Exploration, Drilling & Production

Transcription

1 Nontechnical Guide to PETMOLEUM Geology, Exploration, Drilling & Production Third Edition Norman J. Hyne, Ph.D.

2 Contents Preface *i Introduction 1 The Nature of Gas and Oil 1 Petroleum 1 The Chemistry of Oil and Gas 1 Crude Oil 2 Natural Gas 9 Reservoir Hydrocarbons 12 2 The Earth's Crust-Where We Find It 13 Rocks and Minerals 13 Types of Rocks 14 Structure of the Earth's Crust 20 3 Identification of Common Rocks and Minerals 25 Identification of Minerals 25 Minerals 27 Identification of Rocks 28 Rocks 29 4 Geological Time 33 Absolute Age Dating 33 Relative Age Dating 36 The Geologic Time Scale xiii 42 Earth History 43 5 Deformation of Sedimentary Rocks 47 Weathering, Erosion, and Unconformities 47 Anticlines and Synclines 53 Domes 56 Homoclines 56 Fractures 58 6 Ocean Environment and Plate Tectonics 67 Continental Margins 67 Deep Water 72 Ocean Sediments 73 Earth's Interior 73 Continental Drift 74 Seafloor Spreading 75 Plate Tectonics 79 Failed Arm Basins 81 Middle East Oil Fields 83

3 Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production 3rd Edition 7 Sedimentary Rock Distribution 87 Basin Formation 87 Sedimentary Rock Facies 92 Subsurface Rock Layers 96 8 Mapping 99 Topographic Maps 99 Geologic Maps 101 Base Maps 104 Subsurface Maps Source Rocks, Generation, Migration, and Accumulation of Petroleum 113 Source Rocks 113 Generation 114 Migration 116 Accumulation 117 Age 120 Reservoir Rocks 120 Saturation Reservoir Rocks 125 Sandstone Reservoir Rocks 125 Dune Sandstones 126 Shoreline Sandstones 128 River Sandstones 128 Delta Sandstones 133 Granite Wash 139 Carbonate Reservoir Rocks 140 Reefs 140 Limestone Platforms 148 Karst Limestone 150 Chalk 152 Dolomite 152 Fractured Reservoirs Petroleum Traps 159 Structural Traps 159 Stratigraphic Traps 173 Combination Traps Petroleum Exploration Geological and Geochemical 193 Seeps 193 Geological Techniques 196 Geochemical Techniques 206 Plays and Trends 208 vi

4 Contents 13 Petroleum Exploration Geophysical 211 Gravity and Magnetic Exploration 211 Seismic Exploration Drilling Preliminaries 235 Land and Leasing 235 Foreign Authority for 238 Expenditure Contracts 237 Economic Analysis 239 Drilling Contracts 240 Joint Operating Agreements and Support Agreements 241 Site Preparation 242 Types of Wells 243 Government Regulations 244 Cable Tool Rigs Drilling awell The Mechanics 249 Power 249 Hoisting System 251 Rotating System 254 Circulating System 266 Drilling Operations 273 Modern Rotary Drilling Rigs Drilling Problems 279 Subsurface Conditions 279 Problems While Drilling 281 Dry Holes Drilling Techniques 291 Vertical Well 291 Directional Drilling 293 Well Depth 302 Air and Foam Drilling a Testing Well 305 Sample or Lithologic Log 305 Drilling-Time Log 310 Mud Log 311 Wireline Well Logs 313 Measurements-While-Drilling and Logging-While-Drilling 338 Drillstem Test 339 Repeat Formation Tester a Completing Well. 343 Casing 343 Bottom-Hole Completions 353 vii

5 Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production 3rd Edition Expandable Casing and Liner 356 Tubing 356 Wellhead 358 Chokes 359 Surface Equipment 359 Sucker-rod Pump 361 Gas Lift 368 Electric Submersible Pump 369 Hydraulic Pump 370 Multiple Completions 370 Intelligent Wells Surface Treatment and Storage 373 Flowlines 373 Separators 375 Gas Treatment 379 Storage and Measurement 382 Modern Lease Operations Offshore Drilling and Completion 389 Mineral Rights 389 Offshore Drilling 390 Exploratory Drilling 392 Spudding an Offshore Exploratory Well 395 Developmental Drilling and Production 397 Subsea Work 405 Subsea Wells 405 Unstable Sea Bed Workover 409 Equipment 409 Well Intervention on Offshore Wells 414 Preparing the Well 415 Well Problems Reservoir Mechanics 423 Reservoir Drives 423 Maximum Efficient Rate Petroleum Production 431 Well and Reservoir Pressures 431 Well Testing 432 Cased-Hole Logs 434 Production Logs 435 Decline Curves 435 Bypassing and Coning 437 viii

6 Contents Cycling 439 Well Stimulation 439 Disposal of Oilfield Brine and Solution Gas 443 Surface Subsidence 445 Corrosion 446 Production Maps 447 Stranded Gas Reserves 451 Recovery Factor 451 Shrinkage Factor and Formation Volume Factor 452 Reserve Calculations 454 Types of Reserves Improved Oil Recovery 459 Waterflood 459 Enhanced Oil Recovery 462 Efficiency 468 Unitization 468 Plug and Abandon Unconventional Oil and Gas 471 Tight Formations 471 Coal Bed or Coal Seam Gas 478 Oil Shales 480 Tar Sands 481 Gas Hydrates 483 Glossary 485 Figure References 655 Unit Conversions 661 Oil and Gas Records 663 Index 667 ix