Ecoregions of the Rocky Mountain Research Station

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1 DRAFT FOR COMMENTS 7/8/2006 4:14 PM Ecoregions of the Rocky Mountain Research Station Robert G. Bailey 1 Abstract An ecoregion is a large area of similar climate where similar ecosystems occur on similar sites (Bailey 2002). The pattern of these local ecosystems within regions recurs predictably. Understanding these patterns and their origins can be used to design research networks and transfer knowledge. This paper explains, describes, and displays the ecosystem-based regions of the Rocky Mountain Research Station. Ecoregions are identified at three hierarchical levels of detail domain, division, and province based primarily on climatic conditions and on the prevailing plant formations determined by those conditions. The third level may include additional criteria, for instance altitude variation within climate types (i.e., lowland versus mountain regions). These regions are based on an explicit approach in which regions are differentiated on the basis of comparable likeness and differences. This approach has the advantage over intuitive place name regions that cannot be confirmed or reproduced. Because of this, these regions have been widely applied in conservation and management programs. For example, in 1993, as part of the National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units, the US Forest Service adopted these ecoregions for use in ecosystem management. It is important to link the ecosystem management hierarchy with the Forest Service research hierarchy. In so doing, research structures and ecosystem hierarchies correlate such that research information, mapping levels, and research studies work well together. 1 Geographer, Natural Resource Assessment and Analysis, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, 240 W Prospect Rd, Fort Collins, CO USA. rgbailey@fs.fed.us.

2 2 Bailey, R.G Ecoregion-Based Design for Sustainability. New York: Springer-Verlag. 222 p. KEY WORDS: ecoregions, ecosystem geography, Rocky Mountain Research Station, National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units, research networks Background The Rocky Mountain Research Station (RMRS) contains a great variety of ecosystems, including mountains and desert areas, temperate prairies and areas of permanently frozen subsoil, and forests and steppes. 2 Research on these systems has tended to be piecemeal in fashion by focusing on individual components or resources (e.g., vegetation) or on local impacts of disturbance. However, we must consider human impact on larger geographic scales in land management and conservation programs. The public land management agencies are phasing into a new approach; they are shifting from their focus on to a more holistic approach of managing whole ecosystems. When human intervention into ecological processes was small, nature often compensated. But now, the effects of human impact, e.g., large monocultures and urban sprawl, need to be evaluated on a macroscale. Also we need to discard the artificial dichotomy of outlining regional ecology problems as being strictly terrestrial or aquatic. These systems do not exist in isolation from one another; what we do to one directly affects the other. We need to study whole geographic ecosystems. If we study the system only as broken into components we cannot assemble the whole with any success. This approach is much more useful than our traditional, scattered, small-scale analysis because all systems operate within a context of larger systems. From our knowledge of the larger systems, we can much better understand the smaller systems and predict the outcome of land use and natural resource development. The adoption of a station-wide ecoregion framework has been suggested as a way to meet this need. The Basis for the Classification 2 The RMRS is the most ecologically complex of all the Stations administrated by the USDA Forest Service.

3 3 All areas of the Earth are made up of distinctive associations of causally related features. For example, latitude, continental position, and elevation will determine the climate that in turn will affect soil types and vegetation. As the climate changes so do the soil and vegetation in response to those climate changes. As a result, ecosystems of different climates differ significantly. Climatic differences can be considered at a variety of levels or scales. At the macroscale, regional ecosystems, or ecoregions, are areas of homogeneous macroclimate (i.e., the climate that lies just beyond the local modifying irregularities of landform and vegetation). At the mesoscale, landforms modify the climate to form landscape mosaics. At the microscale, local variations in topography cause small-scale variation in the amount of solar energy received, creating topoclimates, and affect the amount and distribution of soil moisture. These variables will subsequently affect the biota, creating ecosystem sites as subdivisions of the larger region. This approach is based on an understanding of the formative processes that operate to differentiate ecosystems at various scales in a hierarchy. The units derived from such an approach are termed genetic in that they are based on an understanding of how an ecosystem originated or evolved. Knowing formative process is key in assessing possible impact that might be caused by land use and development. What are Ecoregions? An ecosystem-based region, or ecoregion is a large areas of similar climate where similar ecosystems occur on similar sites (Bailey 2002). 3 Latitude, continental position, and elevation determine the type of ecoregion at a particular location. The patterns of local ecosystems, or sites, within regions also recur predictably. The natural patterns and process of a particular region provide essential keys to the sustainability of ecosystems, and can inspire designs for landscapes that sustain themselves. Designed landscapes should imitate the natural ecosystem patterns of the surrounding ecoregion. By working with nature s design, we can create landscapes that function sustainably like natural ecosystems. 3 In contrast to climate-based ecoregions, other systems are based on the geographic ranges of species of plants and animals and are known as biogeographic regions (cf. the World Wildlife Fund approach as explained by Olson and Dinerstein 1998). However, biota is constantly changing due to disturbance and succession and, therefore is not fully satisfactory criteria for determining the boundaries of ecoregions. See Bailey (2005) for further explanation of the rationale I used in identifying ecoregions boundaries on maps of the United States (1995), North America (1998b), and the world s continents (1989).

