Ill-Nitride Semiconductors and their Modern Devices

Transcription

1 Ill-Nitride Semiconductors and their Modern Devices Edited by Bernard Gil Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Universite de Montpellier 2 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

2 Contents List of Contributors xviii 1 Development of the nitride-based UV/DUV LEDs 1 Hiroshi Amano 1.1 Introduction Efficiency limiting process Internal quantum efficiency Current injection efficiency Light extraction efficiency Summary 14 Acknowledgments 14 References 15 2 The homoepitaxial challenge: GaN crystals for laser diodes grown at high pressure and laser diode arrays 18 Izabella Grzegory, Michal Bockowski, Piotr Perlin, Czeslaw Skierbiszewski, Tadeusz Suski, Marcin Sarzynski, Stanislaw Krukowski, and Sylwester Porowski 2.1 Introduction Thermodynamics of GaN Melting conditions of GaN High-pressure thermodynamics of GaN: phase diagrams Crystal growth of GaN GaN by HVPE High-nitrogen-pressure solution growth of GaN Ammonothermal growth of GaN Epitaxy of nitrides on single-crystalline HNPS GaN: early results Development of nitrides epitaxy by PA MBE Growth conditions for PAMBE The role of threading dislocations and miscut angle on surface morphology in low-temperature PAMBE The growth of high-in-content InGaN layers by PAMBE 47

3 X CONTENTS The influence of the growth conditions on the optical properties of InGaN QWs Optical lasing from InGaN QWs Laser diodes "Plasmonic" GaN substrates and their use for lasers Laser diode arrays on laterally patterned substrates Background Laser diode arrays on laterally patterned HNPS GaN substrates High-power lasers and arrays on Ammono and HNPS GaN substrates Summary and conclusions 71 Acknowledgments 72 References 72 3 Epitaxial growth and benefits of GaN on silicon 78 Armin Dadgar and Alois Krost 3.1 Introduction The GaN-on-silicon challenges Lattice mismatch Thermal mismatch Meltback etching Plastic substrate deformation Vertical conductivity Seed layer growth Stress management Stress management by Al(Ga)N layers Selective growth Dislocation reduction Light-emitting diodes Electronics RF transistors HV transistors Limits of GaN-on-Si MOVPE technology and new developments Limits of GaN-on-Si MOVPE technology New developments 107 Acknowledgments 112 References The growth of bulk aluminum nitride 121 Ronny Kirste and Zlatko Sitar 4.1 Introduction Bulk A1N: a pathway to high-quality AlGaN 121

4 CONTENTS xi 4.3 Growth of A1N crystals Physical vapor transport Hydrid vapor phase epitaxy Solution growth Seeding of A1N crystal growth Properties of state-of-the-art bulk A1N Structural properties Optical properties and impurities Applications and devices Properties of A1N and AlGaN epitaxial layers on A1N Devices on bulk A1N substrates Outlook 141 References Epitaxial growth of nitride quantum dots 147 Andre Strittmatter 5.1 Introduction GaN quantum dots Molecular beam epitaxy Metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy Growth on non-polar and semipolar planes InxGai_xN quantum dots Phase separation and In segregation effects Stranski-Krastanow growth mode Spontaneous quantum dot formation in InGaN layers Thermal annealing and surface pre-treatment methods InN quantum dots Site-selective growth Summary 169 References Properties of InAIN layers nearly lattice-matched to GaN and their use for photonics and electronics 177 Raphael Butte, Gatien Cosendey, Lorenzo Lugani, Marlene Glauser, Antonino Castiglia, Guillaume Perillat-Merceroz, Jean-Francois Carlin, and Nicolas Grandjean 6.1 Introduction Growth and structural properties of bulk InAIN layers Growth characteristics of InAIN films Structural properties of bulk InAIN layers Optical and electronic properties of bulk InAIN layers Optical features of GaN/InAIN quantum wells 191

5 xii CONTENTS 6.5 Nearly lattice-matched InAlN/(Al)GaN distributed Bragg reflectors Growth properties Optical properties Applications InAIN cladding layers for edge-emitting lasers InAlN/GaN high electron mobility transistors Growth of InAlN/GaN high electron mobility heterostructures InAlN/GaN HEMTs for high-frequency applications Power performance of InAlN/GaN HEMTs Enhancement-mode InAlN/GaN HEMTs Conclusion 216 Acknowledgments 217 References Growth and optical properties of aluminum-rich AlGaN heterostructures 227 Hideto Miyake 7.1 Introduction Growth of Si-doped AlGaN on AIN/sapphire templates Growth of Si-doped AlGaN/AlGaN multiple-quantum wells Fabrication of AlGaN MQWs for electron-beam target for deep-ultraviolet light sources Conclusions 241 Acknowledgments 242 References Optical and structural properties of InGaN light-emitters on non-polar and semipolar GaN 244 Michael Kneissl and Tim Wernicke 8.1 Spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization in InGaN/GaN quantum wells on c-plane, semipolar, and non-polar crystal orientations Performance characteristics of violet, blue, and green (0001) c-plane InGaN quantum well LEDs and laser diodes Growth of non-polar and semipolar GaN buffer layers for device applications Growth of GaN on low-defect bulk GaN substrates Growth of GaN on planar heteroepitaxial substrates Strategies for defect reduction for heteroepitaxially grown GaN 257

