QUATERNARY AND GLACIAL GEOLOGY
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1 QUATERNARY AND GLACIAL GEOLOGY JURGEN EHLERS Geologisches Landesamt, Germany Translated from Allgemeine und historische Quartdrgeologie English version by Philip L. Gibbard JOHN WILEY & SONS Chichester New York Brisbane Toronto Singapore
2 Contents Preface xi 1 Introduction Traces of ice ages in the earth's history Causes of ice ages 5 SECTION I GENERAL QUATERNARY GEOLOGY 2 Glacier Dynamics Formation of glaciers Glacier flow Formation of Alpine-type ice-stream networks Formation of continental ice sheets Formation of marine ice sheets Glacial erosion Glacial transport Glacier dynamics as exemplified by the Late Weichselian Scandinavian Ice Sheet Methods of reconstructing glacier dynamics Landforms Striae Long-axis orientation of clasts Joint systems Thrust directions Moraine elevations 50 SECTION II QUATERNARY DEPOSITS AND LANDFORMS 3 Glacigenic Deposits and Landforms Deposits of recent glaciers Subglacial till 56
3 vi Contents Other morainic deposits Pleistocene glacigenic deposits Post-depositional alteration Glacigenic landforms Drumlins End moraines Ice-decay landscapes Kettle holes 80 4 Meltwater Deposits and Landforms Discharge of modern glacial streams Traces of Pleistocene meltwater activity Tunnel channels Buried channels Eskers Sandur plains, delta plains and gravel terraces Kames Ice-dammed lakes Ice-marginal valleys Periglacial Deposits and Landforms Recent periglacial processes Cryoplanation Rock glaciers Cryoturbation Solifluction Frost fissures and ice wedges Pingos Palsas String mires Thufur Traces of Pleistocene periglacial processes Fluvial processes Aeolian processes Terrestrial Interglacial Environments Vegetation Fauna Weathering and soil formation Human activities Marine Environment Sea-level changes Marine circulation Marine deposits Deep sea 164
4 Contents vii Shelf seas Coasts Methods of Investigating Glacial and Interglacial Deposits Grain size Erratics Fine gravel and coarse sand Clast morphology Heavy minerals Clay minerals Geochemistry Micromorphology Magnetic susceptibility Seismic investigations Geophysical logging Biological remains Macroscopic plant remains Pollen and spores Diatoms Mammals Molluscs Beetles Foraminifera Ostracods 220 SECTION III QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHY 9 Principles of Stratigraphy Chronostratigraphy Lithostratigraphy Biostratigraphy Other stratigraphies Dating Quaternary Deposits Oxygen isotopes Magnetostratigraphy Radiocarbon dating Potassium/argon dating Thorium/uranium dating Fission-track dating ' Thermoluminescence, optical stimulated luminescence and electron spin resonance Beryllium dating Amino-acid dating Varves 244
5 viii 11 Quaternary Stratigraphy of Northern Europe 11.1 Palaeogeographic situation at the beginning of the Pleistocene 11.2 Subdivision of the Pleistocene in North Germany and the Netherlands 11.3 Praetiglian 11.4 Tiglian 11.5 Eburonian 11.6 Waalian 11.7 Menapian 11.8 Bavelian 11.9 Cromerian Elsterian Cold Stage Holsteinian Interglacial Fuhne Cold Stage Wacken Interglacial Saalian Cold Stage Older Saalian Glaciation Middle Saalian Glaciation Younger Saalian Glaciation Eemian Interglacial Weichselian Cold Stage Holocene Quaternary development of the Baltic Sea Origin of the Baltic Sea Postglacial development of the Baltic Sea 12 Quaternary History of the Alps 12.1 Tectonic framework 12.2 Origin of the valleys and basins 12.3 Classic subdivision of the Alpine Quaternary stratigraphy 12.4 Traces of old glaciations 12.5 Uhlenberg Interglacial 12.6 Giinz Complex 12.7 Gunz/Haslach Interglacial 12.8 Haslach Glaciation 12.9 Haslach/Mindel Interglacial Mindel Glaciation Mindel/Riss Interglacial Riss Glaciation Riss/Wiirm Interglacial Wurmian Cold Stage Holocene 13 Quaternary History of North America 13.1 Late Tertiary 13.2 Early Pleistocene 13.3 Pre-Illinoian warm stages Contents
6 Contents ix 13.4 Pre-Illinoian glacial stages Pre-Illinoian/Illinoian Interglacial Illinoian Glaciation Sangamonian Interglacial Wisconsinan Glaciation Early Wisconsinan Middle Wisconsinan Late Wisconsinan The Great Lakes Holocene Quaternary History of the Rivers River Danube (Donau) Rhine (Rhein) and tributaries Thames The Siberian rivers Mississippi Fluvial development during the Holocene Loess Stratigraphy 434 SECTION IV PERSPECTIVE 16 Overview Outlook 455 References 457 Index 549
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