4 Why Ecoregions? Ecoregions delimit large areas within which local ecosystems recur more or less throughout the region in a predictable fashion. By observing the behavior of the different kinds of systems within a region, it is possible to predict the behavior of an unvisited one. Ecoregions have two important functions. First, a map of such regions suggests over what area the knowledge about ecosystem behavior derived from research and experience can be applied without too much adjustment, for example, silvicultural practices, estimates of forest yield, and seed use. Experience concerning land use, such as terrain sensitivity to acid rain, suitability for agriculture, and effectiveness of best management practices in protecting fisheries, can be applied to similar sites within each region. Second, regions provide a geographic framework in which similar responses may be expected within similarly defined systems. It is thus possible to formulate management policy and apply it on a regionwide basis rather than on a site-by-site basis. This increases the utility of site-specific information and cuts down on the cost of environmental inventories and monitoring. Furthermore, analogous ecoregions occur in predictable locations in different parts of the world because the controlling factors are the same for each. We can predict the kind of ecoregion that will be found in any particular place on earth if we know the latitude, relative continental or oceanic position and elevation. This makes it possible to transfer knowledge gained from one part of a continent to another and from one continent for application in another. Ecoregions are Part of the National Hierarchy of Ecological Units There has been growing recognition of the need to address environmental problems at the broader scale. As a result, land management agencies and conservation organizations have expressed interest that ecoregion maps could play a role in meeting this need. Various alternatives have been suggested for mapping ecoregions and their component ecosystems. Some schemes of classifying ecoregions have been based on the intuitive recognition of homogeneous-appearing regions, without considering the controlling forces that differentiate them. Using such methods each ecoregion is considered unique, unrelated to other regions. These are nothing more than place name regions, such as the Great Basin of North America, instead of being based on criteria that define what type of region each is. 4

5 5 As a result of this, analogous regions in different continents may not be defined in the same way. Such inconsistency makes it difficult to exchange environmental information. Regions defined without specifying the factors upon which they are based are difficult for others to scrutinize or confirm. The results are therefore difficult to communicate convincingly. The ecoregions described in this paper are based on a more explicit approach in which regions are differentiated on the basis of comparable likenesses and differences. Recognizing the need for an explicit approach, Cleland and others (1997) incorporated the ecosystem regionalization approach and map units discussed in this paper into the National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units (Table 1). The USDA Forest Service has adopted this hierarchy for use in ecosystem management. It is important to link the ecosystem management hierarchy with the Forest Service research hierarchy. In so doing, research structures and ecosystem hierarchies correlate such that research information, mapping levels, and research studies work well together. Mapping North American Ecoregions Based on macroclimatic conditions and on the prevailing plant formations determined by those conditions, I subdivided the North American continent into ecoregions with three levels of detail (Bailey 1998b). Of these the broadest, domains, and within them divisions, are based largely on the broad ecological climate zones of W. Köppen (as modified by Trewartha 1968, Table 2, Figure 1). 4 Thermal and moisture limits for plant growth determine their boundaries. Domains are groups of related climates. There are four groups. Three are humid, thermally differentiated: polar, with no warm season; humid temperate, rainy with mild to severe winters; humid tropical, rainy with no winters. The fourth, dry, is defined on the basis of moisture alone, and transects the otherwise humid domains. Within 4 Other methods for mapping zones at the global scale are those of Thornthwaite (1931), Holdridge (1947), and Walter and Box (1976). All methods appear to work better in some areas than in others, and to have gained their own adherents. I chose the Köppen system as the basis for ecoregion delineation because it has become the international standard for geographical purposes. Furthermore, among the existing climate classification systems, the one by Köppen is found to be the least demanding on data, which is primarily based on precipitation and temperature. As meteorological stations around the world routinely collect values of these attributes and the information is generally available in existing maps, this was seen as an additional advantage, which would require a relatively consistent global distribution of input data. Other global climate classification systems, for example, Thornthwaite and Holdridge, call for evapo-transpiration data, which is not uniformly available at the global level.

6 6 these groups are 15 types of climate based on seasonality of precipitation or on degree of dryness or cold, e.g., within the humid tropical domain, rainforests with year-round precipitation can be distinguished from savannas with winter drought. Divisions correspond to these types. For more information, including illustrated, detailed descriptions of the divisions see my related book, Ecoregions (Bailey 1998a). The climate is not completely uniform within divisions, so that a further subdivision can be undertaken. Within the dry climates, for example, there is a wide range of degree of aridity, ranging from very dry deserts through transitional levels of aridity in the direction of adjacent moist climates. We refer to these as climate subtypes. The subtypes largely correspond to major plant formations (for example, broadleaved forest), which are delimited on the basis of macro features of the vegetation by concentrating on the life-form of the plants. They form the basis for subdividing ecoregion divisions into provinces, and are based on a number of sources, including a world map of landscape types (Milanova and Kushlin 1993). The arrangement of the ecological climate zones depends largely on latitude and continental position. This pattern, however, is overlain by mountain ranges, which cut across latitudinally oriented climatic zones to create their own ecosystems. Altitude creates characteristic ecological zones that are variations of the lowland climate. Mountains show typical climatic characteristics, depending on their location in the overall pattern of global climatic zones. The mountain ranges of the Sierra Nevada, for example, experience the same high-sun, high-energy input, and seasonal moisture regime consisting of a relatively dry summer and rainy winter typical of their neighboring lowlands. Every mountain within a climatic zone has a typical sequence of altitudinal belts, with different ecosystems at successive levels: generally montane, alpine, and nival, but exhibiting considerable differences according to the zone where they occur. When a mountain extends over two or more climatic zones it produces different vertical zonation patterns. This is shown in Figure 2, which compares locations along the length of the Western Cordillera from Alaska to Colorado. Mountains exhibiting altitudinal zonation and the climatic regime of the adjacent lowlands are distinguished according to the character of the zonation by listing the altitudinal zones present. Such mountainous environments are termed mountain provinces.

