Environmental Geology
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1 F O U R T H E D I T I O N Introduction to Environmental Geology Edward A. Keller University of California, Santa Barbara PEARSON Prentice Hall Pearson Education International
2 CONTENTS Preface xiii PART ONE Foundations of Environmental Geology 1 Chapter 1 Philosophy and Fundamental Concepts 2 CASE HISTORY: Easter Island: Are We on the Same Path at a Global Scale? Introduction to Environmental Geology 5 A Closer Look: Earth's Place in Space Fundamental Concepts of Environmental Geology 10 Concept One: Human Population Growth 10 Concept Two: Sustainability 15 A Closer Look: Human Landscape Modification: Ducktown, Tennessee 16 Concept Three: Earth as a System 18 Case History: The Aral Sea: The Death of a Sea 19 A Closer Look: The Gaia Hypothesis 23 Concept Four: Hazardous Earth Processes 24 Concept Five: Scientific Knowledge and Values 25 Chapter 2 Internal Structure of Earth and Plate Tectonics 36 CASE HISTORY: Two Cities on a Plate Boundary Internal Structure of Earth How We Know about the Internal Structure of Earth 2.3 Plate Tectonics 42 A Closer Look: The Wonder of Mountains A Detailed Look at Seafloor Spreading Pangaea and Present Continents How Plate Tectonics Works: Putting It Together Plate Tectonics and Environmental Geology 63 Chapter 3 Minerals and Rocks 66 CASE HISTORY: The Asbestos Controversy Minerals Important Rock-Forming Minerals 74 A Closer Look: Weathering 76 A Closer Look: Clay Rock Cycle Three Rock Laws Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks 91 Case History: St. Francis Dam Rock Strength and Deformation Rock Structures Chapter 4 Ecology and Geology 104 CASE HISTORY: Endangered SteelheadTrout in Southern California: It's All About Geology Ecology for Geologists: Basic Terms Geology and Biodiversity 109 A Closer Look: Seawalls and Biodiversity Ecological Restoration 121 A Closer Look: Restoration of the Kissimmee River 122 vii
3 viii Contents A Closer Look: Restoration of the Florida Everglades 124 A Closer Look: Coastal Sand Dune Restoration at Pocket Beaches: University of California, Santa Barbara 127 PART TWO Earth Processes and Natural Hazards 131 Chapter 5 Introduction to Natural Hazards 132 CASE HISTORY: Hurricane Katrina, Most Serious Natural Catastrophe in U.S. History Hazards, Disasters, and Natural Processes 136 A Closer Look: The Magnitude-Frequency Concept Evaluating Hazards: History, Linkages, Disaster Prediction, and Risk Assessment 143 A Closer Look: Scientists, Hazards, and the Media The Human Response to Hazards Global Climate and Hazards Population Increase, Land-Use Change, and Natural Hazards 154 Chapter 6 A Closer Look: Nevado del Ruiz: A Story of People, Land Use, and Volcanic Eruption 156 Earthquakes and Related Phenomena 160 CASE HISTORY: Northridge, Earthquake Magnitude Earthquake Intensity Plate Boundary Earthquakes Intraplate Earthquakes Earthquake Processes Earthquake Shaking Earthquake Cycle Earthquakes Caused by Human Activity Effects of Earthquakes Tsunami 192 A Closer Look: Indonesian Tsunami Earthquake Risk and Earthquake Prediction Toward Earthquake Prediction Sequence of Earthquakes in Turkey: Can One Earthquake Set Up Another? The Response to Earthquake Hazards 204 Chapter 7 A Closer Look: The Alaska Earthquake of 2002 and the Value of Estimating Potential Ground Rupture 206 Volcanic Activity 214 CASE HISTORY: Mt. Unzen, Introduction to Volcanic Hazards Volcanism and Volcanoes Volcano Types Volcano Origins Volcanic Features Volcanic Hazards Two Case Histories Forecasting Volcanic Activity Adjustment to and Perception of the Volcanic Hazard Introduction to Earthquakes 162 Chapter 8 Rivers and Flooding 250 CASE HISTORY: Mississippi River Flooding, 1973 and Rivers: Historical Use Streams and Rivers Sediment in Rivers River Velocity, Discharge, Erosion, and Sediment Deposition 257 A Closer Look: History of a River Effects of Land-Use Changes Channel Patterns and Floodplain Formation 262
