IMPROVED CHARGE-TRANSFER INEFFICIENCY METHOD FOR DETERMINING ULTRA LOW CONCENTRATIONS OF BULK STATES IN CHARGE- COUPLED DEVICES
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1 Philips J. Res. 48 (1994) IMPROVED CHARGE-TRANSFER INEFFICIENCY METHOD FOR DETERMINING ULTRA LOW CONCENTRATIONS OF BULK STATES IN CHARGE- COUPLED DEVICES by WILLEM JAN TOREN and JAAP BISSCHOP Philips [maging Technology, Phi/ips Research Laboratories Eindhoven, Prof Holst/aan 4, 5656 AA Eindhoven, The Netherlands Abstracts A measuring method to characterize bulk states in a bulk-type chargecoupled device (CCD) is presented. A secial structure is designed to measure with a sensitivity lower than 1 10 traps cm". Measurements were done with a simple test setup at four different temperatures, A model is given to fit the measured data to extract the relevant parameters. Keywords: bulk contamination, CCD image sensors, charge-coupled devices, charge-transfer inefficiency,photo transistor. 1. Introduetion A major problem in solid-state image sensors is the leakage current generated in the image cell. This current causes noise in the displayed image. One of the causes of this leakage current is contamination in the electron-collecting volume of the charge-coupled device (CCD) pixel. Contamination introduces traps with energy levels in the bandgap of silicon. In present solid-state imagers the contamination levels are lower than cm", Methods for measuring the amount of contamination and for characterizing traps, such as deep level transient spectroscopy (D LTS) and noise measurements, have detection limits of about traps cm". The method of charge-transfer inefficiency mentioned by Collet l ) has a detection limit in the range from to traps cm". In a previous paper') we have shown that with a closed CCD register (seefig. 1) it is possible to decrease the detection limit so that bulk traps with a density of traps cm" can easily be measured. In this paper we present a new way of measuring and analyzing with the advantage that a complex test setup using a difficult temperature control has been avoided, and that the fits to determine the relevant parameters are less complex. The principle of this measurement method is based on the charging and Philips Journalof Research Vol.48 No
2 W.J. Toren and J. Bisschop output OVi'l1 CCD delay line Input Fig. 1. The oval CCD delay line structure for measurements of charge-transfer inefficiency. discharging of traps with electrons which are being transported through the CCD channel. When a charge packet arrives under a gate, the empty traps are filled. When the charge packet is transported to the next gate, the trapped electrons are emitted. A number of these electrons are emitted fast enough from the traps to follow the packet. The remaining electrons will be collected in the next charge packet or will remain trapped. By measuring the loss of electrons as a function oftemperature, it is possible to determine the nature ofthe contamination and its concentration in the CCD channel. 2. Device description The first experiments presented have been conducted with a buried-channel CCD delay line with 600 stages. This delay line is a standard output register of an image sensor followed by a standard output amplifier. The sensitivity of this delay line is not high enough for present contamination levels and a new device has therefore been designed. This new device consists of an oval fourphase n-channel bulk CCD register with 1200 stages (see fig. I). This register has on one side an input and on the other side an output with a standard output amplifier. Furthermore, the register contains special blocking gates which serve either to direct the charge packets to the output amplifier, or to keep them in the oval register. In the oval register it is possible to make as many tours as necessary for a good sensitivity. The number of tours is limited by the requirement that the charge packets must not be filled completely by dark current. The theoretical sensitivity limit is reached when there is only one trap in the whole register. The register has a volume of 10-8 cm 3 so the detection limit is 10 8 traps cm Measuring method For measuring the total transfer loss a series of ten charge packets has been inserted into the register. The first packet will lose electrons in the traps but the following nine will lose almost none. At the output stage the difference between the first and the second packet is the total charge transfer loss. The 198 Phllllps Journal of Research Vol.48 No
3 Determining bulk states in eeds 1 til C g., U Q)... o... Q) od E'" Z P = clock period L = number of clock periods when there is no charge IO.P L.P IO.P Time--> Fig. 2. First and second series of charge packets. number of electrons that the first packet will lose in the traps depends on the number oftraps that are already filled when the first packet arrives. To control the fraction of filled traps another series of ten charge packets will go ahead of the one needed for the measurements (fig. 2). The time between the first and second series of charge packets is expressed as L times the clock period. 4. The model A model has been derived from the Shockley-Read-Hall differential equation:, Tpc (1) where Ntmaxis the trap density, N, the density of traps filled, T ne the electron emission time constant, Tne the electron capture time constant, Tpe the hole emission time constant, and T pe the hole capture time constant. In a bulk n-type CCD the capture of holes can be neglected. For traps in the upper half ofthe bandgap the emission of holes can also be neglected. However, hole emission can easily be included in the model for traps near midgap. When there is a charge packet under the gate, electrons are captured in the traps, which is a very fast process (faster than the clock period). During the time that there is no charge packet, the electrons are emitted from the traps. For this case the number oftrapped electrons can be derived from eq. (1). lit lit -tir 1Vt= 1Vtmaxe, (2) Pbillips Journalof Research Vol. 48 No
