Chapter 8 An Introduction to Metabolism Guided Study
|
|
- Mervin Powers
- 6 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Chapter 8 An Intrductin t Metablism Guided Study Cncept 8.1 An rganism s metablism transfrms matter and energy, subject t the laws f thermdynamics. The sum ttal f an rganism s chemical reactins is called. Metablism is an emergent prperty f life that arises frm interactins between mlecules within the rderly envirnment f the cell. The chemistry f life is rganized int metablic pathways. A metablic pathway begins with a specific mlecule, which is then altered in a series f defined steps t frm a specific prduct. A specific catalyzes each step f the pathway. pathways release energy by breaking dwn cmplex mlecules t simpler cmpunds. A majr pathway f catablism is cellular respiratin, in which the sugar glucse is brken dwn in the presence f xygen t carbn dixide and water. The energy released by catablic pathways becmes available t d the wrk f the cell, such as ciliary beating r membrane transprt. pathways, als called bisynthetic pathways, cnsume energy t build cmplicated mlecules frm simpler cmpunds. The synthesis f amin acids frm simpler mlecules and the synthesis f a prtein frm amin acids are bth examples f anablism. Energy released frm the dwnhill reactins f catablic pathways can be stred and then used t drive the uphill reactins f anablic pathways. Energy is fundamental t all metablic prcesses, and therefre an understanding f energy is key t understanding hw the living cell wrks. is the study f hw energy flws thrugh living rganisms. Organisms transfrm energy. is the capacity t cause change. In everyday life, sme frms f energy can be used t d wrk that is, t mve matter against ppsing frces, such as gravity and frictin. Energy exists in varius frms, and cells transfrm energy frm ne type t anther. energy is the energy assciated with the relative mtin f bjects. Objects in mtin can perfrm wrk by imparting mtin t ther matter. Thermal energy is kinetic energy assciated with the randm mvement f atms r mlecules. Heat is the transfer f thermal energy frm ne bdy f matter t anther. The energy f light can be harnessed t pwer phtsynthesis in green plants. energy is the energy that matter pssesses because f its lcatin r structure. 8-1
2 Water behind a dam pssesses energy because f its altitude abve sea level. Mlecules pssess energy because f the arrangement f electrns in the bnds between their atms. energy is a term used by bilgists t refer t the ptential energy available fr release in a chemical reactin. During a catablic reactin, sme bnds are brken and thers are frmed, releasing energy and prducing lwer-energy breakdwn prducts. Energy can be frm ne frm t anther. The energy transfrmatins f life are subject t tw laws f thermdynamics. is the study f energy transfrmatins that ccur in a cllectin f matter. In this field, the term system refers t the matter under study, and the surrundings include the rest f the universe everything utside the system. An system, apprximated by liquid in a therms, is unable t exchange either energy r matter with its surrundings. In an system, energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surrundings. Organisms are pen systems: They absrb energy light r chemical energy in the frm f rganic mlecules and release heat and metablic waste prducts, such as urea r CO 2, t their surrundings. Tw laws f thermdynamics gvern energy transfrmatins in rganisms and all ther cllectins f matter. The first law f thermdynamics states that the energy f the universe is cnstant: Energy can be transferred and transfrmed, but it be created r destryed. The first law is als knwn as the principle f cnservatin f energy. Plants d nt prduce energy; they transfrm light energy t chemical energy. During every transfer r transfrmatin f energy, sme energy is cnverted t heat, which is the energy assciated with the randm mvement f atms and mlecules. A system can use heat t d wrk nly when there is a temperature difference that results in heat flwing frm a warmer lcatin t a cler ne. If temperature is unifrm, as in a living cell, heat can be used nly t warm the rganism. Energy transfers and transfrmatins make the universe mre disrdered due t the lss f usable energy. is a measure f disrder r randmness: The mre randm a cllectin f matter, the greater its entrpy. The secnd law f thermdynamics states: Every energy transfer r transfrmatin the entrpy f the universe. Althugh rder can increase lcally, there is an unstppable trend tward randmizatin f the universe. Much f the increased entrpy f the universe takes the frm f increasing heat, which is the energy f randm mlecular mtin. prcesses can ccur withut an input f energy, althugh they need nt ccur quickly. Sme spntaneus prcesses, such as an explsin, are instantaneus. Sme, such as the rusting f an ld car, are very slw. 8-2
3 A spntaneus prcess is ne that is energetically favrable. A prcess that cannt ccur n its wn is said t be nnspntaneus: it will happen nly if energy is added t the system. Water flws dwnhill spntaneusly but mves uphill nly with an input f energy, such as when a machine pumps the water against gravity. Here is anther way t state the secnd law f thermdynamics: Fr a prcess t ccur spntaneusly, it must increase the entrpy f the universe. Living systems increase the entrpy f their surrundings, even thugh they create rdered structures frm less rdered starting materials. Fr example, amin acids are rdered int plypeptide chains. This increase in rganizatin des nt vilate the secnd law f thermdynamics. Organisms are islands f lw entrpy in an increasingly randm universe. Cncept 8.2 The free-energy change f a reactin tells us whether r nt the reactin ccurs spntaneusly. Hw can we determine which reactins ccur spntaneusly and which nes require an input f energy? The cncept f free energy (symblized by the letter G) is useful fr measuring the spntaneity f a system. energy is the prtin f a system s energy that can perfrm wrk when temperature and pressure are unifrm thrughut the system, as