Plant Adaptations to Wetland Conditions
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- Bertram Mervyn Stephens
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1 Plant Adaptations to Wetland Conditions Cindy Hagley MN Sea Grant Terrestrial Plant Needs
2 Plants are autotrophs Manufacture their own food from simple, inorganic materials in the environment.
3 1. Water 2. O 2 3. Sunlight Plant Growth Requirements 4. CO 2 5. Nutrients and trace elements 6. Reproduction
4 Terrestrial Plants Colonized land about 440 million years ago. Required adaptations to: Resist drying out Exchange gases with atmosphere Transport water and nutrients Stay upright
5 Problems terrestrial plants have Photosynthesis requires specialized cell structures Chloroplasts Mostly in the middle layer of cells in a leaf Why? to solve _03_23_13_20_18/8.png Employees.csbsju.edu/ssaupe/biol327/lecture/plant-way.htm
6 Problems terrestrial plants have to solve Photosynthesis requires a way to exchange gases BUT..prevent loss of excessive water WHERE are most stomata located? Why? nthesis.gif ep/bookimgs/sat2/biology/0003/leafff.gif
7 Problems terrestrial plants have Thin leaves are required for light absorption and gas exchange, but they need SUPPORT Cell walls Leaf veins to solve t/biologypages/l/leaf.html
8 Problems terrestrial plants have to solve nstate.edu/mg/botany /growth.html Internal transport Photosynthesis requires a water supply Mine water and nutrients from the soil Root system Specialized transport system xylem
9 Problems terrestrial plants have to solve s/massengale/vas ctissue.gif Internal transport Carbohydrates (sugars and other metabolic products) from photosynthesis needed throughout the plant Another transport system does this phloem
10 Terrestrial Plant Adaptations Xylem and phloem became structural Reproductive structures elevated (pollination, dispersal) Structural adaptations to resist water loss Volume to surface area ratio increased to control: Evaporation Heat buildup Heat loss due to cooling Cuticle became thicker Stomata on undersides of leaves Why?
11 Our Aquatic Plants Evolved from terrestrial plants What makes growing in aquatic environments different than in terrestrial environments?
12 Aquatic Plant Zones EMERGENT PLANTS FLOATING- LEAF PLANTS
13 mons/6/6d/food_web.gif Tradeoffs between a terrestrial and aquatic existence Varies based on plant characteristics (e.g., growth form) and location (e.g., plant zone)
14 Adaptations to a water environment 1. Fluctuating water levels 2. Limited oxygen 3. Limited light 4. Limited carbon dioxide 5. Difficulty obtaining nutrients 6. Reproduction difficult
15 Water On the Plus Side Insulation high specific heat buffers sudden or radical shifts in air temperature Support water s high density provides support for plants Light less light available to plants, but water buffers radical shifts in light Save energy on: Temperature regulation Structural support
16 Harder or Easier? Problems plants have to solve Photosynthesis requires specialized cell structures T: Chloroplasts mostly in the middle layer of cells in a leaf. A? Photosynthesis requires efficient light harvesting T: Thin leaves, wide, but need structural support. A? Photosynthesis requires a way to exchange gasses BUT prevent loss of excessive water T: Stomata mostly on underside of leaf. A? Photosynthesis requires a water supply T: Obtain from soil. A? Employees.csbsju.edu/ssaupe/biol327/lecture/plant-way.htm
17 Problems plants have to solve Plants require inorganic nutrients T: Mine from soil and transport up plant. A? Respiration requires oxygen T: Plentiful in air. A? Stationary plants need ways to reproduce T: Wind, insects, etc. A? Plants have to cope with physical forces and biological dangers T: Wind, floods, drought, cold; herbivory, competition. A? Employees.csbsju.edu/ssaupe/biol327/lecture/plantway.htm
18 1. Adaptations to fluctuating water Heterophylly levels Survive under dry or submerged conditions Emergent leaves ovate, elliptic or rounded why? Longer, ribbon-like submerged leaves why? Ability to adapt rapidly Costly in energy and nutrients Harms competitive ability with terrestrial plants Seed banks
19 2. Problem Obtaining Oxygen Aquatic plants need to: Sequester oxygen Tolerate low oxygen levels Cope with toxic byproducts of anoxic and hypoxic sediments
20 Limited oxygen Upland soils Plant roots -- same oxygen levels as atmosphere (21%) Soil microorganisms aerobic O 2 as terminal electron acceptor during respiration Wetland or aquatic soils Sediment pore spaces filled with water Rate of oxygen diffusion reduced by factor of 10,000 Sediment microorganisms anaerobic Create habitat that is stressful or toxic to plants
