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1 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Part A: Overview and Suggestins Statistics in the Cntext f Scientific Research This chapter pens with an verview f scientific research The gal is t cnvey the pint that behaviral scientists seek t answer questins Answering thse questins requires the use f statistics Thus, t understand statistical methds, a student must knw at least the fundamentals f research methdlgy Having students cnstruct a questinnaire allws fr a discussin and applicatin f many f the cncepts presented in the beginning f this chapter The need fr empirically testable questins and explicit research hyptheses can be stressed Discuss what it means t evaluate a hypthesis and why a hypthesis that cannt be refuted by empirical data is nt scientifically useful Have students prvide examples f untestable hyptheses and hw such hyptheses might be refrmulated int statements that wuld be empirically testable In discussing research methds, the idea f cnducting ethical research shuld be discussed Several surces exist n the Tuskegee Syphilis Research prject cnducted frm 1932 t 1972 in the United States This study and its ethical failures tend t be cncrete enugh fr students t cmprehend the real threat f unethical research and its impact n human subjects Fr further infrmatin n the Tuskegee syphilis research prject, see the Centers fr Disease Cntrl and Preventin website r the Online Ethics Center website Nva (1993) prduced a 60-minute vide called the "Deadly Deceptin" which cntains persnal statements by subjects and researchers invlved in the Tuskegee syphilis research prject By shwing a brief clip f this study, students can be encuraged t discuss the ethical respnsibilities f behaviral scientists If students are asked t frmulate research hyptheses, then a discussin f measurement fllws naturally T help understand measurement, it is beneficial t ask students t suggest alternative ways f measuring the same behaviral cncept Fr instance, hw might the humr f a set f cartns be measured? One apprach simply might be t identify the cartns as belnging t ne f tw categries--humrus r nt humrus Or, the cartns culd be rank rdered frm the mst humrus t the least humrus As anther apprach, subjects might cmplete a 7-pint rating scale n a dimensin frm 1--nt at all humrus t 7--extremely humrus fr each cartn Finally, we culd time the length f laughter f a persn t each cartn Students relate easily t the idea f rank rdering that characterizes rdinal measurement Ordinal measurement is illustrated by a cmmn elementary schl experience--lining up accrding t height Other examples f rdinal scales are class ranks determined frm grade pint averages, r cllege grades, such as A, B, C, D, and F T initiate a discussin f characteristics f an rdinal scale, ask students t cnsider that if student 1 receives an A, student 2, a B, and student 3, a C fr statistics, what des this tell yu abut their perfrmance in the curse? Or suppse yu knw that the tp ten disease-related causes f death in rank rder are: heart disease, cancer, strke, lung disease, diabetes, pneumnia and flu, kidney disease, bld pisning, liver disease, and hypertensin What des this knwledge tell yu abut hw likely smene is t die f diabetes? Ordinal scaling ften is presented in articles fund in newspapers r magazines, such as the tp ten areas in which t retire r live, the tp three cars in wner satisfactin, r the tp five causes f death As discussed in the text, many measures used in the behaviral sciences (fr example, psychlgical test scres, rating scales) seem t lie in a "gray" area; that is, they appear t cnvey mre quantitative infrmatin than rdinal measurement, but it is difficult t argue that they achieve interval measurement The distinguishing characteristic f an interval scale is that it pssesses an arbitrary zer pint; thus a value f zer n an interval scale des nt represent the absence f the characteristic being measured Examinatin scres prvide a cnvenient example fr discussin Fr example, des a scre f zer n an exam mean the ttal absence f knwledge f the material? Exam scres als can be used t illustrate the distinctin between discrete and cntinuus variables Fr example, a student may receive a scre f 84 r 85 n a multiple chice examinatin, but in mst instances a scre f 8437 cannt be given Thus, the exam scre exists at specific and discrete values and values between thse pints d nt 16

