate to purpose, audience, and a range of formal and informal tasks. Make strategic use of digital media (e.g., textual, graphical, audio, visual, and interactive elements) in presentations to enhance understanding of findings, -2.SL.5 reasoning, and evidence and to add interest. -2.SL.6 Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and tasks, demonstrating a command of formal English when indicated or appropriate. Writing in Science, Social Studies and Technical Subjects -2.WHST. -2.WHST.a -2.WHST.c -2.WHST.d -2.WHST.e Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content. Introduce precise, knowledgeable claim(s), establish the significance of the claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that logically sequences the claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence. Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims. Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from or supports the argument presented. Formatted Table... Formatted Table...

10 -2.WHST.2a -2.WHST.2b -2.WHST.2c -2.WHST.2e -2.WHST.4-2.WHST.5-2.WHST.6-2.WHST.7-2.WHST.8-2.WHST.9-2.WHST.0 Introduce a topic and organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element builds on that which precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. Develop the topic thoroughly by selecting the most significant and relevant facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audience's knowledge of the topic. Use varied transitions and sentence structures to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships among complex ideas and concepts. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation provided (e.g., articulating implications or the significance of the topic). Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on addressing what is most significant for a specific purpose and audience. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products in response to ongoing feedback, including new arguments or information. Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation. Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess the strengths and limitations of each source in terms of the specific task, purpose, and audience; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and overreliance on any one source and following a standard format for citation. Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for reflection and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks, purposes, and audiences.) NYS Science Standards 207 (NYSSS207) HS-ESS-2 HS-ESS-3 HS-ESS-4 Develop a model based on evidence to illustrate the life span of the Sun and the role of nuclear fusion in the Sun's core to release energy that eventually reaches Earth in the form of radiation. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the energy transfer mechanisms that allow energy from nuclear fusion in the Sun's core to reach Earth. Examples of evidence for the model could include observations of the masses and lifetimes of other stars, as well as the ways that the Sun's radiation varies due to sudden solar flares ("space weather"), the - year sunspot cycle, and non-cyclic variations over centuries.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include details of the atomic and sub-atomic processes involved with the Sun's nuclear fusion.] Construct an explanation of the Big Bang theory based on astronomical evidence of light spectra, motion of distant galaxies, and composition of matter in the universe. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the astronomical evidence of the red shift of light from galaxies as an indication that the universe is currently expanding at an accelerated rate, the cosmic microwave background as the remnant radiation from the Big Bang, and the observed composition of ordinary matter of the universe, primarily found in stars and interstellar gases (from the spectra of electromagnetic radiation from stars), which matches that predicted by the Big Bang theory (3/4 hydrogen and /4 helium).] Communicate scientific ideas about the way stars, over their life cycle, produce elements. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how nucleosynthesis varies as a function of the mass of a star and the stage of its lifetime.] [Assessment Boundary: Details of the many different nucleosynthesis pathways for stars of differing masses are not assessed.] Use mathematical or computational representations to predict the motion of orbiting objects in the solar system. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on Newtonian gravitational laws governing orbital motions, which apply to human-made satellites as well as planets and moons.] [Assessment Boundary: Mathematical representations for the gravitational attraction of bodies and Kepler's Laws of orbital motions should not deal with more than two bodies, nor involve calculus.], Font, Font, Font, Font, Font, Font, Font