7 7 Thirty-four provinces and 29 mountain provinces are differentiated and represented on the North American map (within 15 divisions and four domains). Note that these ecoclimatic zones are much simplified without edaphic or anthropogenic influences being shown. The only major exception being where intrazonal contrasts (related to groundwater) form riverine forests along the lower Mississippi River valley. Also the boundaries shown are only approximate and give a broad-brush picture. The actual boundaries may be very irregular and much modified by human interference. The similar colors on the map show the major climatic zones: the mountains in each zone are shown by pattern. The names of the provinces retain the names of the most obvious vegetation indicator: tundra, broadleafed forest, etc. In mountain areas, the altitudinal zonality-types are named from the lower- and upper-elevation (subnival) belts: (e.g., forest - alpine meadow), which vary considerably according to the zones in which they occur. Each type corresponds to a typical sequence of altitudinal belts. When it is necessary to emphasize the existence of intermediate belts in the structure of similar spectra, the name of the most characteristic intermediate belt is added to the designation; for example, mixed forest - coniferous forest - tundra. In low- and mediumrelief mountains, the zonal spectra are incomplete. In such cases, the type is designated by the character of the lower belt. More details are presented elsewhere (Bailey 1983, 1996). Ecoregion Maps of the RMRS Scaled-down versions of the ecoregions map of North America (Bailey 1998b) with the boundary of the RMRS highlighted are included as Figures 3 and 4. They show ecoregion domains and divisions, respectively. Figures 5 and 6 zoom in on the RMRS to show the divisions and provinces. Ten provinces and seven mountain provinces are differentiated and represented on the RMRS maps (within 10 divisions and two domains). Characteristics of RMRS Ecoregions The following material describes the ecoregions of the RMRS at two levels the domain and division. Descriptions and illustrations of provinces are available on-line via the links shown below. A print version is also available (Bailey 1995). The terms used in

8 8 describing the provinces may not be familiar and so need explanation. They are listed in the Glossary Humid Temperate Domain The climate of the Humid Temperate Domain, located in the middle latitudes (30 to 60 degrees N), is governed by both tropical and polar air masses. The middle latitudes are subject to cyclones; much of the precipitation in this belt comes from rising moist air along fronts within these cyclones. Pronounced seasons are the rule, with strong annual cycles of temperature and precipitation. The seasonal fluctuation of energy and temperature is greater than the diurnal. Climates of the middle latitudes have a distinctive winter season, which tropical climates do not. The Humid Temperate Domain contains forests of broadleaf deciduous and needleleaf evergreen trees. The variable importance of winter frost determines six divisions: warm continental, hot continental, subtropical, marine, prairie, and Mediterranean. Within this domain, only the prairie and Mediterranean occur within the RMRS. 250 Prairie Division Prairies are typically associated with continental, mid-latitude climates that are designated as subhumid. Precipitation in these climates ranges from 20 to 40 in (510 to 1,020 mm) per year, and is almost entirely offset by evapotranspiration (see climate diagram for Fargo, North Dakota). In summer, air and soil temperatures are high; soil moisture in the uplands is inadequate for tree growth, and deeper sources of water are beyond the reach of tree roots. Prairie forms a broad belt extending from Texas northward to southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. Forest and prairie mix in a transitional belt on the eastern border of the division. The prairie climate is not designated as a separate variety in the Koppen-Trewartha system. Geographers' recognition of the prairie climate (Thornthwaite 1931, Borchert 1950) has been incorporated into the system presented here. Prairies lie on the arid western side of the humid continental climate, extending into the subtropical climate at lower latitudes. 5 The vegetation conditions indicated by province name refer to undisturbed plant cover that is know to exist or is assumed to grow if human intervention should be removed. This is known as potential natural vegetation (Küchler 1964).