2 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Test Bank fr Statistical Cncepts fr the Behaviral Sciences, 4e exist A cntinuus variable is easy t describe using height and weight Ask the class t cnsider the case f tw peple wh bth reprt their height as 6 feet Is it likely that either r bth are exactly 6 feet tall? Students will realize that althugh bth individuals were assigned the same value, sme small but real difference prbably exists between them An argument can then be intrduced abut the accuracy f measurements and that a cntinuus variable can be defined as a variable that culd theretically be measured t finer and finer levels f accuracy In the discussin f cntinuus measurement, the idea f real limits is imprtant An example that mst students can understand is what cnstitutes and A, B, C, etc S, even if an A is defined as a 90% r abve, what grade d mst students expect t receive if they earn an 895%? Of curse, it is best t use the grades and percentages used n yur campus in this example Part B: Gals and Objectives Gal 21 Students will identify what cnstitutes science Objective 21a Students will define and identify examples f scientific pursuit f knwledge Objective 21b Students will define and identify the rle f the hypthesis in scientific research Gal 22 Students will identify uses and limitatins f majr types f research Objective 22a Students will identify and define six different types f research methds: case study, naturalistic bservatin, archival research, survey, experiment, quasi-experiment Objective 22b Students will identify the uses and limitatins fr six different types f research methds Objective 22c Students will identify the basic rle f the hypthesis and applicatin f statistics in each f the six types f research methds Objective 22d Students will understand that sme uses f statistics require different research methdlgy than ther uses f statistics Objective 22e Students will identify the imprtance and the impact f ethical decisins n scientific research with humans and animals Gal 23 Students will understand basic issues with regard t measurement in statistics Objective 23a Students will identify, define, and prvide an example f the fur scales f measurement: nminal, rdinal, interval, and rati Objective 23b Students will identify, define, and prvide an example f qualitative and quantitative data Objective 23c Students will further classify quantitative data as being either discrete r cntinuus 17

3 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Objective 23d Students will cmprehend the rle f the real limit in cntinuus data Gal 24 Students will knw and apprpriately use terminlgy and symbls in statistics Objective 24a Students will define, and when apprpriate, prvide examples f the terminlgy and symbls necessary fr mastering the bjectives listed in this chapter Part C: Chapter Outline What is science One methd fr the acquisitin f knwledge Scientific methd Scientific questin Allws answer t be btained thrugh cllectin f empirical data Empirical data Scre r measurement btained frm bservatins Research hypthesis Statement f expected r predicted relatinship between tw r mre variables Research methds Apprach scientists use t cllect data in rder t develp r evaluate a research hypthesis Used t empirically test hypthesis Select the type f research methd based n questin/hypthesis Cllect data Analyze data Reach cnclusin Types f research methdscase study Fully detailed examinatin f a single case Used fr rare r new cnditins/situatins Used fr hypthesis building Naturalistic bservatin Unbtrusive examinatin f rganisms in their natural habitat Used t find assciatins between variables Used fr hypthesis building and nn-causal hypthesis testing Archival recrds Use f data cllected at a different time fr a different purpse t test a current nncausal hypthesis Answering questins by examining data frm existing recrds Can be used fr hypthesis building and testing Survey research Obtaining data thrugh ral interviews r paper and pencil tasks Test nn-causal hyptheses Of special nte Survey's are easy t design, but hard t design well Measurement errr can be a real issue Experiment Researcher has cntrl ver the independent variable Subjects are randmly assigned t receive different levels f the independent variable Independent variable (IV) Variable manipulated (cntrlled) by experimenter Used in experiments t see whether it causes changes DV Dependent variable (DV) 18

4 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Test Bank fr Statistical Cncepts fr the Behaviral Sciences, 4e Variable that is measured Variable that is affected by the IV Used t test a causal hypthesis: a change in the IV causes a change in the DV Cntrl Nt manipulated, remains untuched fr cmparisns Causal hypthesis A change in IV causes a change in DV Subject r participant: persn r animal wh takes part in a research study Quasi-experiment Resembles an experiment Used when yu have subject variables (SV) and nt independent variables SV is a variable that cannt be manipulated, nly measured SV is treated like IV Cannt demnstrate that a change in the SV causes a change in DV, but can be used t test nn-causal hyptheses Operatinal definitinprcedures used t make bservatins, t manipulate IV, r measure DV Sampling errr Inaccuracy caused by individual differences Chance difference Difference bserved in experiment due t sampling errr and nt because f IV Measurement Prcess f assigning numbers t variables fllwing a set f rules Fur types f measurements Nminal Classificatin f measured variable int different categries Qualitative data Prviding infrmatin n kind r quality f the variables instead f n amunt Ordinal Ranking f bjects n an attribute The amunt f a variable is placed in rder f magnitude alng a dimensin Interval Numerical representatin f measure Includes infrmatin frm nminal and rdinal Als includes interval infrmatin Assigned a number representing equal amunts f magnitude Des nt have true zer Rati Includes everything that interval measures have True zer Quantitative Data that differ by amunt r numerical value Tw types f quantitative data Discrete A variable that can take n nly a finite r cuntable set f values within its limits Cntinuus A variable that can take n an infinite set f values within its limits Real limits f a number The pints that are midway between the number and the next lwer and next higher number n a scale used t make the measurement 19

