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1 TSUNAMI The Underrated Hazard Edward Bryant -car Second Edition
2 Contents Preface xi Acknowledgements xv List of figures xxi List of tables xxvii List of symbols xxix List of abbreviations and acronyms xxxüi PART I Tsunami as a known hazard l 1 Introduction 3 Introduction 3 Five stories 4 1 An Aboriginal legend 4 2 The Kwenaitchechat Legend, Pacific Northwest 5 3 Krakatau. August 27, Burin Península, Newfoundland. November 18, Papua New Guinea, July 17, Scientific fací or Icgcnds? 10 Causes of tsunami 12 Distribution and fatalities 14 Meditcrranean Sea 15 Caribbcan Sea 15
3 vi Contente Pacific Ocean Región (including Indonesia) 16 New Zealund and Australia 22 Bays, fjords, inland seas, and lakcs 23 Meteorológica! phenomena, freak wavcs, and slorm surges 24 Tsunami dy na mies 27 Introduction 27 Tsunami characteristics, 27 Tsunami wave thcory 31 Rcsonance 36 Shallow-water, long-wavc theory 37 Run-up and inundation 40 Run-up 40 Inland penctration 45 Depth and veiocity at shorc 46 PART II Tsunami-formed landscapes 49 3 Signatures of tsunami in the coastal landscape 51 Introduction 51 Dcpositional signatures of tsunami 53 Buried sand or anomalous sedirnent laycrs 53 Foraminifera and diatoms 57 Boulder fioaters in sand 59 Dump deposits 60 Mounds and ridges 63 Chevrons and dune bedforms 65 Smear deposits 67 Large bouldcrs and piles of imbricated boulders 68 Turbiditcs 75 Erosional signatures of tsunami 77 Small-scale fcaturcs 77 Large-scale features 83 Flow dynamics 86 4 Coastal landscape erolution 91 Introduction 91 Caíastrophism vs. uniformitarianism 91 Tsunami vs. storms 94 The naturc of tsunami vs. storm deposits 95 Movcment of boulders 96
4 Contents vü Types of coastal landscapes created by tsunami 98 Sandy barrier coasts 98 Deltas and alluvial plains 101 Rocky coasts 103 Atolls 104 Examplcs of tsunami-generated landscapes: Australia 106 South coast of New South Walcs 106 Caírns Coast, Northeast Queensland 109 Northwest West Australia 112 Other cxamplcs of tsunami-generated landscapes 115 Grand Cayman 115 Bahamas 117 Chilean coast 119 PART III Causes of tsunami Earthquake-generated tsunami 127 Introduction 127 Seismic wavcs 127 Magnitudc scalcs for earthquakes and tsunami 129 Earthquakc magnitudc scalcs 129 Tsunami earthquakes 130 Tsunami magnitude scales 132 Seismic gaps and tsunami occurrence 134 Relationships between earthquakes and tsunami 135 How earthquakes genérate tsunami 135 Linking tsunami run-up to earthquakc magnitudc 139 Large histórica! tsunamigenic earthquakes 140 Lisbon, Novcmber 1, Chile, May Alaska, March 27, Evcnts of the 1990s 154 Slow Nicaraguan tsunami earthquake of September 2, Flores, Decembcr The Hokkaido Nansci-Oki tsunami of July 12, Papua New Guinea, July 17, The Indian Ocean tsunami, December 26, Great landslides 179 Introduction 179 Causes of submarino landslides 181
5 viii Conlenis How submarine landslides genérate tsunami 184 Historical tsunami attributable to landslides 186 The Lituya Bay landslide of July Grand Banks tsunami, November 18, Geologieal events 193 Hawaiian landslides 193 The Canary Tslands 196 The Storcgga slide of 7950 BP 198 Bristol Channel, U.K., January 30, The risk in the world's oceans 213 Other voleanie islands 213 Other topography V'olcanic eruptions 217 Introduction 217 Causes of volcano-induced tsunami 217 Krakatau, August 26 27, Santorini, around 1470 BC Comets and asteroids 231 Introduction 231 Near Earth objects (NEOs) 231 What are they? 231 How frequcnt havc comet and asteroid impacts been? 234 How do extraterrcstrial objects genérate tsunami? 236 Mechanisms for generating tsunami 236 Size of tsunami 238 Geologieal events 245 Hypothesizcd frcquency 245 Chicxulub, thc Cretaeeous Tertiary (K/T) extinction event 247 Other events 251 Deluge Comet impact event 8,200 ±200 years ago 251 The Mahuika Comet impact event and eastern Australia 253 Geológica! evidcnce for mega-tsunami 254 Maori Icgends supporting a cosmogcnic event 257 Aboriginal legcnds supporting a cosmogenic cvcnt 258 Timing of Mahuika 260 Events in the Kimbcrlcy, Western Australia 263 Legends supporting cosmogcnic tsunami 263 Field evidcnce 266
6 Contente ix PART IV Modern risk of tsunami Risk and avoidanee 273 Introduction 273 What locations along a coast are at risk from tsunami? 277 Warning systcms 280 The Pacific Tsunami Warning Ccntcr 280 Flaws in regional warning systems 285 Localized tsunami warning systems 286 How long havc you got? 290 Where should you go if there is a tsunami warning? 291 What if it ís an asteroid or comet? 294 Is it all that bad? The case of Sydney Epilogue 299 Five stories An unsuspected earthquake An unassuming earthquake A submarine landslide A volcanic eruption An asteroid impact with the ocean 305 Concluding comments 306 References 309 Index 325
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