4 W.J. Toren and J. Bisschop with 1,.. _,.. _ eeact/kt, - 'ne -, Vth(J'nNe Vth the thermal velocity, (J'n the capture cross-section of electrons, Ne the effective density of states in the conduction band, Eaet the activation energy, k Boltzmann's constant and T the absolute temperature When the leading series of charge packets has passed a gate all the traps under this gate are filled. The number of empty traps at the time the second series of charge packets arrives is given by: N - N e-(lp+61)/t tmax tmax, (4) where St is the part of the clock period in which electrons can follow the packets, P the clock period and L the number of clock periods when there is no charge. For a four-phase clock scheme we take St = (3/8)P. These traps will be filled with electrons from the first packet. The number of electrons that can follow the packet when it is transported to the next gate is given by N tmax (1 - e- 61 / T ). The transfer inefficiency f: is found by subtracting eq. (5) from eq. (4): = Loss = Ntmax -61/T(1 _ -LP/T) V (6) s NV NV e e, where V is the volume of the charge packet under the gate and N the dopant concentration. (3) (5) 5. Model interpretation 5.1. Temperature dependence At low temperatures all the traps willbe filled once and will not empty because the electrons do not have enough energy to be emitted to the conduction band. Because all the traps are filled the charge packets will not lose any electrons and f: willbe equal to zero. At high temperatures the emission time of electrons to the conduction band is much shorter than the clock period. So the charge packet willlose some electrons but they all are fast enough to join the packet. Thus e will be zero. At intermediate temperatures the electrons can be emitted during the time that there is no charge packet, and the emission is not fast enough to join the charge packet in the short time of the clock period. Therefore, e will be unequal to zero in this region. 200 Phillips Journal of Research Vol.48 No
5 r:::-..- s, >- u '(3!E.s....E1 VI s 7 Determining bulk states in eeds -- L = 10 L = 50 L = 100 L = Temperature [Kj Fig. 3. Theoretical e for four different cases of L; P = 80 J.LS Parameter adjustments When the time between the first and the second series of charge packets, L, increases, the trapped electrons have more time to be released from the traps. So a smaller fraction of the traps will be filled when the first charge packet arrives. This means that e will increase. At high temperatures e is not determined by the time between the charge packets but by the time the electrons can follow the traps. So at high temperatures e is independent of L (fig. 3). The parameters to calculate the data shown in figs 3, 4 and 5 are Eact = 0.54 ev, (J = cm 2, Ntmax/N = When the clock period P becomes smaller, the electrons have less time to be 7 r:::- 6 p= 8 us.,... -+t... 5 >- P = 24 us u 4 '(3 P = 80 us :ai 3 -e e1 VI CII P = 240 us Temperature [Kj Fig. 4. Theoretical e for four different cases of P; L = 100. PhiUlps Journalof Research Vol.48 No
6 W.J. Toren and J. Bisschop 6i g= , ffi r---.-r-.5,_ 2: L = 10 L= 30 L = 100 -e- L=3oo Temperature [I<] Fig. 5. Theoretical e for four different cases of Pand L where the product LP is constant; PL=4.8ms. emitted from the traps. To lose the same number of electrons the device has to be heated to higher temperatures. The whole é-t curve will shift to higher temperatures (fig. 4). When the product PL is constant and L is increased, the time between the first and the second series is constant but the time Ot necessary for the trapped electrons to follow the packet will decrease. Therefore at high temperatures e will increase (fig. 5). By varying the parameters Land P it is possible to check the model and to get a convenient measuring range around room temperature. By varying the number of trips around the register it is possible to adjust the sensitivity without changing the shape of the curve. 6. Experimental results 6.1. The oval register In fig. 6 the charge-transfer inefficiencyis plotted as a function oftemperature for three adjustments of L. Charge packets were clocked around 50 times before sending them to the output. This gives a charge-transfer loss large enough to detect. The data have been fitted with traps characterized by an activation energy ofo.52 ev, a capture cross-section of cm 2 and a maximum e of With a dopant concentration of cm- 3 the concentration of bulk contamination is = traps cm- 3 With the values for the activation energy and the capture cross-section an 202 Pbillips Journal of Research Vol: 48 No