in a living cell. The change in free energy, G, can be calculated fr any specific chemical reactin by applying the fllwing equatin: G = T In this equatin, H symblizes the change in the system s (in bilgical systems, equivalent t ttal energy); S is the change in the system s ; and T is the temperature in Kelvin (K) units (K = C + 273). Fr a prcess t ccur spntaneusly, the system must give up enthalpy (H must decrease), give up rder (T S must increase), r bth. G must have a (psitive/negative?) value ( G < 0) in rder fr a prcess t be spntaneus. In ther wrds, every spntaneus prcess decreases the system s free energy, and prcesses that have psitive r zer G are never spntaneus. Knwing the value f G gives bilgists the pwer t predict which kinds f change can happen withut help. Such spntaneus changes can be harnessed t perfrm wrk. In any spntaneus prcess, the free energy f a system decreases ( G is negative). Anther term fr a state f maximum stability is equilibrium. In a chemical reactin at equilibrium, the rates f frward and backward reactins are equal, and there is n change in the relative cncentratins f prducts r reactants. At equilibrium, G = 0, and the system can d n wrk. The cell is dead. Fr a cell t wrk, G 0. (Metablic disequilibrium) Chemical reactins can be classified as either exergnic r endergnic. An reactin prceeds with a net release f free energy; G is negative. The magnitude f G fr an exergnic reactin is the maximum amunt f wrk the reactin can perfrm. 8-3
4 The greater the (decrease/increase?) in free energy, the greater the amunt f wrk that can be dne. Fr the verall reactin f cellular respiratin, C 6H 12O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2 + 6H 2O, G = 686 kcal/ml. Fr each mle (180 g) f glucse brken dwn by respiratin under standard cnditins (1 M f each reactant and prduct, 25 C, ph 7), 686 kcal f energy are made available t d wrk in the cell. The prducts have 686 kcal less free energy per mle than the reactants. An reactin is ne that absrbs free energy frm its surrundings. Endergnic reactins stre energy in mlecules; G is (psitive/negative?). Endergnic reactins are nnspntaneus, and the magnitude f G is the quantity f energy required t drive the reactin. Reactins in an islated system eventually reach equilibrium and can d n wrk. A cell that has reached metablic equilibrium has a G = 0 and is dead! Metablic disequilibrium is ne f the defining features f life. Cells maintain disequilibrium because they are pen systems. The cnstant flw f materials int and ut f the cell keeps metablic pathways frm ever reaching equilibrium. A cell cntinues t d wrk thrughut its life. As lng as cells have a steady supply f glucse r ther fuels and xygen and can expel waste prducts t the surrundings, their metablic pathways never reach equilibrium and can cntinue t d the wrk f life. Sunlight prvides a daily surce f free energy fr phtsynthetic rganisms. Nn-phtsynthetic rganisms depend n a transfer f free energy frm phtsynthetic rganisms in the frm f rganic mlecules. Cncept 8.3 ATP pwers cellular wrk by cupling exergnic reactins t endergnic reactins. A cell des three main kinds f wrk: 1. wrk, pushing endergnic reactins such as the synthesis f plymers frm mnmers; 2. wrk, pumping substances acrss membranes against the directin f spntaneus mvement; 3. wrk, such as the beating f cilia, cntractin f muscle cells, and mvement f chrmsmes during cellular reprductin; Cells manage their energy resurces t d this wrk by, using an exergnic prcess t drive an endergnic ne. ATP mediates mst energy cupling in cells. ATP ( ) is a nucletide triphsphate cnsisting f the sugar ribse, the nitrgenus base adenine, and a chain f three phsphate grups. In mst cases, ATP acts as the immediate surce f energy that pwers cellular wrk. The bnds between the phsphate grups n ATP can be brken by hydrlysis. ATP + H 2O ADP + P i Under standard cnditins, G = 7.3 kcal/ml (30.5 kj/ml). Why des the hydrlysis f ATP yield s much energy? Each f the three phsphate grups has a negative charge. 8-4
5 These three like charges are crwded tgether, and their mutual repulsin cntributes t the instability f this regin f the ATP mlecule. In the cell, the energy frm the hydrlysis f ATP is directly cupled t endergnic prcesses by the transfer f the phsphate grup t anther mlecule. This recipient mlecule with a phsphate grup cvalently bnded t it is called a phsphrylated intermediate. It is mre reactive (less stable) than the riginal unphsphrylated mlecule. Mechanical, transprt, and chemical wrk in the cell are nearly always pwered by the f ATP. ATP is a renewable resurce. Althugh rganisms use ATP cntinuusly, ATP is a renewable resurce that can be regenerated by the additin f a phsphate grup t ADP. Catablic (exergnic) pathways, especially cellular respiratin, prvide the energy fr the endergnic regeneratin f ATP. Additinally, plants als use light energy t prduce ATP. The chemical ptential energy temprarily stred in ATP drives mst cellular wrk. Cncept 8.4 Enzymes speed up metablic reactins by lwering energy barriers. An enzyme is a macrmlecule that acts as a, a chemical agent that speeds up the rate f a reactin withut being cnsumed by the reactin. Every chemical reactin invlves bnd and bnd frming. The initial investment f energy fr starting a reactin is the free energy f activatin, r energy (E A). Activatin energy is the amunt f energy necessary t push the reactants ver an energy barrier s that the dwnhill part f the reactin can begin. Activatin energy is ften supplied in the frm f thermal energy that the reactant mlecules absrb frm the surrundings. The absrptin f thermal energy accelerates the reactant mlecules, which then cllide mre ften with mre frce. It als agitates the atms within the mlecules, making the breakage f bnds mre likely. When the mlecules have absrbed enugh energy fr the bnds t break, the reactants are in an unstable cnditin called the transitin state. Hwever, there is nt enugh energy at the temperatures typical f the cell fr the vast majrity f rganic mlecules t make it ver the hump f activatin energy. Hw are the barriers fr selected reactins surmunted t allw cells t carry ut the prcesses f life? Heat wuld speed up all reactins, nt just thse that are needed. Heat als denatures prteins and kills cells. Enzymes speed reactins by (lwering/increasing?) E A. The transitin state can then be reached even at mderate temperatures. Because enzymes are s selective, they determine which chemical prcesses will ccur at any time. 8-5