9 9 Temperature characteristics correspond to those of adjacent humid climates, forming the basis for two types of prairies: temperate and subtropical. Prairie vegetation is dominated by tall grasses associated with subdominant broadleaved herbs. Trees and shrubs are almost totally absent, but a few may grow as woodland patches in valleys and other depressions. Grasses are deeply rooted and form a continuous cover. They flower in spring and early summer, with forbs appearing in late summer. In the tall-grass prairie of Iowa, for example, typical grasses are big bluestem and little bluestem; a typical forb is black-eyed Susan. Because there is less rainfall in the grasslands than in forest, there is also less leaching of the soil. The pedogenic process associated with prairie vegetation is calcification, as carbonates accumulate in lower soil layers. Soils of the prairies are Mollisols, which have black, friable, organic surface horizons and a high content of bases. Grass roots deeply penetrate these soils. Bases brought to the surface by plant growth are released on the surface and restored to the soil, perpetuating fertility. These soils are the most productive of the great soil groups. Prairie parkland, Iowa (this type continues westward into the eastern side of the RMRS) 251 Prairie Parkland (Temperate) Province

10 Mediterranean Division Situated on the Pacific coast between latitudes 30 and 45 N. is a zone subject to alternate wet and dry seasons, the transition zone between the dry west coast desert and the wet west coast. Trewartha (1968) classifies the climate of these lands as Cs, signifying a temperate rainy climate with the dry, hot summers indicated by the symbol s (see climate diagram for Reno, Nevada). The combination of wet winters with dry summers is unique among climate types and produces a distinctive natural vegetation of hardleaved evergreen trees and shrubs called sclerophyll forest. Various forms of sclerophyll woodland and scrub are also typical. Trees and shrubs must withstand the severe summer drought--2 to 4 rainless months--and severe evaporation. Soils of this Mediterranean climate are not susceptible to simple classification. Alfisols and Mollisols typical of semiarid climates are generally found. M260 Mediterranean Mountains This is a mountain variant of the Mediterranean Division whereby a spectrum of climate and vegetation zones exist due to changes in elevation, known as altitudinal zonation.

11 11 Open montane forest in the Mediterranean mountains, Lake Tahoe Basin M261 Sierran Steppe--Mixed Forest--Coniferous Forest--Alpine Meadow Province Dry Domain The essential feature of a dry climate is that annual losses of water through evaporation at the earth's surface exceed annual water gains from precipitation. Due to the resulting water deficiency, no permanent streams originate in dry climate zones. Because evaporation, which depends chiefly on temperature, varies greatly from one part of the earth to another, no specific value for precipitation can be used as the boundary for all dry climates. For example, 25 in (610 mm) of annual precipitation may produce a humid climate and forest cover in cool northwestern Europe, but the same amount in the hot tropics produces semiarid conditions. Two divisions of dry climates are commonly recognized: the arid desert, and the semiarid steppe. Generally, the steppe is a transitional belt surrounding the desert and separating it from humid climates beyond. The boundary between arid and semiarid climates is arbitrary but commonly defined as one-half the amount of precipitation separating steppe from humid climates. Of all the climatic groups, dry climates are the most extensive; they occupy a quarter or more of the earth's land surface. 310 Tropical/ Subtropical Steppe Division

12 12 Tropical steppes border the tropical deserts on both the north and south, and in places on the east as well. Locally because of altitude, plateaus and high plains within what would otherwise be desert have a semiarid steppe climate. Steppes on the poleward fringes of the tropical deserts grade into the Mediterranean climate in many places. In the United States, they are cut off from the Mediterranean climate by coastal mountains that allow tropical deserts to extend farther north. Trewartha (1968) classifies the climate of tropical/subtropical steppes as BSh, indicating a hot semiarid climate where potential evaporation exceeds precipitation, and where all months have temperatures above 32F (0C--see climate diagram for Abilene, Texas). Steppes typically are grasslands of short grasses and other herbs, and with locally developed shrub- and woodland. On the Colorado Plateau, for example, there is pinyonjuniper woodland. To the east, in Texas, the grasslands grade into savanna woodland or semideserts composed of xerophytic shrubs and trees, and the climate becomes semiaridsubtropical. Cactus plants are present in some places. These areas are able to support limited grazing, but are not generally moist enough for crop cultivation without irrigation. Soils are commonly Mollisols and Aridisols, containing some humus. Semi-desert on the Colorado Plateau, Arizona 311 Great Plains Steppe and Shrub Province

13 313 Colorado Plateau Semi-Desert Province Southwest Plateau and Plains Dry Steppe and Shrub Province 13 M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Mountains This is a mountain variant of the Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division whereby a spectrum of climate and vegetation zones exist due to changes in elevation, known as altitudinal zonation. Open montane forest in the subtropical steppe mountains of Arizona M313 Arizona-New Mexico Mountains Semidesert--Open Woodland Coniferous Forest--Alpine Meadow Province Tropical/ Subtropical Desert Division South of the Arizona-New Mexico Mountains are the continental desert climates, which have not only extreme aridity, but also extremely high air and soil temperatures. Direct sun radiation is very strong, as is outgoing radiation at night, causing extreme variations between day and night temperatures and a rare nocturnal frost. Annual precipitation is less