7 Determining bulk states in eeds 8 r::- 7 w.. T- 6 Ei' == os! Ul!!! I ",r L=10 x L' / V /00 L=50 At. r-: L=100,t/ L Z 0 Cl /' Temperature [Kj 320 Fig. 6. Charge-transfer inefficiencyvs temperature measured in the oval register. The markers are measured data, the lines have been calculated from eq. (6). Arrhenius plot ofthe time constant T has been made (fig. 7). A comparison with the literature'') points to gold as a possible element that causes the transfer inefficiency. After removing a source of contamination in the processing, new measurements were performed. Figure 8 indeed shows a reduction of contamination of about 4 to 5 times in the delay line. The data were fitted with the same parameters as the data in figure 20 Arrhenius plot v 14 ḅ a I t?' 8 6 /' iooo/r [Kol] Fig. 7. Arrhenius plot for several samples of one batch. PhIIllps Journal or Research Vol.48 No
8 W.J. Toren and J. Bisschop r;:- 2 w,... t I r >- u r</ 13 1!t=.!:....g! 0.5 Ul I/- ;) /- -,/ '" '" 0 ;-:. ;..: ca s: o -0' Temperature [Kl Fig. 8. Charge-transfer inefficiency versus temperature measured with the oval register. P = 10/.Ls. The markers are measured data, the lines have been calculated from eq. (6). 6 except for theconcentration oftraps, which is now traps cm- 3 Now the contamination level is about 20 traps in the whole delay line Improved measurement setup and analysis A problem with this method ofmeasurement is the very complex test setup. It OOC r-, C - - * 8 '--". >- 7 'lfa u 40C c 6 -.,.- ū :;= '+- 5 f] 20C 4.j; -- c "- 3 '+til 2 C 0 "- 1 f- '-' I measurements -- fits I Fig. 9. Charge-transfer inefficiency as a function offour different temperatures. To make the graph clear an offset has been applied to the curves for 40, 50 and 60 C. L 204 Phillips Journalof Research Vol. 48 No
9 Determining bulk states in eeds TABLE I Parameters from fits TCOC) P(J.Ls) 7(S) f is necessary to control the temperature for a certain time at an exact value. This must be repeated for a number of temperatures between 240 and 320 K. This requires a long setup time with a difficult calibration of the temperature. In the model, the temperature is in the exponent ofthe time constant and therefore it is a very important variable. This exponential relationship makes fitting the curve to the data difficult. To avoid these problems another test setup has been made. The measurements are done with a second device at a constant temperature while the time between the first and the second series of charge packets is varied. This is done by varying L. Equation (6) can be used to fit the data, with the time constant 7 and the trap density N tmax as the two parameters. This measurement can be done at temperatures around room temperature by adjusting the clock period (Table I). The measurements have been performed at four different temperatures, each with a different clock period to optimize the fitting pro ce 'P 3.5.E I"'" L L Arrhenius V Plot,,/ V -: j)" -_ looorr [K"] measurement - fit Fig. 10. An Arrhenius plot of the time constants. Pbillips Journal of Research. Vol. 48 No
10 W.J. Toren and J. Bisschop dure (fig. 9). To make the plot easier to read, an offset has been given to the curve measured at 40 C of , the curve of 50 C of , and the curve of 60 C of In this way the time constant is obtained as a function of temperature and an Arrhenius plot can be made. The Arrhenius plot is shown in fig. 10.The points are all on a straight line with an activation energy Eact = 0.54 ev and a capture cross-section G' = cm 2 This is close to the values Eact = 0.52 ev and G' = cm 2 found with the conventional method presented in Sec Conclusions 1. The charge-transfer inefficiency method can be used to detect very small contamination concentrations in buried-channel CCDs. 2. It has been shown that the oval CCD structure is suitable for the determination of bulk contamination with concentrations of the order of 10 9 traps cm- 3 or lower. 3. The model agrees with the measurements for several CCD operating conditions, for example the clock frequency and number of transports. 4. With the new setup a much easier detection of the contamination can be done. 5. Measurements can be done near room temperature. REFERENCES I) M.G. Collet, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, SC-l (1), 156 (1976). 2) W.J. Toren and J. Bisschop, ESSDERC, p. 623, ) J-W. Chen and A.G. Milnes, Solid-State Electron., 22, 684 (1979). Authors Willem Jan Toren: B.Sc. (physics) HTS, Enschede, The Netherlands, In August 1989 he joined Philips Research Laboratories, Eindhoven. He started working as a member of the scientific staff at the CCD research group of Philips Imaging Technology. His current research concerns improving the signal to noise ratio of these sensors by reducing the dark current noise. Jaap Bisschop: M.Sc. (solid-state physics) University of Groningen, Ph.D., Technical University of Eindhoven, His thesis was about Ill-noise in semiconductors and semimetals. From 1984 to 1986 he worked at the University of Groningen on the reliability of silicon dioxide layers. In 1986 he joined the Philips Research Laboratories in Eindhoven, where he worked on device modeling and characterization of solid-state image sensors. He is currently involved in research on dark current and reliability of solid-state image sensors. 206 Philips Journalof Research Vol. 48 No
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