6 Enzymes are substrate specific. The reactant that an enzyme acts n is the. The enzyme binds t a substrate, r substrates, frming an - cmplex. While the enzyme and substrate are bund, the catalytic actin f the enzyme cnverts the substrate t the prduct r prducts. The reactin catalyzed by each enzyme is very specific. The site f an enzyme is typically a pcket r grve n the surface f the prtein where catalysis ccurs. The specificity f an enzyme is due t the fit between the and the. As the substrate enters the active site, interactins between the chemical grups n the substrate and thse n the side chains f the amin acids that frm the active site cause the enzyme t change shape slightly. This change leads t an fit that brings the chemical grups f the active site int psitin t catalyze the reactin. The active site is an enzyme s catalytic center. The substrate is cnverted t prduct within the active site, the prduct then leaves the active site. A single enzyme mlecule can catalyze thusands f reactins a secnd. Enzymes are (affected/ nt affected?) by the reactin and are reusable. Enzymes use a variety f mechanisms t lwer the activatin energy and speed up a reactin. In reactins invlving mre than ne reactant, the active site brings substrates tgether in the crrect rientatin fr the reactin t prceed. Enzymes may briefly bind cvalently t substrates. Subsequent steps f the reactin restre the side chains f amin acids within the active site t their riginal state. The rate at which a specific number f enzymes cnvert substrates t prducts depends in part n substrate cncentratins. At lw substrate cncentratins, an increase in substrate cncentratin speeds binding t available active sites. There is a limit t hw fast a reactin can ccur, hwever. At high substrate cncentratins, the active sites n all enzymes are engaged. The enzyme is saturated, and the rate f the reactin is determined by the speed at which the active site can cnvert substrate t prduct. The nly way t increase prductivity at this pint is t add mre enzyme mlecules. A cell s physical and chemical envirnment affects enzyme activity. The activity f an enzyme is affected by general envirnmental cnditins, such as and. Each enzyme wrks best at certain ptimal cnditins, which favr the mst active cnfrmatin fr the enzyme mlecule. Temperature has a majr impact n reactin rate. As temperature increases, cllisins between substrates and active sites ccur (mre/less?) frequently as mlecules mve mre rapidly. As temperature increases further, thermal agitatin begins t disrupt the weak bnds that stabilize the prtein s active cnfrmatin, and the prtein denatures. 8-6
7 Each enzyme has an ptimal temperature that allws the greatest number f mlecular cllisins and the fastest cnversin f the reactants t prduct mlecules. Mst human enzymes have ptimal temperatures f abut C. The thermphilic bacteria that live in ht springs cntain enzymes with ptimal temperatures f 70 C r higher. Each enzyme als has an ptimal ph. Maintenance f the active cnfrmatin f the enzyme requires a particular ph. This ptimal ph falls between 6 8 fr mst enzymes. Hwever, digestive enzymes in the stmach are designed t wrk best at ph 2, whereas thse in the intestine have an ptimal ph f 8. Many enzymes require nnprtein helpers, called cfactrs, fr catalytic activity. Cfactrs bind permanently r reversibly t the enzyme. Sme inrganic cfactrs are zinc, irn, and cpper in inic frm. Organic cfactrs are called. Mst vitamins are cenzymes r the raw materials frm which cenzymes are made. Binding by inhibitrs prevents enzymes frm catalyzing reactins. Certain chemicals selectively inhibit the actin f specific enzymes. If inhibitrs attach t the enzyme by cvalent bnds, inhibitin may be irreversible. If inhibitrs bind by weak bnds, inhibitin may be reversible. Sme irreversible inhibitrs resemble the substrate and cmpete fr binding t the active site. These mlecules are called inhibitrs. inhibitrs impede enzymatic reactins by binding t anther part f the mlecule. Binding by the inhibitr causes the enzyme t change shape, rendering the active site less effective at catalyzing the reactin. Txins and pisns are ften irreversible enzyme inhibitrs. Examples: Sarin, the nerve gas that was released by terrrists in the Tky subway in 1995, binds cvalently t the R grup n the amin acid serine. Serine is fund in the active site f acetylchlinesterase, an imprtant nervus system enzyme. DDT acts as a pesticide by inhibiting key enzymes in the nervus system f insects. Many antibitics are inhibitrs f specific enzymes in bacteria. Ex. Penicillin blcks the active site f an enzyme that many bacteria use t make their cell walls. Cncept 8.5 Regulatin f enzyme activity helps cntrl metablism. Metablic cntrl ften depends n allsteric regulatin. Many mlecules that naturally regulate enzyme activity behave like reversible nncmpetitive inhibitrs. In allsteric regulatin, a prtein s functin at ne site is affected by the binding f a regulatry mlecule t a separate site resulting in either inhibitin r stimulatin f an enzyme s activity. Mst allsterically regulated enzymes are cnstructed f tw r mre plypeptide chains. The cmplex scillates between tw shapes, ne catalytically active and the ther inactive. 8-7