14 14 than 8 in (200 mm), and less than 4 in (100 mm) in extreme deserts (see climate diagram for Yuma, Arizona). These areas have climates that Trewartha (1968) calls BWh. The region is characterized by dry-desert vegetation, a class of xerophytic plants that are widely dispersed and provide negligible ground cover. In dry periods, visible vegetation is limited to small hard-leaved or spiny shrubs, cacti, or hard grasses. Many species of small annuals may be present, but they appear only after the rare but heavy rains have saturated the soil. In the Mojave-Sonoran Deserts (American Desert), plants are often so large that some places have a near-woodland appearance. Well known are the treelike saguaro cactus, the prickly pear cactus, the ocotillo, creosote bush, and smoke tree. But much of the desert of the Southwestern United States is in fact scrub, thorn scrub, savanna, or steppe grassland. Parts of this region have no visible plants; they are made up of shifting sand dunes or almost sterile salt flats. A dominant pedogenic process is salinization, which produces areas of salt crust where only salt-loving (halophytic) plants can survive. Calcification is conspicuous on welldrained uplands, where encrustations and deposits of calcium carbonate (caliche) are common. Humus is lacking and soils are mostly Aridisols and dry Entisols. Creosote bush semi-desert, southern Nevada 321 Chihuahuan Semi-Desert Province

15 322 American Semi-Desert and Desert Province Temperate Steppe Division Temperate steppes are areas with a semiarid continental climatic regime in which, despite maximum summer rainfall, evaporation usually exceeds precipitation. Trewartha (1968) classifies the climate as BSk; the letter k signifies a cool climate with at least 1 month of average temperatures below 32F (0C). Winters are cold and dry, summers warm to hot (see climate diagram for Pueblo, Colorado). The vegetation is steppe, sometimes called shortgrass prairie, and semidesert. Typical steppe vegetation consists of numerous species of short grasses that usually grow in sparsely distributed bunches. Scattered shrubs and low trees sometimes grow in the steppe; all gradations of cover are present, from semidesert to woodland. Because ground cover is generally sparse, much soil is exposed. Many species of grasses and other herbs occur. Buffalo grass is typical of the American steppe; other typical plants are the sunflower and locoweed. The semidesert cover is a xerophytic shrub vegetation accompanied by a poorly developed herbaceous layer. Trees are generally absent. An example of semidesert cover is the sagebrush vegetation of the middle and southern Rocky Mountain region and the Colorado Plateau. In this climatic regime, the dominant pedogenic process is calcification, with salinization on poorly drained sites. Soils contain a large excess of precipitated calcium carbonate and are very rich in bases. Mollisols are typical in steppe lands. The soils of the semidesert shrub are Aridisols with little organic content, pedogenic and (occasionally) clay horizons, and (in some places) accumulations of various salts. Humus content is small because the vegetation is so sparse.

16 16 Dry steppe, western Kansas 331 Great Plains-Palouse Dry Steppe Province Great Plains Steppe Province M330 Temperate Steppe Mountains This is a mountain variant of the Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division whereby a spectrum of climate and vegetation zones exist due to changes in elevation, known as altitudinal zonation.

17 17 Altitudinal zonation in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming: temperate steppe mountains with coniferous forest on the lower slopes and alpine tundra toward the crest M331 Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe--Open Woodland--Coniferous Forest-- Alpine Meadow Province M332 Middle Rocky Mountain Steppe--Coniferous Forest--Alpine Meadow Province M333 Northern Rocky Mountain Forest-Steppe--Coniferous Forest--Alpine Meadow Province M334 Black Hills Coniferous Forest Province Temperate Desert Division

18 18 Temperate deserts of continental regions have low rainfall and strong temperature contrasts between summer and winter. In the intermountain region of the Western United States between the Pacific coast and Rocky Mountains, the temperate desert has characteristics of a sagebrush (Artemisia) semidesert, with a very pronounced drought season and a short humid season. Most precipitation falls in winter, despite a peak in May (see climate diagram for Salt Lake City, Utah). Aridity increases markedly in the rain shadow of the Pacific mountain ranges. Even at intermediate elevations, winters are long and cold, with temperatures falling below 32F (0C). Under the Koppen-Trewartha system, this is true desert, BWk. The letter k signifies that at least 1 month has an average temperature below 32F (0C). These deserts differ from those at lower latitudes chiefly in their far greater annual temperature range and much lower winter temperatures. Unlike the dry climates of the tropics, dry climates in the middle latitudes receive part of their precipitation as snow. Temperate desert climates support the sparse xerophytic shrub vegetation typical of semidesert. One example is the sagebrush vegetation of the Great Basin and northern Colorado Plateau. Recently, semidesert shrub vegetation seems to have invaded wide areas of the Western United States that were formerly steppe grasslands, due to overgrazing and trampling by livestock. Soils of the temperate desert are Aridisols low in humus and high in calcium carbonate. Poorly drained areas develop saline soils, and dry lake beds are covered with salt deposits. Semi-desert, central Nevada

19 Intermountain Semi-Desert and Desert Province Intermountain Semi-Desert Province M340 Temperate Desert Mountains This is a mountain variant of the Temperate Desert Division whereby a spectrum of climate and vegetation zones exist due to changes in elevation, known as altitudinal zonation. Altitudinal zonation in the Ruby Mountains of central Nevada, with sagebrush semi-desert in the foreground, coniferous forest on the lower mountain slopes, and alpine tundra toward the top M341 Nevada-Utah Mountains Semi-Desert--Coniferous Forest--Alpine Meadow Province