5 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Part D: Key Terms and Symbls archival recrds case study cntinuus variable discrete variable empirical data experiment infrmed cnsent institutinal review bard interval measurement lwer real limit f a number measurement naturalistic bservatin nminal measurement peratinal definitin rdinal measurement qualitative data quantitative data quasi-experiment rati measurement real limits f a number research hypthesis research methd survey research upper real limit f a number Part E: Discussin Questins The fllwing questins can be assigned t students fr hmewrk r can be used fr an interteaching activity, assessment, r discussin 1 What is science? Hw des it differ frm a nn-scientific discipline like astrlgy? 2 What is the rle f the research hypthesis in statistics? 3 Identify the strengths and limitatins f each the six types f research methds discussed in the textbk Identify an example fr each type f research methd 4 What cnstitutes an experiment? Be sure t define randm assignment, independent variable, and dependent variable Of all f the types f research methds, what can an experiment d that n ther type f research methd can d? 5 What is the purpse f quasi-experimental research methd? Under what circumstances wuld a researcher pt fr a quasi-experiment ver an experiment? 6 Why is it imprtant that befre yu begin t the interpret data f a research study yu knw hw the variables were peratinally defined? 7 What are the fur types f measurement? Which nes are qualitative r quantitative? Which nes can be discrete r cntinuus? Why are there different types f measurement? Hw might these differences affect the type f statistics used? 8 Fr each f the fllwing examples f a measurement, identify whether it is qualitative r quantitative and whether it is discrete r cntinuus a A persn s cuntry f birth b Time taken t react in a decisin making task c Religisity as measured by a scale frm 7 t 49 d Ranking f humrus cmmercials e Number f children in a husehld 9 Why have we spent the first tw chapters discussing aspects f research instead f beginning with calculatins f statistics? 20

6 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Test Bank fr Statistical Cncepts fr the Behaviral Sciences, 4e STATISTICS IN THE CONTEXT OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 2-1 A scientific questin allws an answer t be btained by a cllecting statistics b statistical testing * c cllecting empirical data d cllecting ppulatin parameters Infrmatin: p 18, K, The wrd is used t refer t sensry experience r bservatin a slvable b scre c intuitive * d empirical Infrmatin: p 18, K, The term empirical means a theretically pssible * b bservable c independent d intuitive Infrmatin, p 18, K, A general apprach used by a behaviral scientist t cllect data is called a(n) * a research methd b empirical methd c statistical methd d peratinal definitin Infrmatin: p 19, K, Using invlves bserving behavirs ccurring in natural settings withut intruding int the situatin a archival recrds * b naturalistic bservatin c experimentatin d survey research Infrmatin: p 19, K, 2 21

7 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm 2-6 A psychlgist unbtrusively bserves children in a preschl t study the children's interactins with each ther The research methd used by this psychlgist is called a experimentatin * b naturalistic bservatin c survey research d archival recrds research Infrmatin: p 19, E, Using invlves answering scientific questins frm infrmatin in existing recrds * a archival recrds b naturalistic bservatin c experimentatin d survey research Infrmatin: p 20, K, A psychlgist studies crime reprts and city census values t determine if the amunt f crime is related t ppulatin density The research methd used by this psychlgist is called a experimentatin b naturalistic bservatin c survey research * d archival recrds research Infrmatin: p 20, E, Using invlves btaining data frm ral r written interviews with peple a archival recrds b naturalistic bservatin c experimentatin * d survey research Infrmatin: p 20, K, Yu are asked t fill ut a questinnaire indicating yur preferences fr types f fd when yu eat in a restaurant The research methd used here is called a experimentatin b naturalistic bservatin * c survey research d archival recrds research Infrmatin: p 20, E, 2 22