8 The binding f an (activatr/inhibitr?) stabilizes the cnfrmatin that has functinal active sites, whereas the binding f an (activatr/inhibitr?) stabilizes the inactive frm f the enzyme. In enzymes with multiple catalytic subunits, binding by a substrate mlecule t ne active site in a multisubunit enzyme triggers a shape change in all the subunits. This mechanism, called cperativity, amplifies the respnse f enzymes t substrates, priming the enzyme t accept additinal substrates. Cperativity is cnsidered t be allsteric regulatin because binding f the substrate t ne active site affects catalysis in a different active site. The vertebrate xygen-transprt prtein hemglbin is a classic example f cperativity. Hemglbin is made up f fur subunits, each with an xygen-binding site. The binding f an xygen mlecule t each binding site increases the affinity fr xygen f the remaining binding sites. Under cnditins f lw xygen, as in xygen-deprived tissues, hemglbin is less likely t bind xygen and releases it where it is needed. A cmmn methd f metablic cntrl is inhibitin in which an early step in a metablic pathway is switched ff by inhibitry binding f the pathway s final prduct t an enzyme acting early in the pathway. Feedback inhibitin prevents a cell frm wasting chemical resurces by synthesizing mre prduct than is needed. 8-8
BIOLOGY 101. CHAPTER 8: An Introduction to Metabolism: Energy of Life
BIOLOGY 101 CHAPTER 8: An Intrductin t Metablism: Energy f Life Energy f Life CONCEPTS: 8.1 An rganism's metablism transfrms matter and energy, subject t the laws f thermdynamics 8.2 The free-energy change
More informationAP CHEMISTRY CHAPTER 6 NOTES THERMOCHEMISTRY
AP CHEMISTRY CHAPTER 6 NOTES THERMOCHEMISTRY Energy- the capacity t d wrk r t prduce heat 1 st Law f Thermdynamics: Law f Cnservatin f Energy- energy can be cnverted frm ne frm t anther but it can be neither
More informationCHEM Thermodynamics. Change in Gibbs Free Energy, G. Review. Gibbs Free Energy, G. Review
Review Accrding t the nd law f Thermdynamics, a prcess is spntaneus if S universe = S system + S surrundings > 0 Even thugh S system
More informationMatter Content from State Frameworks and Other State Documents
Atms and Mlecules Mlecules are made f smaller entities (atms) which are bnded tgether. Therefre mlecules are divisible. Miscnceptin: Element and atm are synnyms. Prper cnceptin: Elements are atms with
More informationThermodynamics and Equilibrium
Thermdynamics and Equilibrium Thermdynamics Thermdynamics is the study f the relatinship between heat and ther frms f energy in a chemical r physical prcess. We intrduced the thermdynamic prperty f enthalpy,
More informationPart One: Heat Changes and Thermochemistry. This aspect of Thermodynamics was dealt with in Chapter 6. (Review)
CHAPTER 18: THERMODYNAMICS AND EQUILIBRIUM Part One: Heat Changes and Thermchemistry This aspect f Thermdynamics was dealt with in Chapter 6. (Review) A. Statement f First Law. (Sectin 18.1) 1. U ttal
More informationChapter 17 Free Energy and Thermodynamics
Chemistry: A Mlecular Apprach, 1 st Ed. Nivald Tr Chapter 17 Free Energy and Thermdynamics Ry Kennedy Massachusetts Bay Cmmunity Cllege Wellesley Hills, MA 2008, Prentice Hall First Law f Thermdynamics
More informationSpontaneous Processes, Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
Chemical Thermdynamics Spntaneus Prcesses, Entrpy and the Secnd Law f Thermdynamics Review Reactin Rates, Energies, and Equilibrium Althugh a reactin may be energetically favrable (i.e. prducts have lwer
More informationChapters 29 and 35 Thermochemistry and Chemical Thermodynamics
Chapters 9 and 35 Thermchemistry and Chemical Thermdynamics 1 Cpyright (c) 011 by Michael A. Janusa, PhD. All rights reserved. Thermchemistry Thermchemistry is the study f the energy effects that accmpany
More informationStudent Exploration: Cell Energy Cycle
Name: Date: Student Explratin: Cell Energy Cycle Vcabulary: aerbic respiratin, anaerbic respiratin, ATP, cellular respiratin, chemical energy, chlrphyll, chlrplast, cytplasm, glucse, glyclysis, mitchndria,
More informationChapter 9 Lecture Notes
Bilgy Chapter 9 Lecture Ntes Name Per Quiz #11 Yu will be able t describe the structure and functin f ATP Yu will be able t identify the inputs and utputs f each prcess f respiratin and phtsynthesis. Yu
More informationUnit 14 Thermochemistry Notes
Name KEY Perid CRHS Academic Chemistry Unit 14 Thermchemistry Ntes Quiz Date Exam Date Lab Dates Ntes, Hmewrk, Exam Reviews and Their KEYS lcated n CRHS Academic Chemistry Website: https://cincchem.pbwrks.cm
More informationChapter 17: Thermodynamics: Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Reactions and Processes
Chapter 17: hermdynamics: Spntaneus and Nnspntaneus Reactins and Prcesses Learning Objectives 17.1: Spntaneus Prcesses Cmparing and Cntrasting the hree Laws f hermdynamics (1 st Law: Chap. 5; 2 nd & 3
More informationBIOLOGY 101. CHAPTER 10: Photosynthesis: Process that Feeds the Biosphere
BIOLOGY 101 CHAPTER 10: Phtsynthesis: Prcess that Feeds the Bisphere Phtsynthesis: Prcess that Feeds the Bisphere CONCEPTS: 10.1 Phtsynthesis cnverts light energy t the chemical energy f fd 10.2 The light
More informationlecture 5: Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
lecture 5: Nuclephilic Substitutin Reactins Substitutin unimlecular (SN1): substitutin nuclephilic, unimlecular. It is first rder. The rate is dependent upn ne mlecule, that is the substrate, t frm the
More informationThermodynamics Partial Outline of Topics
Thermdynamics Partial Outline f Tpics I. The secnd law f thermdynamics addresses the issue f spntaneity and invlves a functin called entrpy (S): If a prcess is spntaneus, then Suniverse > 0 (2 nd Law!)
More informationAn Introduction to Metabolism
An Introduction to Metabolism I. All of an organism=s chemical reactions taken together is called metabolism. A. Metabolic pathways begin with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of
More informationEntropy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium
Nv. 26 Chapter 19 Chemical Thermdynamics Entrpy, Free Energy, and Equilibrium Nv. 26 Spntaneus Physical and Chemical Prcesses Thermdynamics: cncerned with the questin: can a reactin ccur? A waterfall runs
More informationA B C. 2. Some genes are not regulated by gene switches. These genes are expressed constantly. What kinds of genes would be expressed constantly?