20 Mesoscale Patterns within Ecoregions Macroclimate accounts for the largest share of systematic environmental variation at the macroscale or ecoregion level. At the mesoscale, the broad patterns are broken up by landform. For example solar, energy will be received and processed differently by a field of sand dunes, lake plain, or an upland hummocky moraine. Landforms (with their geologic substrate, surface shape, and relief) influence placeto-place variation in ecological factors such as water availability and exposure to radiant solar energy. Through varying height and degree of inclination of the ground surface, landforms interact with climate and directly influence hydrologic and soil-forming processes. In short, the best correlation of vegetation and soil patterns at meso and microscales is landform because it controls the intensities of key factors important to plants and the soil that develop with them. As landform exerts the major control over ecosystems within climatic-vegetation zones, landform can be used as the basis for further differentiation of ecosystems, the landscape mosaics we mentioned earlier. The character of the landscape mosaic with different geology will vary in the climatic zone. In the same climatic zone, different geologies will weather and erode differently forming different patterns of local ecosystems. According the way it breaks up the zonal climate, a landform unit consists of different ecosystem patterns. For example, the Idaho Mountains and Yellowstone plateau are both highlands in a temperate steppe climate. The Idaho Mountains is made of a complex mosaic of riparian, forest, and grassland sites. Deep dissection of the mountain range has resulted in variously oriented slopes with various local climates. The result is a striking contrast in vegetation. The Yellowstone Plateau, on the other hand, does not have these spotty distribution patterns because its landform is relatively uniform. 20 Microscale Patterns within Ecoregions Although the distribution of ecological zones is controlled by macroclimate and broad-scale landform patterns, local differences are controlled chiefly by microclimate and ground conditions, especially moisture availability. The latter is the edaphic (related to soil) factor.

21 21 Within a landform there exist slight differences in slope and aspect that modify the macroclimate to topoclimate (Thornthwaite 1954). As outlined by Hills (1952), there are three classes of topoclimate; normal, hotter than normal, and colder than normal. In differentiating local sites within topoclimates, soil moisture regimes provide the most significant segregation of the plant communities. A common division of the soil moisture gradient is: drier, moist (normal), and wetter. A toposequence, or catena of soil moisture regimes ranging from drier to wetter as one proceeds from the top to the bottom of a slope, is an example of this. Thus, topography, even in areas of uniform macroclimate, leads to differences in local climates, soil conditions, and biota creating differing sites. These deviations occur in various combinations within a region, resulting in three types of sites: (1) zonal, which are typical for the climate, such as a well-drained sagebrush terrace in a semiarid climate; (2) azonal sites such as a riparian forest; and (3) intrazonal sites that may occur in any zone on extreme types of soil and parent material that override the climatic effect, such as sand dunes. Variations in elevation, and in topography, further affect the soil moisture and biota, in turn creating ecosystem sites. The mountainous areas of Colorado lie within the temperate steppe zone with elevation belts ranging from shrublands, to temperate coniferous forest, to mountainous vegetation above tree line. Within the forest cover, the main environmental contrasts in the types of vegetation are not simply related to elevation but to a combination of elevation and topography. Peet (1981) has located the main forest types on an elevation-topographic gradient. The accompanying diagram (Figure 7) shows this gradient in the Front Range, Colorado. The different types of sites are ordered according to the driest to the wettest conditions. Exposed ridges mark the dry end of the gradient, whereas the wetter end consists of deep ravines with flowing streams. Between these two extremes, other sites are arrayed according to their moisture characteristics. By knowing the elevation and exposures, one can predict the kind of vegetation that is likely to occur there. For example, Douglas-fir (Pseudtsuga) forests occur in wet, north-facing slopes at an elevation greater than 2500 m, whereas pine forests occur on dry, south-facing slopes below this elevation. Local site classification and mapping units in the mountainous ecoregion could be established by referring to such an elevation-topographic gradient.

22 Conclusions Many environmental problems are no longer local and must be addressed in a regional context. Conducting and reporting research by ecological regions (ecoregions), organizes things according to natural patterns, rather than by other means, which frequently cut across natural ecosystems. Through research and reporting by ecoregions, valuable insight is obtained on how to design research networks and transfer knowledge. To achieve meaningful regions, they must be based on an explicit approach in which regions are differentiated on the basis of comparable likeness and differences. This approach has the advantage over intuitive place name regions that cannot be confirmed or reproduced. Furthermore, analogous regions in different areas are defined in the same way. This facilitates the exchange of information. It is important to link the regions chosen about which to structure research with the ecosystem management hierarchy adopted by National Forest System, one of R&D s principal customers/partners. In so doing, research structures and ecosystem management hierarchies correlate such that research information, mapping levels, and research studies work well together. The procedure of locating representative sites for ecological networks in such a way that data can be transferred to other sites is based on an understanding of the relationships between climate (as modified by landform) and ecosystem distribution. Such an understanding provides a basis for designing such networks (Bailey 1991). 22