8 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Test Bank fr Statistical Cncepts fr the Behaviral Sciences, 4e 2-11 invlves manipulating ne r mre independent variables in a carefully cntrlled situatin a Archival recrds b Naturalistic bservatin research * c Experimentatin d Survey research Infrmatin: p 21, K, A psychlgist manipulates the type f instructins participants are given when perfrming a task One grup f participants is tld their perfrmance n a task is affected nly by chance, whereas a secnd grup f participants is tld their perfrmance n the task relates t their ability levels The research methd used by this psychlgist is called * a experimentatin b naturalistic bservatin c quasi-experimentatin d archival recrds research Infrmatin: p 21, E, When it is either nt pssible r unethical t manipulate an independent variable, which research methd wuld be ptimal? a peratinal definitin b experimentatin * c quasi-experimentatin d inferring Infrmatin: p 21, K, A researcher was interested in evaluating the effect f gender n detecting whether anther persn is lying r nt What research methd wuld be ptimal? a naturalistic bservatin b archival recrds research c experimentatin * d quasi-experimentatin Infrmatin: 21, E, 2 23

9 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm 2-15 A(n) specifies the prcedures used t manipulate an independent variable r t measure a dependent variable a research methd * b peratinal definitin c archival recrd d research design Infrmatin: p 22, K, A researcher was interested in studying the effects f a new treatment n peple wh are currently receiving treatment fr bsessin cmpulsin disrder The participants are randmly assigned t ne f tw grups: new treatment and a cntrl grup where n treatment is given Hw might an IRB review such a study? a The IRB will apprve the study because the ptential benefit ut weighs the risk f nt receiving treatment * b The IRB will nt apprve the study because it is unethical t deny all treatment t the cntrl grup c The IRB will nt review the study as the risk is minimal, and each participant has a right t select their desired treatment d The IRB will apprve the study because the researchers have included a cntrl grup Infrmatin: p 23, E, Which f the fllwing wuld the IRB be lking fr in a request by a researcher t use human subjects in an experiment * a Infrmed cnsent f the subject b Highest quality research c Gd recrd keeping, including subjects names d Abslutely n risk t the subject Infrmatin: p 23, A, Assigning numbers t variables fllwing a set f rules refers t the prcess f a summarizing b numbering * c measuring d inferring Infrmatin: p 24, K, 1 24

10 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Test Bank fr Statistical Cncepts fr the Behaviral Sciences, 4e 2-19 Classificatin f a measured variable int different categries is measurement a interval * b nminal c rdinal d rati Infrmatin: 24, K, Recrding a jurr's decisin as either 1 fr "guilty" r 2 fr "nt guilty" represents measurement a interval b rdinal c rati * d nminal Infrmatin: 24, A, If yu classify individuals by assigning the value 1 t males and the value 2 t females, yu are using measurement * a nminal b rdinal c interval d rati Infrmatin: p 24, A, The fifth place finisher in a ski race was wearing the number 57 In this example the number 57 represents measurement * a nminal b rdinal c interval d rati Infrmatin: p 25, A, Nminal measurements, which categrize the measured variable, are called a empirical b statistically useful * c qualitative d quantitative Infrmatin: p 25, K, 2 25

11 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm 2-24 Arranging characteristics f a variable alng an rdered cntinuum frm largest t smallest is an example f measurement a interval b nminal * c rdinal d rati Infrmatin: p 25, K, Rank rdering students n their grade pint average results in measurement a interval b nminal * c rdinal d rati Infrmatin: p 25, A, Arranging a grup f peple frm shrtest t tallest in height is an example f measurement a nminal * b rdinal c interval d rati Infrmatin: p 25, A, Determining dminance rder by rdering animals alng the dimensin f "mst dminant" t "least dminant" represents measurement a interval b nminal c rati * d rdinal Infrmatin: p 25, A, The 17th place finisher in a rad race was wearing the number 285 The number 17 in this example represents measurement a nminal * b rdinal c interval d rati Infrmatin: p 25, A, 2 26