STO-143 Gene Switches Intrductin Bacteria need t be very efficient and nly prduce specific prteins when they are needed. Making prteins that are nt needed fr everyday cell metablism wastes energy and raw
More informationCHEM 116 Electrochemistry at Non-Standard Conditions, and Intro to Thermodynamics
CHEM 116 Electrchemistry at Nn-Standard Cnditins, and Intr t Thermdynamics Imprtant annuncement: If yu brrwed a clicker frm me this semester, return it t me at the end f next lecture r at the final exam
More informationGeneral Chemistry II, Unit II: Study Guide (part 1)
General Chemistry II, Unit II: Study Guide (part 1) CDS Chapter 21: Reactin Equilibrium in the Gas Phase General Chemistry II Unit II Part 1 1 Intrductin Sme chemical reactins have a significant amunt
More informationChapter 13 Principles of Bioenergetics
Chapter 13 Principles f Bienergetics Read Intr t part II n yur wn 13.1 Bienergetics and Thermdynamics A. Bilgical Transfrmatins bey Laws f thermdynamics st 1 law, - in any physical r chemical change ttal
More informationTypes of Energy COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVE ENERGY
CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVE ENERGY The study energy and its transrmatins is knwn as thermdynamics. The discussin thermdynamics invlve the cncepts energy, wrk, and heat. Types Energy Ptential energy is stred
More informationPAP Biology Unit 4 Cellular Structure and Function
PAP Bilgy Unit 4 Cellular Structure and Functin Unit Outline LT 1 I can label the parts f a micrscpe and describe hw t use ne crrectly in lab. I can lcate and describe the functin f the different cmpnents
More informationLecture 13: Electrochemical Equilibria
3.012 Fundamentals f Materials Science Fall 2005 Lecture 13: 10.21.05 Electrchemical Equilibria Tday: LAST TIME...2 An example calculatin...3 THE ELECTROCHEMICAL POTENTIAL...4 Electrstatic energy cntributins
More informationLecture 17: Free Energy of Multi-phase Solutions at Equilibrium
Lecture 17: 11.07.05 Free Energy f Multi-phase Slutins at Equilibrium Tday: LAST TIME...2 FREE ENERGY DIAGRAMS OF MULTI-PHASE SOLUTIONS 1...3 The cmmn tangent cnstructin and the lever rule...3 Practical
More informationChemical Thermodynamics
Chemical Thermdynamics Objectives 1. Be capable f stating the First, Secnd, and Third Laws f Thermdynamics and als be capable f applying them t slve prblems. 2. Understand what the parameter entrpy means.
More informationExamples: 1. How much heat is given off by a 50.0 g sample of copper when it cools from 80.0 to 50.0 C?
NOTES: Thermchemistry Part 1 - Heat HEAT- TEMPERATURE - Thermchemistry: the study f energy (in the frm f heat) changes that accmpany physical & chemical changes heat flws frm high t lw (ht cl) endthermic
More informationGeneral Chemistry II, Unit I: Study Guide (part I)
1 General Chemistry II, Unit I: Study Guide (part I) CDS Chapter 14: Physical Prperties f Gases Observatin 1: Pressure- Vlume Measurements n Gases The spring f air is measured as pressure, defined as the
More informationNGSS High School Physics Domain Model
NGSS High Schl Physics Dmain Mdel Mtin and Stability: Frces and Interactins HS-PS2-1: Students will be able t analyze data t supprt the claim that Newtn s secnd law f mtin describes the mathematical relatinship
More informationCourse/ Subject: Chemistry I Grade: Teacher: Hill Oberto Month: September/October (6-8 weeks)
Curse/ Subject: Chemistry I Grade: 11-12 Teacher: Hill Obert Mnth: September/Octber (6-8 weeks) Natinal Benchmark being addressed State Standards Skills/Cmpetencies Assessment Matter Unit I.All matter
More informationChapter 11: Atmosphere
Chapter 11: Atmsphere Sectin 1: Atmspheric Basics Objectives 1. Describe the cmpsitin f the atmsphere. 2. Cmpare and cntrast the varius layers f the atmsphere. 3. Identify three methds f transferring energy
More informationALE 21. Gibbs Free Energy. At what temperature does the spontaneity of a reaction change?
Name Chem 163 Sectin: Team Number: ALE 21. Gibbs Free Energy (Reference: 20.3 Silberberg 5 th editin) At what temperature des the spntaneity f a reactin change? The Mdel: The Definitin f Free Energy S
More informationNuggets of Knowledge for Chapter 8 Chemical Reactions II Chem 2310
Nuggets f Knwledge fr Chapter 8 Chemical Reactins II Chem 2310 I. Substitutin, Additin, and Eliminatin Reactins The terms dissciatin, assciatin, and displacement are useful fr describing what happens t
More informationIn the spaces provided, explain the meanings of the following terms. You may use an equation or diagram where appropriate.
CEM1405 2007-J-2 June 2007 In the spaces prvided, explain the meanings f the fllwing terms. Yu may use an equatin r diagram where apprpriate. 5 (a) hydrgen bnding An unusually strng diple-diple interactin
More informationBIOLOGY 101. CHAPTER 17: Gene Expression: From Gene to Protein. The Flow of Genetic Information
BIOLOGY 101 CHAPTER 17: Gene Expressin: Frm Gene t Prtein Gene Expressin: Frm Gene t Prtein: CONCEPTS: 17.1 Genes specify prteins via transcriptin and translatin 17.2 Transcriptin is the DNA-directed synthesis
More informationLecture 4. The First Law of Thermodynamics
Lecture 4. The First Law f Thermdynamics THERMODYNAMICS: Basic Cncepts Thermdynamics: (frm the Greek therme, meaning "heat" and, dynamis, meaning "pwer") is the study f energy cnversin between heat and
More informationCHEM 103 Calorimetry and Hess s Law
CHEM 103 Calrimetry and Hess s Law Lecture Ntes March 23, 2006 Prf. Sevian Annuncements Exam #2 is next Thursday, March 30 Study guide, practice exam, and practice exam answer key are already psted n the
More informationThermochemistry. Thermochemistry
Thermchemistry Petrucci, Harwd and Herring: Chapter 7 CHEM 1000A 3.0 Thermchemistry 1 Thermchemistry The study energy in chemical reactins A sub-discipline thermdynamics Thermdynamics studies the bulk
More informationChapter 4 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium
Chapter Thermdynamics and Equilibrium Refer t the fllwing figures fr Exercises 1-6. Each represents the energies f fur mlecules at a given instant, and the dtted lines represent the allwed energies. Assume
More informationComputational modeling techniques
Cmputatinal mdeling techniques Lecture 4: Mdel checing fr ODE mdels In Petre Department f IT, Åb Aademi http://www.users.ab.fi/ipetre/cmpmd/ Cntent Stichimetric matrix Calculating the mass cnservatin relatins
More informationKEY POINTS: NOTE: OCR A
KEY: A.J.F.S DEFINITION: KEY POINTS: NOTE: OCR A Chemistry Mdule 3- Energy 2.3 (1) Enthalpy What is chemical energy? - Chemical energy is a special frm f ptential energy that lies within chemical bnds
More informationChem 163 Section: Team Number: ALE 24. Voltaic Cells and Standard Cell Potentials. (Reference: 21.2 and 21.3 Silberberg 5 th edition)
Name Chem 163 Sectin: Team Number: ALE 24. Vltaic Cells and Standard Cell Ptentials (Reference: 21.2 and 21.3 Silberberg 5 th editin) What des a vltmeter reading tell us? The Mdel: Standard Reductin and
More informationElements of Biochemistry I
16-09-08 Elements f Bichemistry I CHEM 2770 & MBIO 2770 Je O Neil Tel: 474-6697 390 Parker Building Je.ONeil@umanitba.ca Office Hurs: Open Lectures: Mn, Wed, Fri, 12:30-1:20 in EITC 3-270. Tetbk: "Principles
More informationFind this material useful? You can help our team to keep this site up and bring you even more content consider donating via the link on our site.