23 Glossary Broadleafed--with leaves other than linear in outline: as opposed to needleleafed or grass-like (graminoid). Coniferous--trees bearing cones and commonly having needleshaped leaves usually retained during the year; adapted to moisture deficiency due to frozen ground or soils that are not moisture-retentive. Deciduous--woody plants, or pertaining to woody plants, that seasonally lose all their leaves and become temporarily bare-stemmed. Desert--supporting vegetation of plants so widely spaced, or sparse, that enough of the substratum shows through to give the dominant tone to the landscape. Dry steppe--with 6-7 arid months in each year. Evergreen--plants, or pertaining to plants, which remain green in parts of the year around, either by retaining at least some of their leaves at all times, or by having green stems which carry on the principal photosynthetic functions. Forest--open or closed vegetation with the principal layer consisting of trees averaging more than 5 m in height. Forest-steppe--intermingling of steppe and groves or strips of trees. Forest-tundra--intermingling of tundra and groves or strips of trees. Heath--an area of largely treeless country, dominated by various grasses able to thrive on poor acidic soils, often accompanied by dwarf shrubs. Meadow--closed herbaceous vegetation, commonly in stands of rather limited extent, or at least not usually applied to extensive grasslands. Mixed forest--forest with both needleleafed and broadleafed trees. Nival--of or relating to a region of perennial snow. Open woodland (also called steppe forest and woodland-savanna)--open forest with lower layers also open, having the trees or tufts of vegetation discrete but averaging less than their diameter apart. Paramo--the alpine belt in the wet tropics. Prairie--consist of tall grasses, mostly exceeding 1 m in height, comprising the dominant herbs, with subdominant forbs (broadleafed herbs). Riverine forest (also called galeria and floodplain forest)--dense tropical, subtropical, or prairie, forest living along the banks of a river. 23

24 24 Savanna--closed grass or other predominantly herbaceous vegetation with scattered or widely-spaced woody plants usually including some low trees. Semidesert (also called half-desert)--is an area of xerophytic shrubby vegetation with a poorly-developed herbaceous lower layer, e.g., sagebrush. Semi-evergreen forest (also called a monsoon forest)--where many, although not all, of the trees lose their leaves; adaptation to a dry season in the tropics. Shrub--a woody plant less than 5 m high. Steppe (also called shortgrass prairie)--open herbaceous vegetation, less than 1 m high, with the tufts or plants discrete, yet sufficiently close together to dominate the landscape. Tayga (also spelled taiga)--a parkland or savanna with needleleafed (usually evergreen) low trees and shrubs. Tundra--slow-growing, low-formation, mainly closed vegetation of dwarf-shrubs, graminoids, and cryptograms, beyond the subpolar or alpine tree-line.

25 References Bailey, R.G Delineation of ecosystem regions. Environmental Management 7: Bailey, R.G Explanatory supplement to ecoregions map of the continents. Environmental Conservation 16: with separate map at 1:30,000,000. Bailey, R.G Design of ecological networks for monitoring global change. Environmental Conservation 18(2): Bailey, R.G Description of the ecoregions of the United States. 2d ed. rev. and expanded (1st ed. 1980). Misc. Publ (rev.). Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 108 p. with separate map at 1:7,500,000. Bailey, R.G Ecosystem geography. New York: Springer-Verlag. 216 p. Bailey, R.G. 1998a. Ecoregions: the ecosystem geography of the oceans and continents. New York: Springer-Verlag. 192 p. Bailey, R.G. 1998b. Ecoregions map of North America: Explanatory note. Misc. Publ Washington, DC: USDA Forest Service. 10 p. with separate map at 1:15,000,000. Bailey, R.G Ecoregion-based design for sustainability. New York: Springer-Verlag. 222 p. Bailey, R.G Identifying ecoregions boundaries. Environmental Management 34, Suppl. 1: S14-S26. Borchert, J.F The climate of the central North American grassland. Annals Association of American Geographers. 40:1-39. Cleland, D.T.; Avers, P.E.; McNab, W.H.; Jensen, M.E.; Bailey, R.G.; King, T.; Russell, W.E National hierarchical framework of ecological units. In: Boyce, M.S.; Haney, A., eds. Ecosystem management. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press: Crowley, J.M Biogeography [in Canada]. Canadian Geographer 11: Hills, A Comparison of forest ecosystems (vegetation and soil) in different climatic zones. Pp in Silva Fennica 105, Helsinki, Finland. 144 p. Holdridge, L.R Determination of world plant formations from simple climatic data. Science 105: Köppen, W Grundiss der klimakunde. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 388 p. Küchler, A.W Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States (map 25