6 CONTENTS xiii 8.4 Growth of InGaN layers and quantum wells on m-plane and different semipolar surfaces, i.e. (1012), (1011), (2021), (1122) Indium incorporation efficiency for different surface orientations Optical properties of non-polar and semipolar InGaN QWs Performance characteristics of non-polar and semipolar InGaN QW LEDs External quantum efficiencies and emission wavelength Polarization effects and efficiency droop Performance characteristics of non-polar and semipolar InGaN QW lasers Gain characteristics of InGaN quantum-well lasers on non-polar and semipolar GaN and effects of the excitation stripe orientation Fabrication of laser cavities (e.g., etched, cleaved facets) State-of-the-art of non-polar and semipolar InGaN laser diodes Summary and outlook 279 Acknowledgments 279 References GaN-based single-nanowire devices 289 Rudeesun Songmuang and Eva Monroy 9.1 Introduction Nanowire synthesis Catalyst-induced NW growth Catalyst-free NW growth Energy conversion Photoconductive detection Photovoltaics Energy harvesting via piezoelectric effects Nanoelectronics GaN NW field-effect transistors GaN NW single-electron transistors GaN/A1N/AlGaN core-shell NW high-electron-mobility transistors GaN/AIN axial-heterostructure resonant tunneling devices GaN/AIN axial-heterostructure single-electron transistors Sensorics 317

7 xiv CONTENTS 9.6 Conclusions 321 Acknowledgments 321 References Advanced photonic and nanophotonic devices 330 Jean-Yves Duboz 10.1 Planar microcavities Linear regime: basics Linear regime: results Non-linear regime: basics Non-linear regime: results Photonic crystal Microdisks Nanowires Conclusion 357 References Nitride-based electron devices for high-power/high-frequency applications 366 Yvon Cordier, Tatsuya Fujishima, Bin Lu, Elison Matioli, and Tomas Palacios 11.1 Relevant GaN properties for electron devices GaN two-terminal devices High-breakdown Schottky diodes Bipolar GaN diodes (p-n or p-i-n) Gunn diodes Tunnel diodes Bipolar junction transistors and heterojunction bipolar transistors (BJT and HBT) Field-effect transistors High-frequency GaN-based HEMTs for RF and mixed-signal applications Lateral GaN high-voltage power transistors Vertical GaN power transistors Conclusion 406 References Intersubband transitions in low-dimensional nitrides 414 Maria Tchernycheva and Frangois H. Julien 12.1 Introduction Intersubband transitions in nitride heterostructures: theoretical aspects Effective-mass approximation Band non-parabolicity 417

8 CONTENTS xv Hartree approximation Internal electric field Band bending Many-body effects Optical properties of intersubband transitions Intersubband spectroscopy of nitride quantum wells and quantum dots Near-infrared intersubband absorption in polar GaN/AIN quantum wells Intersubband transitions in In-containing heterostructures Coupled GaN/AIN quantum wells Mid-infrared intersubband absorption in AlGaN/GaN quantum Tuning ISB transitions to the terahertz frequency domain in polar GaN/AlGaN wells 430 quantum wells Intersubband transitions in semipolar GaN/AIN quantum wells Intersubband transitions in cubic GaN/Al(Ga)N quantum wells Intersublevel absorption in GaN/AIN quantum dots GaN-based intersubband light modulators All-optical switches Electro-optical modulators GaN-based intersubband photodetectors Quantum well infrared photodetectors Quantum dot infrared photodetectors Quantum cascade photodetectors GaN-based intersubband light emitters ISB light generation in GaN-based QWs through non-linear optical processes Intraband emission of GaN-based quantum dots via a resonant Raman process Intersubband luminescent devices Towards THz quantum cascade lasers Conclusions 460 References The slow light in gallium nitride 476 Tatiana V. Shubina, Mikhail M. Glazov, Nikolay A. Gippius, and Bernard Gil 13.1 Introduction Slow light: history and recent studies 477

9 xvi CONTENTS Group velocity in a medium with optical dispersion Light propagation in semiconductors near excitonic lines Electromagnetically induced transparency and other effects Light scattering and diffusion Two mechanisms of light transfer in GaN: ballistic and diffusive Optical dispersion in a medium with several resonances of free and bound excitons Diffusive propagation of light and resonant photon scattering by bound excitons Time-of-fiight spectroscopy of light propagating through GaN crystals Excitonic parameters of wide-gap semiconductors Distortion of optical pulse near excitonic resonances Concluding remarks 500 References Nitride devices and their biofunctionalization for biosensing applications 505 Csilla Gergely 14.1 Introduction Configurations of nitride devices for sensing Functionalization of nitrides Sensing examples with nitride-based devices 511 References Heterovalent ternary II-IV-N2 compounds: perspectives for a new class of wide-band-gap nitrides 519 Walter R. L. Lambrecht and Atchara Punya 15.1 Introduction History and crystal growth Crystal structure and symmetry Symmetry Lattice constants Thermodynamic stability Electronic structure Computational methods Band-structure overview Effective-mass Hamiltonians Lattice dynamics Computational method Vibrational modes at the zone center 554

10 CONTENTS xvii Phonon dispersions and density of states Infrared spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy Elastic and piezoelectric tensors Theoretical considerations Values for nitrides Spontaneous polarization Optical properties Indices of refraction UV dielectric functions Non-linear optics Defects Outlook 577 Acknowledgments 578 References Terahertz emission in polaritonic systems with nitrides 586 Oleksandr Kyriienko, Ivan A. Shelykh, and Alexey V. Kavokin 16.1 Introduction Excitons Exciton-polaritons Polariton-based terahertz emitters Upper-to-lower polariton transition THz emission by 2p-exciton to ls-polariton transition Dipolariton THz emission Conclusion 616 Acknowledgments 617 References 617 Index 619