Find this material useful? Yu can help ur team t keep this site up and bring yu even mre cntent cnsider dnating via the link n ur site. Still having truble understanding the material? Check ut ur Tutring
More informationMidterm Review Notes - Unit 1 Intro
Midterm Review Ntes - Unit 1 Intr 3 States f Matter Slid definite shape, definite vlume, very little mlecular mvement Liquid definite vlume, takes shape f cntainer, mlecules mve faster Gas des nt have
More informationChemistry 20 Lesson 11 Electronegativity, Polarity and Shapes
Chemistry 20 Lessn 11 Electrnegativity, Plarity and Shapes In ur previus wrk we learned why atms frm cvalent bnds and hw t draw the resulting rganizatin f atms. In this lessn we will learn (a) hw the cmbinatin
More informationNUPOC STUDY GUIDE ANSWER KEY. Navy Recruiting Command
NUPOC SUDY GUIDE ANSWER KEY Navy Recruiting Cmmand CHEMISRY. ph represents the cncentratin f H ins in a slutin, [H ]. ph is a lg scale base and equal t lg[h ]. A ph f 7 is a neutral slutin. PH < 7 is acidic
More informationName: Period: Date: BONDING NOTES HONORS CHEMISTRY
Name: Perid: Date: BONDING NOTES HONORS CHEMISTRY Directins: This packet will serve as yur ntes fr this chapter. Fllw alng with the PwerPint presentatin and fill in the missing infrmatin. Imprtant terms
More informationCHAPTER Read Chapter 17, sections 1,2,3. End of Chapter problems: 25
CHAPTER 17 1. Read Chapter 17, sectins 1,2,3. End f Chapter prblems: 25 2. Suppse yu are playing a game that uses tw dice. If yu cunt the dts n the dice, yu culd have anywhere frm 2 t 12. The ways f prducing
More informationGOAL... ability to predict
THERMODYNAMICS Chapter 18, 11.5 Study f changes in energy and transfers f energy (system < = > surrundings) that accmpany chemical and physical prcesses. GOAL............................. ability t predict
More informationStudy Guide Physics Pre-Comp 2013
I. Scientific Measurement Metric Units S.I. English Length Meter (m) Feet (ft.) Mass Kilgram (kg) Pund (lb.) Weight Newtn (N) Ounce (z.) r pund (lb.) Time Secnds (s) Secnds (s) Vlume Liter (L) Galln (gal)
More informationState of matter characteristics solid Retains shape and volume
**See attachment fr graphs States f matter The fundamental difference between states f matter is the distance between particles Gas Ttal disrder Much empty space Particles have cmpletely freedm f mtin
More informationChapter One Atoms and Elements
S u m m e r S c h l 2 0 1 4 S c i e n c e S T P a g e 1 Chapter One Atms and Elements Histry f the Atm Daltn s Atmic Mdel Daltn thught f atms as slid, indivisible balls f different Thmsn s Atmic Mdel Thmsn
More informationBiocomputers. [edit]scientific Background
Bicmputers Frm Wikipedia, the free encyclpedia Bicmputers use systems f bilgically derived mlecules, such as DNA and prteins, t perfrm cmputatinal calculatins invlving string, retrieving, and prcessing
More information4 electron domains: 3 bonding and 1 non-bonding. 2 electron domains: 2 bonding and 0 non-bonding. 3 electron domains: 2 bonding and 1 non-bonding
[4.3D VSEPR] pg. 1 f 7 Curriculum The use f VSEPR thery t predict the electrn dmain gemetry and the mlecular gemetry fr species with tw, three and fur electrn dmains. Shapes f species are determined by
More information2 Physico-Chemical Principles of Steelmaking Processes
2 Physic-Chemical Principles f Steelmaking Prcesses 2.1 INRODUCION Irnmaking and steelmaking invlve a variety f chemical reactins, and ther physicchemical prcesses, such as viscus flw, interfacial phenmena,
More informationChapter 16. Capacitance. Capacitance, cont. Parallel-Plate Capacitor, Example 1/20/2011. Electric Energy and Capacitance
summary C = ε A / d = πε L / ln( b / a ) ab C = 4πε 4πε a b a b >> a Chapter 16 Electric Energy and Capacitance Capacitance Q=CV Parallel plates, caxial cables, Earth Series and parallel 1 1 1 = + +..
More informationA Chemical Reaction occurs when the of a substance changes.
Perid: Unit 8 Chemical Reactin- Guided Ntes Chemical Reactins A Chemical Reactin ccurs when the f a substance changes. Chemical Reactin: ne r mre substances are changed int ne r mre new substances by the
More informationNuggets of Knowledge for Chapter 10 Alkenes (I) Chem alkenes hydrocarbons containing a C=C (not in a benzene ring)
I. Intrductin t Alkenes Classifying Alkenes Nuggets f Knwledge fr Chapter 10 Alkenes (I) Chem 2310 There are several categries that can be used t describe cmpunds cntaining carbn-carbn duble bnds. alkenes
More informationC Nitrogen and others. D Oxygen and carbon
6.5A Knw that an element is a pure substance represented by chemical symbls. Knw AN ELEMENT IS A PURE SUBSTANCE REPRESENTED BY CHEMICAL SYMBOLS Element a pure substance that cannt be brken dwn chemically
More information2004 AP CHEMISTRY FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS
2004 AP CHEMISTRY FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS 6. An electrchemical cell is cnstructed with an pen switch, as shwn in the diagram abve. A strip f Sn and a strip f an unknwn metal, X, are used as electrdes.