12 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Test Bank fr Statistical Cncepts fr the Behaviral Sciences, 4e 2-29 Assigning numerical values t a variable with an arbitrary zer pint is measurement * a interval b nminal c rdinal d rati Infrmatin: p 26, K, Which f the fllwing measurement scales has an arbitrary zer pint? a Nminal b Ordinal * c Interval d Rati Infrmatin: p 26, K, The Fahrenheit and Centigrade temperature scales are examples f measurement scales a nminal b rdinal c rati * d interval Infrmatin: p 26, A, Variable A is measured n an interval scale with values that range frm 0 t 10 Which f the fllwing statements must be true? a The value 0 represents the cmplete absence f variable A b The value 8 represents twice the amunt f variable A as des the value 4 * c The difference in the amunt f A frm 2 t 3 is the same as the difference frm 6 t 7 d All the abve statements are true Infrmatin: p 26, A, The cmmnly-used 5- r 7-pint rating scale with values ranging frm strngly agree t strngly disagree represents at least measurement a interval b nminal * c rdinal d rati Infrmatin: p 26, A, 3 27

13 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm 2-34 Data btained frm rating scales ften are treated statistically as representing measurement * a interval b nminal c rati d average Infrmatin: p 26, K, A set f rating scales that are added r averaged is called a rating scale * a summated b cumulative c cmpsite d multidimensinal Infrmatin: p 27, K, Assigning numerical values t a variable with a scale that pssesses a physically real zer pint is measurement a interval * b rati c nminal d rdinal Infrmatin: p 28, K, Time, length and weight are variables that typically are measured by scales a interval b nminal c rdinal * d rati Infrmatin: p 28, A, A persn wh is 50 years ld can be said t be twice as ld as a persn wh is 25 years ld, because the measurement f age is made with a scale a nminal b rdinal * c rati d interval Infrmatin: p 28, A, 2 28

14 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Test Bank fr Statistical Cncepts fr the Behaviral Sciences, 4e 2-39 A bathrm scale used t measure a persn's weight prvides a(n) measurement a nminal * b rati c rdinal d interval Infrmatin: p 28, A, The sixth place finisher f a marathn finished in a time f 156 minutes The number 156 in this example represents measurement a nminal b rdinal c interval * d rati Infrmatin: p 28, A, Measurements that prvide numerical infrmatin abut the variable measured are called a empirical * b quantitative c statistically useful d qualitative Infrmatin: p 28, K, Given a chice, which f the fllwing scales is preferred fr measuring a variable? a Interval b Nminal c Ordinal * d Rati Infrmatin: p 29, E, Which f the fllwing is the crrect rder fr identifying the fur types f measurement scales frm least t mst infrmatin prvided? a Nminal-interval-rati-rdinal b Rati-nminal-interval-rdinal * c Nminal-rdinal-interval-rati d Rati-rdinal-interval-nminal Infrmatin: p 29, E, 1 29

15 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm 2-44 Which f the fllwing scales f measurement prvides the greatest precisin in measurement? a Nminal b Ordinal c Interval * d Rati Infrmatin: p 29, E, A variable that can be measured nly with a finite set f values is a variable * a discrete b nndiscrete c cntinuus d discntinuus Infrmatin: p 30, K, A variable that can assume an infinite set f values between any tw levels f the variable is a variable a discrete b nndiscrete * c cntinuus d discntinuus Infrmatin: p 30, K, Damn's reactin time t a stimulus is 0613 secnds Reactin time is a variable * a cntinuus b discrete c discntinuus d nminal Infrmatin: p 30, A, The number f peple in a grup classified as either students r nnstudents illustrates a(n) a cntinuus variable * b discrete variable c rdinal scale d rati scale Infrmatin: 30, A, 2 30

16 dwnlad instant at wwweasysemestercm Test Bank fr Statistical Cncepts fr the Behaviral Sciences, 4e 2-49 If it takes a persn 45 secnds t cmplete a task, then the lwer real limit fr this scre is secnds a 440 * b 445 c 450 d 455 Infrmatin: p 31, A, If it takes a persn 4221 secnds t cmplete a task, then the upper real limit fr this scre is secnds a 4250 b * c d Infrmatin: p 31, A, What are the lwer and upper real limits f a scre f 5 n a 7-pint rating scale? a 4 and 6 b 49 and 51 * c 45 and 55 d 50 and 60 Infrmatin: p 31, A, If a digital scale displays Margaly's weight as 116 punds, then the lwer real limit f her weight is punds * a 1155 b 1150 c 1159 d 1160 Infrmatin: p 31, A, 2 31