11 HS-ESS-6 Apply scientific reasoning and evidence from ancient Earth materials, meteorites, and other planetary surfaces to construct an account of Earth's formation and early history. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on using available evidence within the solar system to reconstruct the early history of Earth, which formed along with the rest of the solar system 4.6 billion years ago. Examples of evidence could include the absolute ages of ancient materials (obtained by radiometric dating of meteorites, moon rocks, and Earth's rocks and minerals), the sizes and compositions of solar system objects, and the impact cratering record of planetary surfaces.] HS-ESS-7 Construct an explanation using evidence to support the claim that the phases of the moon, eclipses, tides and seasons change cyclically. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis of the explanation should include how the relative positions of the moon in its orbit, Earth, and the Sun cause different phases, types of eclipses or strength of tides. Examples of evidence could include various representations of relative positions of the Sun, Earth and moon.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include mathematical computations to support explanations but rather relies on conceptual modeling using diagrams to show how celestial bodies interact to create these cyclical changes.] Formatted: No widow/orphan control NYS Earth Science Standards (NYSESS) The Earth and celestial phenomena can be described by principles of relative motion and perspective.. Students explain complex phenomena, such as tides, variations in day length, solar insolation, apparent motion of the planets, and annual traverse of the constellations.a.b.c.d.f Most objects in the solar system are in regular and predictable motion. These motions explain such phenomena as the day, the year, seasons, phases of the moon, eclipses, and tides. Gravity influences the motions of celestial objects. The force of gravity between two objects in the universe depends on their masses and the distance between them. Nine planets move around the Sun in nearly circular orbits. The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun located at one of the foci. Earth is orbited by one moon and many artificial satellites. Earth's coordinate system of latitude and longitude, with the equator and prime meridian as reference lines, is based upon Earth's rotation and our observation of the Sun and stars. Earth rotates on an imaginary axis at a rate of 5 degrees per hour. To people on Earth, this turning of the planet makes it seem as though the Sun, the moon, and the stars are moving around Earth once a day. Rotation provides a basis for our system of local time; meridians of longitude are the basis for time zones. Earth's changing position with regard to the Sun and the moon has noticeable effects. Earth revolves around the Sun with its rotational axis tilted at 23.5 degrees to a line perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, with the North Pole aligned with Polaris. Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt Formatted: Space After: 0 pt Formatted Table

12 During Earth's one-year period of revolution, the tilt of its axis results in changes in the angle of incidence of the Sun's rays at a given latitude; these changes cause variation in the heating of the surface. This produces seasonal variation in weather..g Seasonal changes in the apparent positions of constellations provide evidence of Earth's revolution..h The Sun's apparent path through the sky varies with latitude and season..i Approximately 70 percent of Earth's surface is covered by a relatively thin layer of water, which responds to the gravitational attraction of the moon and the Sun with a daily cycle of high and low tides. Describe current theories about the origin of the universe and solar system..2 Students describe current theories about the origin of the universe and solar system.2a.2b.2c.2d The universe is vast and estimated to be over ten billion years old. The current theory is that the universe was created from an explosion called the Big Bang. Evidence for this theory includes: cosmic background radiation a red-shift (the Doppler effect) in the light from very distant galaxies. Stars form when gravity causes clouds of molecules to contract until nuclear fusion of light elements into heavier ones occurs. Fusion releases great amounts of energy over millions of years. The stars differ from each other in size, temperature, and age. Our Sun is a medium-sized star within a spiral galaxy of stars known as the Milky Way. Our galaxy contains billions of stars, and the universe contains billions of such galaxies. Our solar system formed about five billion years ago from a giant cloud of gas and debris. Gravity caused Earth and the other planets to become layered according to density differences in their materials. The characteristics of the planets of the solar system are affected by each planet's location in relationship to the Sun. The terrestrial planets are small, rocky, and dense. The Jovian planets are large, gaseous, and of low density. Asteroids, comets, and meteors are components of our solar system. Impact events have been correlated with mass extinction and global climatic change. Impact craters can be identified in Earth's crust..2e Earth's early atmosphere formed as a result of the outgassing of water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and lesser amounts of other gases from its interior..2h The evolution of life caused dramatic changes in the composition of Earth's atmosphere. Free oxygen did not form in the atmosphere until oxygen-producing organisms evolved. Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt Formatted: Space After: 0 pt Formatted: Space Before: 0 pt Formatted: Space After: 0 pt