More informationElectric Current and Resistance
Electric Current and Resistance Electric Current Electric current is the rate f flw f charge thrugh sme regin f space The SI unit f current is the ampere (A) 1 A = 1 C / s The symbl fr electric current
More informationQCE Chemistry. Year 2015 Mark 0.00 Pages 20 Published Jan 31, Chemistry: Revision Notes. By Sophie (1 ATAR)
QCE Chemistry Year 2015 Mark 0.00 Pages 20 Published Jan 31, 2017 11 Chemistry: Revisin Ntes By Sphie (1 ATAR) Pwered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.rg) Yur ntes authr, Sphie. Sphie achieved an ATAR f 1 in 2016 while
More informationModule 4: General Formulation of Electric Circuit Theory
Mdule 4: General Frmulatin f Electric Circuit Thery 4. General Frmulatin f Electric Circuit Thery All electrmagnetic phenmena are described at a fundamental level by Maxwell's equatins and the assciated
More informationThe Human Body An Orientation Anatomy of the body and its parts Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of parts
Chapter 1: Class Ntes The Human Bdy An Orientatin Anatmy f the bdy and its parts Observatin is used t see sizes and relatinships f parts Anatmy Levels f Study Large structures Easily bservable Anatmy Levels
More informationComplex Reactions and Mechanisms (continued)
5.60 Spring 2005 Lecture #29 page 1 Cmplex Reactins and Mechanisms (cntinued) Sme cmments abut analyzing kinetic data A) Reactins with ne reactant: A prducts a) Plt r analyze [A vs. t ln[a vs. t 1/[A vs.
More informationAn Introduction to Metabolism
An Introduction to Metabolism The living cell is a microscopic factory where life s giant processes can be performed: -sugars to amino acids to proteins and vise versa -reactions to dismantle polymers
More information11. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
11. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER Very shrt answer and shrt answer questins 1. Define wrk functin f a metal? The minimum energy required fr an electrn t escape frm the metal surface is called the
More informationPhys102 Final-061 Zero Version Coordinator: Nasser Wednesday, January 24, 2007 Page: 1
Crdinatr: Nasser Wednesday, January 4, 007 Page: 1 Q1. Tw transmitters, S 1 and S shwn in the figure, emit identical sund waves f wavelength λ. The transmitters are separated by a distance λ /. Cnsider
More informationFind this material useful? You can help our team to keep this site up and bring you even more content consider donating via the link on our site.
Find this material useful? Yu can help ur team t keep this site up and bring yu even mre cntent cnsider dnating via the link n ur site. Still having truble understanding the material? Check ut ur Tutring
More informationChem 115 POGIL Worksheet - Week 8 Thermochemistry (Continued), Electromagnetic Radiation, and Line Spectra
Chem 115 POGIL Wrksheet - Week 8 Thermchemistry (Cntinued), Electrmagnetic Radiatin, and Line Spectra Why? As we saw last week, enthalpy and internal energy are state functins, which means that the sum
More informationLecture 5: Equilibrium and Oscillations
Lecture 5: Equilibrium and Oscillatins Energy and Mtin Last time, we fund that fr a system with energy cnserved, v = ± E U m ( ) ( ) One result we see immediately is that there is n slutin fr velcity if
More informationCHAPTER 13 Temperature and Kinetic Theory. Units
CHAPTER 13 Temperature and Kinetic Thery Units Atmic Thery f Matter Temperature and Thermmeters Thermal Equilibrium and the Zerth Law f Thermdynamics Thermal Expansin Thermal Stress The Gas Laws and Abslute
More informationChapter 15 Conjugated Systems
Chapter 15 Cnjugated Systems What makes a cnjugated system? When yu have alternating duble bnds, the electrns f the pi system can flw ver a lnger length. This is cnjugatin. Stabilities f Dienes Cnjugated
More informationSCIENCE 10: CHEMISTRY,
, 1 Atmic Thery and Bnding The Nucleus - The particles that make up an atm are called subatmic particles - The three subatmic particles are prtns, neutrns and electrns. - Prtns, which have a +1 (psitive)
More informationMaterials Engineering 272-C Fall 2001, Lecture 7 & 8 Fundamentals of Diffusion
Materials Engineering 272-C Fall 2001, Lecture 7 & 8 Fundamentals f Diffusin Diffusin: Transprt in a slid, liquid, r gas driven by a cncentratin gradient (r, in the case f mass transprt, a chemical ptential
More informationCHAPTER PRACTICE PROBLEMS CHEMISTRY
Chemical Kinetics Name: Batch: Date: Rate f reactin. 4NH 3 (g) + 5O (g) à 4NO (g) + 6 H O (g) If the rate f frmatin f NO is 3.6 0 3 ml L s, calculate (i) the rate f disappearance f NH 3 (ii) rate f frmatin
More informationUnit 12 ~ Learning Guide
Unit 12 ~ Learning Guide Name: INSTRUCTIONS Cmplete the fllwing ntes and questins as yu wrk thrugh the related lessns. Yu are required t have this package cmpleted BEFORE yu write yur unit test. D yur
More informationMetabolism. AP Biology Chapter 8
Metabolism AP Biology Chapter 8 Energy Energy management Bioenergetics is the study of how organisms manage their energy resources. Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy exists in various forms Cells
More informationIn the half reaction I 2 2 I the iodine is (a) reduced (b) oxidized (c) neither of the above
6.3-110 In the half reactin I 2 2 I the idine is (a) reduced (b) xidized (c) neither f the abve 6.3-120 Vitamin C is an "antixidant". This is because it (a) xidizes readily (b) is an xidizing agent (c)
More informationCHEM 1001 Problem Set #3: Entropy and Free Energy
CHEM 1001 Prblem Set #3: Entry and Free Energy 19.7 (a) Negative; A liquid (mderate entry) cmbines with a slid t frm anther slid. (b)psitive; One mle f high entry gas frms where n gas was resent befre.