21 Strategies for limited oxygen: Radial oxygen loss Some wetland plants can create aerobic conditions in anoxic sediments through radial oxygen loss into the rhizosphere. Oxygen channeled to roots leaked to surroundings through diffusion Increases sediment redox potential in root zone Submerged plants tend to do less of it Driven by diffusion loss higher under most reducing conditions
22 Strategies for limited oxygen: Radial oxygen loss Depletes root oxygen but may help plants by Oxidizing potentially toxic compounds (e.g., sulfide) Oxygen in rhizosphere used by nitrifying bacteria can transform ammonia to nitrate Oxygenated microzones around roots Marx/oxrhiz.gif
23 Strategies for limited oxygen: Structural Adaptations: Roots Adventitious roots Form from non-root tissue within days of flooding. New roots replace roots killed by anoxia Aid in water and nutrient uptake Herbaceous and woody species keys/appw/ Shallow roots Wetland species tend to develop shallower root systems when flooded. Surface and subsurface roots are above soil or in oxygenated portion of soil. Uprooted trees indicator of continuous soil saturation
24 Strategies for limited oxygen: Structural Adaptations: Roots Pneumatophores Modified erect roots that grow upward from roots of some tree species (mangrove, cypress). Cypress knees Do not help aerate roots Important role in CO 2 exchange Mangrove pneumatophores, root knees and plank roots Do play role in aeration - ~40% of root system is gas space Prop roots and drop roots develop from stems or branches and drop into soil Mangroves Provide stability Improve aeration pa/pa_images ces/contest/highlighted_ecosystem/man groveenvfac.htm
25 Strategies for limited oxygen: Structural adaptations Make it easier to move oxygen through the plant Aerenchyma special tissues Rapid gas exchange pathway: diffusion through porous tissues. Lacunae = gasfilled spaces In some species, air space extends from leaves to roots (e.g., Spartina). Cattails ½ leaf volume is gas storage. Internal concentration of carbon dioxide is up to 18 times great than atm. Resources/Contest/Highlighted_ Ecosystem/aerenchyma1.jpg
26 Strategies for limited oxygen: Stem adaptations Rapid underwater shoot extension & stem elongation in response to flooding Access to light, oxygen, and CO 2 Happens when normally exposed leaves are submerged Early season stem elongation Stem buoyancy Formation of aerenchyma Aerenchyma allow submerged plants to remain upright and form canopies. Floating-leaves - use water for support saves energy on structural tissue keys/appw/nonkey/images
27 Strategies for limited oxygen: Aerenchyma Allow O 2 to travel to roots by diffusion, effectively aerating roots. More reduced the conditions, more porous the plant tissue O 2 CO 2
28 Gas Transport Mechanisms to avoid oxygen deprivation Passive molecular diffusion Primary mechanism Oxygen usually higher in aerial parts of plant than roots Phragmites australis stems 20.7%, rhizomes 3.6% Pressurized ventilation Air into stomata of younger leaves (smaller pores support pressure gradients), down to rhizomes, up stems of older leaves, and out Driven by temperature and water vapor pressure differences between inside of leaves and air Nuphar lutea Rhizomes get oxygen! 5.htm_txt_hydrophyticplants.gif
29 Strategies for limited oxygen: Avoidance of anoxia Avoid anoxia in time and space Time active growth or seedling establishment to avoid flooding Reduce metabolism in winter to avoid oxygen deprivation E.g., tulip tree can survive flooding, except in spring when actively growing Reproduce by seed dispersal to new areas Reach oxygen-rich atmosphere quickly Avoid low oxygen periods, then grow very quickly using stored carbon and nutrients Overwintering carbohydrate-rich structures survive anoxic sediments until plant reaches water surface (e.g., turions, bulbs, rhizomes) (Alter environment around roots)
30 Submerged plants have it especially tough! Limited by light and carbon CO 2 (primary form of inorganic carbon for photosynthesis) diffuses ~10,000 times more slowly in water than in air Submerged plants can use bicarbonate ions for photosynthesis Some can use inorganic carbon from the sediments