26 26 and manual). American Geographical Society Special Publication p. with separate map at 1:3,168,000. Milanova, E.V.; Kushlin, A.V., eds World map of present-day landscapes: an explanatory note. Moscow: Moscow State University. 33 p. with separate map at 1:15,000,000. Olsen, D.M., and E. Dinerstein The Global 2000: A representative approach to conserving the Earth s most biologically valuable ecoregions. Conservation Biology 12: Peet, R.K Forests of the Rocky Mountains. In M.G. Barbour and W.D. Billings (eds.). North American Terrestrial Vegetation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp Schmithüsen, J Atlas zur biogeographie. Mannheim-Wien-Zurich: Bibliographisches Institut. 33 p. Thornthwaite, C.W The climates of North America according to a new classification. Geographical Review 21: with separate map at 1:20,000,000. Thornthwaite, C.W Topoclimatology. Pp in Proc. Toronto Meteorological Conference. (9-15 September 1953, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.) Royal Meteorological Society, London. Trewartha, G.T An introduction to climate, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. 408 p. Walter, H.; Box, E Global classification of natural terrestrial ecosystems. Vegetatio 32: Walter, H.; Harnickell, E.; Mueller-Dombois, D Climate-diagram maps of the individual continents and the ecological climate regions of the Earth. Berlin: Springer- Verlag. 36 pp. with 9 maps. Walter, H.; Lieth, H Klimadiagramm Weltatlas. Jena, East Germany: G. Fischer Verlag. maps, diagrams, profiles. Irregular pagination.

27 27 Table 1. USDA Forest Service National Hierarchical Framework of Ecological Units supports ecosystem based planning at multiple scales. (Adapted in part from Cleland and others, 1997). Scale Unit Macroecosystem Ecoregion Domain (Ecoregion) Division Domain Mesoecosystem Subregion Section (Landscape mosaic) Subsection ` Landscape Landtype association Microecosystem Land Unit Ecological landtype (Site) Ecological landtype phase

28 Table 2. Ecological climate zones. a Types shown in shaded boxes apply to the Rocky Mountain Research Station. Köppen group and types Ecoregion equivalents A Tropical and humid climates Humid tropical domain (400) Tropical wet (Ar) Rainforest division (420) Tropical wet-dry (Aw) Savanna division (410) 28 B Dry climates Dry domain (300) Tropical/subtropical Tropical/subtropical steppe semi-arid (BSh) division (310) Tropical/subtropical Tropical/subtropical desert arid (BWh) division (320) Temperate semi-arid (BSk) Temperate steppe division (330) Temperate arid (BWk) Temperate desert division (340) C Subtropical climates Humid temperate domain (200) Subtropical dry summer (Cs) Mediterranean division (260) Humid subtropical (Cf) Subtropical division (230) Prairie division (250) b D Temperate climates Temperate oceanic (Do) Marine division (240) Temperate continental, warm Hot continental division (220) summer (Dca) Prairie division (250) b Temperate continental, cool Warm continental division summer (Dcb) (210) Prairie division (250) b

29 E Boreal climates Polar domain (100) Subarctic (E) Subarctic division (130) 29 F Polar climates Tundra (Ft) Tundra division (120) Ice Cap (Fi) Icecap division (110) Definitions and Boundaries of the Köppen-Trewartha System Ar All months above 18 o C and no dry season. Aw Same as Ar, but with 2 months dry in winter. BSh Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation, and all months above 0 o C. BWh One-half the precipitation of BSh, and all months above 0 o C. BSk Same as BSh, but with at least 1 month below 0 o C. BWk Same as BWh, but with at least 1 month below 0 o C. Cs 8 months 10 o C, coldest month below 18 o C, and summer dry. Cf Same as Cs, but no dry season. Do 4 to 7 months above 10 o C, coldest month above 0 o C. Dca 4 to 7 months above 10 o C, coldest month below 0 o C, and warmest month above 22 o C. Dcb Same as Dca, but warmest month below 22 o C. E Up to 3 months above 10 o C. Ft All months below 10 o C. Fi All months below 0 o C. A/C boundary = Equatorial limits of frost; in marine locations, the isotherm of 18 o C for coolest month. C/D boundary = 8 months 10 o C. D/E boundary = 4 months 10 o C. E/F boundary = 10 o C for warmest month. B/A, B/C, B/D, B/E boundary = Potential evaporation equals precipitation. a Based on the Köppen system of classification (1931), as modified by G.T. Trewartha (1968).

30 b Köppen did not recognize the Prairie as a distinct climatic type. The ecoregion classification system represents it at the arid sides of the Cf, Dca, and Dcb types, following Borchert (1950). 30

31 List of figures with captions Figure 1. Global distribution of Köppen climate types. After Trewartha (1968). Figure 2. Vertical zonation in different ecoclimatic zones along the eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera. From Schmithusen (1976), p. 70. Figure 3. Ecoregion domains of North America. The boundary of the Rocky Mountain Research Station is highlighted. Figure 4. Ecoregion divisions of North America. The boundary of the Rocky Mountain Research Station is highlighted. Figure 5. Ecoregion divisions of the Rocky Mountain Research Station. Figure 6. Ecoregion provinces of the Rocky Mountain Research Station. Figure 7. Relationships between elevation-topography and climax plant communities in the Front Range, Colorado. From Peet (1981).

32 Figure 1 32

33 Figure 2 33

34 Figure 3

35 Figure 4

36 Figure 5

37 Figure 6

38 Figure 7