More informationPhys101 Final Code: 1 Term: 132 Wednesday, May 21, 2014 Page: 1
Phys101 Final Cde: 1 Term: 1 Wednesday, May 1, 014 Page: 1 Q1. A car accelerates at.0 m/s alng a straight rad. It passes tw marks that are 0 m apart at times t = 4.0 s and t = 5.0 s. Find the car s velcity
More informationEdexcel GCSE Physics
Edexcel GCSE Physics Tpic 10: Electricity and circuits Ntes (Cntent in bld is fr Higher Tier nly) www.pmt.educatin The Structure f the Atm Psitively charged nucleus surrunded by negatively charged electrns
More informationCompressibility Effects
Definitin f Cmpressibility All real substances are cmpressible t sme greater r lesser extent; that is, when yu squeeze r press n them, their density will change The amunt by which a substance can be cmpressed
More informationGASES. PV = nrt N 2 CH 4 CO 2 O 2 HCN N 2 O NO 2. Pressure & Boyle s Law Temperature & Charles s Law Avogadro s Law IDEAL GAS LAW
GASES Pressure & Byle s Law Temperature & Charles s Law Avgadr s Law IDEAL GAS LAW PV = nrt N 2 CH 4 CO 2 O 2 HCN N 2 O NO 2 Earth s atmsphere: 78% N 2 21% O 2 sme Ar, CO 2 Sme Cmmn Gasses Frmula Name
More informationUnit 11 Solutions- Guided Notes. What are alloys? What is the difference between heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures?
Name: Perid: Unit 11 Slutins- Guided Ntes Mixtures: What is a mixture and give examples? What is a pure substance? What are allys? What is the difference between hetergeneus and hmgeneus mixtures? Slutins:
More informationElectrochemistry. Reduction: the gaining of electrons. Reducing agent (reductant): species that donates electrons to reduce another reagent.
Electrchemistry Review: Reductin: the gaining f electrns Oxidatin: the lss f electrns Reducing agent (reductant): species that dnates electrns t reduce anther reagent. Oxidizing agent (xidant): species
More informationChapter 23 Electromagnetic Waves Lecture 14
Chapter 23 Electrmagnetic Waves Lecture 14 23.1 The Discvery f Electrmagnetic Waves 23.2 Prperties f Electrmagnetic Waves 23.3 Electrmagnetic Waves Carry Energy and Mmentum 23.4 Types f Electrmagnetic
More informationChapter 8 Reduction and oxidation
Chapter 8 Reductin and xidatin Redx reactins and xidatin states Reductin ptentials and Gibbs energy Nernst equatin Disprprtinatin Ptential diagrams Frst-Ebswrth diagrams Ellingham diagrams Oxidatin refers
More informationChapter Outline 4/28/2014. P-V Work. P-V Work. Isolated, Closed and Open Systems. Exothermic and Endothermic Processes. E = q + w
Islated, Clsed and Open Systems 9.1 Energy as a Reactant r a Prduct 9.2 Transferring Heat and Ding Wrk 9.5 Heats f Reactin and Calrimetry 9.6 Hess s Law and Standard Heats f Reactin 9.7 Heats f Reactin
More information5.60 Thermodynamics & Kinetics Spring 2008
MIT OpenCurseWare http://cw.mit.edu 5.60 Thermdynamics & Kinetics Spring 2008 Fr infrmatin abut citing these materials r ur Terms f Use, visit: http://cw.mit.edu/terms. 5.60 Spring 2008 Lecture #17 page
More informationLecture 23: Lattice Models of Materials; Modeling Polymer Solutions
Lecture 23: 12.05.05 Lattice Mdels f Materials; Mdeling Plymer Slutins Tday: LAST TIME...2 The Bltzmann Factr and Partitin Functin: systems at cnstant temperature...2 A better mdel: The Debye slid...3
More informationChemistry 1A Fall 2000
Chemistry 1A Fall 2000 Midterm Exam III, versin B Nvember 14, 2000 (Clsed bk, 90 minutes, 155 pints) Name: SID: Sectin Number: T.A. Name: Exam infrmatin, extra directins, and useful hints t maximize yur
More informationName Honors Chemistry / /
Name Hnrs Chemistry / / Beynd Lewis Structures Exceptins t the Octet Rule Mdel Hydrgen is an exceptin t the ctet rule because it fills its uter energy level with nly 2 electrns. The secnd rw elements B
More informationSPONTANEITY, ENTROPY, AND FREE ENERGY
CHAER 7 SONANEIY, ENROY, AND FREE ENERGY Questins. Living rganisms need an external surce f energy t carry ut these prcesses. Green plants use the energy frm sunlight t prduce glucse frm carbn dixide and
More informationGuide to Using the Rubric to Score the Klf4 PREBUILD Model for Science Olympiad National Competitions
Guide t Using the Rubric t Scre the Klf4 PREBUILD Mdel fr Science Olympiad 2010-2011 Natinal Cmpetitins These instructins are t help the event supervisr and scring judges use the rubric develped by the
More informationUC A-G Chemistry. Gorman Learning Center (052344) Basic Course Information
UC A-G Chemistry Grman Learning Center (052344) Basic Curse Infrmatin Title: UC A-G Chemistry Transcript abbreviatins: A-G Chem / A-G Chem Length f curse: Full Year Subject area: Labratry Science ("d")
More informationChem 116 POGIL Worksheet - Week 3 - Solutions Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, Solids, and Solutions
Chem 116 POGIL Wrksheet - Week 3 - Slutins Intermlecular Frces, Liquids, Slids, and Slutins Key Questins 1. Is the average kinetic energy f mlecules greater r lesser than the energy f intermlecular frces
More informationCHEMISTRY 1903 SHI-LING KOU 2011
CHEMISTRY 1903 SHI-LING KOU 2011 THE ORIGINS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY Evlutin f the atmic thery Daltn s Atmic Thery (1808) Matter cnsists f indivisible particles (atms) Atms f ne element can t be cnverted int
More information