31 3. Strategies for limited light: Adaptations Make it easy to absorb the light Chloroplasts on leaf surface rather than in mesophyll Higher chlorophyll concentration (higher photosynthetic rate at low light Increase surface area exposed to light Leaves ribbon like or highly dissected (high surface area to volume ratio Also helps get dissolved gases into plant inner tissues as do wavy-edged leaves Grow toward the light Apical growth (from tip of stalk) allows concentration of leaves at water surface Also can outcompete other plants by getting all the goods (E.g., Myriophyllum spicatum) Start REALLY early E.g., Curly leaf pondweed (Potamogeton crispus)
32 4. Strategies for limited carbon dioxide: Same characteristics that help with light and oxygen Use bicarbonate when CO 2 limited Plants that can use either carbon dioxide or bicarbonate have more habitats available to them Aquatic acid metabolism Assimilate carbon dioxide at night when more plentiful Get CO 2 at night by diffusion, tie up into carboxyl group of organic acid, and decarboxylate the next day, releasing CO 2 for photosynthesis
33 Limited carbon dioxide: Aerenchyma transport Recycle respired carbon dioxide within aerenchyma and use in photosynthesis See this in soft water lakes with low carbon (e.g., Isoetes) Maintain internal CO 2 pressures higher than external pressures Sediment-derived CO 2 Can be up to 90 % of carbon uptake in some submerged species Diffusive Boundary Layer submerged plants have no stomata get by with molecular diffusion
34 5. Strategies for limited nutrients: Adaptations Obtaining nutrients Mychorrhizal associations Nitrogen fixation Carnivory Conserving nutrients Nutrient translocation Evergreen leaves
35 Limited Nutrients: Obtaining nutrients Mychorrhizal associations symbiotic fungi Increase plant ability to capture water, phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium Plant provides carbohydrates to fungi More mycorrhizal infection in areas with low phosphorus and more oxidized soils Nitrogen fixation N 2 -fixing bacteria get energy from plant Plant gets added N Found in aquatic legumes, Alnus, Myrica, some mangroves probably get nitrogen from cyanobacteria
36 Limited Nutrients: Carnivory Many species in nutrient poor peatlands Types of traps Pitfall (pitcher plant Sarracenia) Lobster pot Passive adhesive Obtaining nutrients Active adhesive (sundew Drosera) Bladder trap (bladderwort Utricularia) Snap trap (Venus flytrap Dionaea) Utricularia found in wide range of nutrient regimes. Why? Facultative carnivory cost of maintaining structures versus benefits of additional nutrients /bmedia/carnivore/10- utriculaire.html
37 Limited Nutrients: Conserving nutrients Nutrient translocation At end of active growing season Move nutrients and carbohydrates from aboveground tissues to belowground ones such as roots, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs Store as source of energy for next growing season s initial growth E.g., Pond cypress foliar nitrogen 3x higher in spring than fall Evergreen leaves Ericaceae (e.g., blueberries) low nutrient peatlands Retain their leaves for 2 years
38 6. Aquatic Plant Reproduction Really good at reproducing asexually Fragmentation Rhizomes Stolons (above the sediments) Submerged plants have to reproduce underwater Cool, but few examples of sexual reproduction in submerged plants Vallisneria
39 Adaptations to herbivory Chemical defenses Many wetland plants produce secondary metabolites that are unpalatable to herbivores Plants that live a long time tend to use chemical defenses more Cost/benefits? Nymphaceae produce alkaloids that are toxic to many invertebrates Structural defenses Thorns, hairy leaves, leathery leaves
40 Aquatic environment Evolution of: Specialized tissues and processes, e.g., aerenchyma (tissue with intercellular air spaces), & diffusion of oxygen from roots to sediments. Life history changes (timing of seed production, vegetative reproduction) Phenotypic plasticity in response to changing environmental conditions.
41 Types of Wetland Plants: Emergents Root in soil, with aerial leaves, stems, reproductive organs CO 2, O 2 from air Nutrients from soil/ sediment. Handbook/section2.htm
42 Types: Floating Leaved Floating leaf shape most circular, oval or cordate (why?) Leathery texture resistant to herbivory and wetting Long flexible petiole no supportive tissue Stomata on aerial side. May have heterophylly Ranunculus peltatus
43 Types: Submergent Photosynthetic tissues are underwater. Stems and leaves are soft (no lignin); either elongate, ribbon-like, highly divided, or wavy-edged Take up DO and inorganic carbon from water column. Majority of nutrients and some inorganic carbon from sediments (some from water column). Examples: Vallisneria (water celery), Utricularia, Myriophyllum, Potamogeton (pondweed). den/images/submerged-plant.jpg
44 Questions?
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