Rockall Plateau. OCN 201: Shelf Sediments
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1 Rockall Plateau OCN 201: Shelf Sediments
2 Classification by Mode of Formation Detrital sediments Transported and deposited as particles Derived from weathering of pre-existing rocks (igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary) Chemical sediments Precipitated from solution
3 Terrigenous Sediment Cycle Land (terra) born (-genous) Land source identifiable Participates in sediment cycle Erosion Transport Deposition Recycling in deep earth
4 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks Limestone: calcite = CaCO 3 Dolomite: CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 Evaporites: evaporation of seawater: CaCO 3, CaSO 4.2H 2 O, NaCl, KCl, borates Bristol Lake, Mojave Desert
5 Passive Margins (East USA) Faulted blocks of rifted continental crust Triassic rift valley sediments in faulted blocks Overlain by Jurassic marine sediments/salt Overlain by thick (shelf, slope, rise) sediments (Cretaceous and Cenozoic) that buried ancient reef Whole coastal plain still subsiding and accumulating.
6 Origin of salt beds by evaporation when the ocean basin was young
7 Pockmarks on the floor of the Gulf of Mexico Sediment from Rockies carried by Mississippi. Overlies salt (~180 Ma). Weight of sediment causes domes of salt to rise, spread out and dissolve. Collapsed salt domes create pockmarks.
8 Thick deposits of salt form in the ocean a) because rivers carry sediment to the sea. b) from evaporation of seawater. c) in young ocean basins, which are long and narrow. d) both b) and c). e) all of the above.
9 Sea Level Changes: I Deduced from sediment packets on continental margin using seismic methods. Use of one or two ships Earlier used dynamite, now use airguns. reflection (layering) vs refraction (speed of sound in layers)
10 Transgression: Progressive flooding of land, high sea level stand Regression: Progressive draining of land, low sea level stand Sea Level Changes: II
11 Local causes Water in motion Storm surges, wind driven, currents along shoreline Tectonic uplift or subsidence Global causes Change in ice volume Change in mean seafloor spreading rate (fast = younger seafloor, sea level rises, slow = older seafloor, sea level falls Change in mean ocean T (water expands on warming) Sea Level Change
12 Sea Level Summary Eemian interglacial Sea level is rising! Sea level fell from 125Ka to ~20 Ka due to ice buildup. Sea level has been (generally) rising for the past 20 Ka. (evidence from drowned reefs). Global sea level has risen about 20 cm over past century, largely due to melting of glacial ice. There is a local effect of Hawaiian geology on sea level rise.
13 Why is sea level rising? Domingues et al., 2008, Nature Sea level (mm) Alpine glaciers Greenland and Antarctica Thermal expansion (shallow) Thermal expansion (deep) Water in reservoirs
14 Sea Level in Hawaii Two causes: Local: Hawaiian Arch Global: overall sea level rise Every island has its own rate of sea-level rise Downward push at hotspot causes upward bulge under Oahu As the Pacific Plate moves, every island rides over the bulge causing uplift The young Big Island is so heavy it bends the lithosphere
15 Effect of Sea Level on Coasts: I
16 Effects of Sea Level on Low Areas Rise of only a few 10 s of cm can be critical. Pacific Atolls (Marshall, Micronesia, Tuamotu, etc.) Indian Ocean (Maldives shown here!) Also important for low continental areas (Florida, New Orleans, London,Venice)
17 Effect of Sea Level on Coasts: II Low sea level at ~20 ka increased dry land (from reef banks and continental shelf) as much as 200 km seaward. Future sea level will rise up to 70 m if polar ice caps melt, flooding the reef platform and continental shelf of the SE USA... Loss of Greenland ice cap = 7 m rise
18 Sea level is rising today because a) Earth s climate is warming. b) glacial ice is melting. c) the oceans are warming, and water expands as it warms. d) all of the above.
19 Value of Physical Resources from the Sea (2001) Oil and gas: $200B Cable laying: $10B Placers: diamonds $800M gold $200M Sand and gravel: $500M Salts (including Mg): $500M
20 Political regime: UN Law of the Sea Nearshore: 12 mile territorial zone and 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zone. These two zones account for 40% of the ocean area! Offshore: International Seabed Authority (leases, royalties)
21 Origin of Oil and Natural Gas 1. Deposition of organic carbon in sediments (bodies of small organisms) 2. Burial and heating to convert to oil and gas ( = hydrocarbons) 3. Migration through permeable sediment (e.g., sandstone) 4. Trapping to form an underground pool
22 Nature of Source Rock Rich in organic carbon Thick, as found along continental margins (but NOT in the deep sea!) Buried to >2 km to heat sediment (= maturation) (Natural gas rather than oil is made below ~7 km.) Overlain by permeable rocks for fluid migration Caprock/natural traps in which to accumulate (folds, faults, salt domes)
23 Formation of an Oil or Gas Deposit
24 Structure of Fossil Fuel Deposits Hydrocarbons are not present as large liquid pools; rather: Oil and gas adhere to particles of enclosing rock. Oil and gas ascend until trapped by an impermeable caprock.
25 Geologic Traps for Oil and Gas
26 Economic Considerations Drilling for oil is costlier in ocean than on land. (also true of any marine mining operation) Most marine oil deposits are tapped from platforms in less than 100 m water depth.
27 Oil Most of the oil on Earth was produced during episodes of extreme warmth between 90 and 150 million years ago. Algae proliferated in warm sunlit tropical waters, and the hot surface water prevented normal circulation such that stagnant anoxic conditions occurred at depth. We will burn most of this oil within a single human lifetime (Ours!) A grown man working at hard physical labor for a month burns the amount of energy in a gallon of gasoline. Each American has available to them the energy equivalent of ~200 slaves. Energy is the source of our wealth!
28 The Peak in Oil Production: the USA US OIL PRODUCTION FORECAST: 1930 to ESTIMATE FORECAST US peaked in 1970, as predicted by M. King Hubbert in 's of barrels of oil per day Peak was 11 MBrl/day. Today we use 20. Drill, Baby, Drill? ONSHORE OFFSHORE Energyfiles Ltd Year
29 World crude oil production peaked in (so far). Peaked in 2002 Peaked in ~1985 Peaked in 1970
30 Implications of Peak Oil The production curve is called a logistic curve. The peak in production follows the peak in discovery by years (USA: 1930 s, 1970; global discovery peak was 1964.) At the peak, ~half of the resource is gone and it is the good half! (easy to find and cheap to recover) Production falls rapidly and inevitably from the peak, regardless of demand. A long plateau produces a steeper drop. As of 2009, 64 countries are past-peak and 35 are not.
31 UK OIL PRODUCTION FORECAST: 1950 to million barrels per year DISCOVERIES Piper Alpha disaster Peaked in 1999 PRODUCTION Energyfiles Ltd Year
32 SAUDI ARABIA OIL PRODUCTION FORECAST: 1950 to Millions of barrels of oil per year DISCOVERIES PRODUCTION Energyfiles Ltd Year
33 The Peak in Oil Production: the World You are here. The peak year of global oil discovery was
34
35 The Peak in Oil Production: the World = 84 million barrels per day (135 needed in 2030!) In the next 25 years, crude oil production from existing wells will decline from the current 74 Mbarrels/day to only 16 Mbarrels/day (IEA, 2010). = Severe shortfall! Duncan (2001)
36 Aloha, see you next time
37 Exclusive Economic Zone EEZ s of some countries overlap. Multiple claims to same areas Leads to boundary disputes.
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