4 Contents ix 8.7 River Flooding 264 A Closer Look: Magnitude and Frequency of Floods Urbanization and Flooding The Nature and Extent of Flood Hazards 271 Case History: Flash Floods in Eastern Ohio Adjustments to Flood Hazards Perception of Flooding Mass Extinctions Minimizing the Impact Hazard 374 A Closer Look: Near-Earth Objects 376 PART THREE Resources and Pollution 379 Chapter 9 Slope Processes, Landslides, and Subsidence 286 CASE HISTORY: La Conchita Landslide of Introduction to Landslides Slope Processes and Types of Landslides Slope Stability 294 A Closer Look: Translation Slides Along Bedding Planes 295 Case History: Vaiont Dam Human Use and Landslides Minimizing the Landslide Hazard Snow Avalanches Subsidence Perception of the Landslide Hazard 318 Chapter 10 Coastal Processes 322 CASE HISTORY: The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse Controversy Introduction to Coastal Hazards Coastal Processes Coastal Erosion 331 A Closer Look: Measuring Coastal Change Coastal Hazards and Engineering Structures Human Activity and Coastal Erosion: Some Examples Tropical Cyclones Perception of and Adjustment to Coastal Hazards 349 A Closer Look: E-Linesand EZones 352 Chapter 12 Water Resources 380 CASE HISTORY: Long Island, New York Chapter Water: A Brief Global Perspective 383 Surface Water 384 Groundwater 387 Interactions between Surface Water and Groundwater 394 Case History: The Edwards Aquifer, Texas-Water Resource in Conflict 397 Desalination 398 Water Use 398 Water Management in the Future 402 A Closer Look: Management of the Colorado River 403 Water and Ecosystems 406 A Closer Look: Wetlands 407 Emerging Global Water Shortages Water Pollution 412 CASE HISTORY: North Carolina's Bay of Pigs An Overview of Water Pollution 415 Chapter 11 Impact of Extraterrestrial Objects 356 CASE HISTORY: TheTunguska Event Earth's Place in Space Aerial Bursts and Impacts 360
5 Contents 13.2 Selected Water Pollutants Surface Water Pollution and Treatment 425 A Closer Look: Acid Mine Drainage Groundwater Pollution and Treatment Water-Quality Standards Wastewater Treatment 433 A Closer Look: Boston Harbor-Cleaning up a National Treasure Federal Legislation What Can Be Done to Reduce Effects of Water Pollution? 439 Chapter 14 Mineral Resources 442 CASE HISTORY: Mine Near Golden, Colorado, Is Transformed into a Golf Course Minerals and Human Use Geology of Mineral Resources 449 A Closer Look: Plate Tectonics and Minerals Environmental Impact of Mineral Development 456 A Closer Look: Mining and Itai-ltai Disease 461 A Closer Look: Homestake Mine, South Dakota Recycling Mineral Resources Minerals and Sustainability 466 Chapter 15 Energy Resources 470 CASE HISTORY: Peak Oil: When Will It Occur and What Is Its Importance? Worry over Energy Sources Is Nothing New: Energy Shocks Past and Present Chapter 16 Energy Supply and Energy Demand 474 A Closer Look: Energy Units 474 Fossil Fuels 477 A Closer Look: Coal Sludge in the Appalachian Mountains 483 Future of Oil 492 Fossil Fuel and Acid Rain 493 Nuclear Energy 496 A Closer Look: Radioactivity 498 Geothermal Energy 508 Renewable Energy Sources 513 Conservation. Efficiency, and Cogeneration 521 Energy Policy for the Future 522 Soils and Environment 526 CASE HISTORY: Times Beach, Missouri Introduction to Soils Soil Profiles Soil Properties Soil Fertility Water in Soil Soil Classification Engineering Properties of Soils Rates of Soil Erosion Sediment Pollution 540 A Closer Look: Universal Soil Loss Equation 541 Case History: Reduction of Sediment Pollution, Maryland Land Use and Environmental Problems of Soils Soil Pollution Soil Surveys and Land-Use Planning 549 Chapter 17 Waste as a Resource: Waste Management 552 CASE HISTORY: Where Does E-Waste Go? Concepts of Waste Management: An Overview Materials Management Solid Waste Disposal Hazardous Waste Management 564 A Closer Look: Love Canal 566
6 Contents XI Chapter 18 Air Pollution 576 CASE HISTORY: The London Smog Crisis of Introduction to Air Pollution Pollution of the Atmosphere Sources of Air Pollution Air Pollutants Urban Air Pollution Indoor Air Pollution Control of Air Pollution Air Quality Standards Cost of Controlling Air Pollution 598 Chapter 20 Geology, Society, and the Future 636 CASE HISTORY: China on the Edge of an Environmental Crisis? Introduction Geology and Environmental Health 639 A Closer Look: Lead in the Environment Environmental Planning: Site Selection 642 A Closer Look: Radon Gas Environmental Impact Analysis Land Use and Planning Environmental Law Geology, the Environment, and the Future 657 PART FOUR Environmental Management, Global Perspective, and Society 603 Appendix Minerals A-l Appendix Rocks B-l A B Chapter 19 Global Climate Change 604 CASE HISTORY: Eric the Red and Climate Change Global Change and Earth System Science: An Overview Tools for Studying Global Change Earth's Atmosphere and Climate Change Global Warming Potential Effects of Global Climate Change 622 A Closer Look: Glaciers 624 A Closer Look: Desertification 625 A Closer Look: El Nino 628 A Closer Look: Discussion on How to Stop Global Warming Heats Up Coupling of Global Change Processes: Ozone Depletion and Global Warming 632 Appendix C Maps and Related Topics C-l Appendix D How Geologists Determine Geologic Time Appendix E Darcy's Law E-l Glossary G-l References R-l Index 1-1 D-l
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