THE FOURTH AMENDMENT IN AN ERA OF UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY

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1 FILE:C:\ Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM THE FOURTH AMENDMENT IN AN ERA OF UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY Susan W. Brenner * I. PRIVACY We must think through the way technology changes what is private, and develop new concepts of reasonable privacy that preserve liberty and are workable in a networked world. 1 The pre-eminent guarantee of personal privacy for those of us in the United States is the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution. As most everyone knows, the Fourth Amendment protects us from Aunreasonable@ searches and seizures. Searches infringe upon privacy; seizures impact on other interests, notably the interest in the possession and use of property. 2 N C R D g u h e d P r o s s o r o f L a w a n d T e c h n o g U n e r s o f D a y n S c h o o l o f L a w. 1 E n U n e r s P e w r n e t & A m e r a n L P r o c a g g e r n e P n s D a b a s e, F a a t h / w w w n d u / p r e d n s / q 1 2 s p x s t d A u g , e P e w r n e t & A m e r a n L P r o c t s u r v e y e d 8 6 n e c h n o g y s t a k e h o e r e e w s a s h o w e r n e t c h a n g e o u r e s b e e e n a n d T h e c o m m e n t q u o d e x t a b o v e w a s o n e r e s p o n d e n r e a c n q u e s n : A s c o m p u g d e v e s b e c o m e e m b e d d e d e v e r y g o m c e s a p p n c e s c a r s p h o n e s, e s e n e o r k e d d e e s w a w g r e a r s u r v e n c e b y g o v e r n m e n a n d b u s e s s e s. B y , e r e w b e - c r e a s g n u m b e r s o f a r r e s b a s e d o n k d o f s u r v e n c e b y d e m o c r a t g o v e r n m e n a s w e a s b y a u o r r n r e g e s.. 2 S e e, e U n d S s v. K a r o, U , ) v e n s, J c o n c u r r g p a r t a n d d s e n g p a r is tin is fe lo y, iv ity to lo iv ity/ In te ic ife je t, Im in in th In te t: red ic tio ta ll ttp :/.e lo.e ic tio.a (la vis ite ). In th In te ic ife je A1,2 tw ork-te lo ld s@ to lic it th ir vie to th In te Aw ill liv tw.@ Id te in th te t's tio to th is tio tin ic in th in fr lo th to lia to to th tw vic ill llo te illa ts in th ill in in ts th is in illa ic ts ll th ita ia im Id.g., ite ta te.s (1 (S te., in in is tin in t). 1

2 F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 2 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 Privacy evolved as a Abricks and mortar@ concept. 3 When the Fourth Amendment was added to the Constitution, the real-world was the only world; technology had not yet given us the ability to transcend the strictures of the real-world in various ways. 4 We now have that ability: We can substitute the virtual realities provided by computer technology for the physical world; we can communicate with almost anyone from almost anywhere; and we use technologies to make our lives easier, to earn our living and to amuse us. Technology is not a new phenomenon; ancient inventors produced complex mechanisms and understood a great deal about the physical forces underlying modern technology. 5 What is new is the way we approach technology: Ancient inventions were regarded as curiosities and often remained little more than toys; 6 this tendency to ignore or resist new technologies, which was the product of various social and cultural forces, persisted for centuries. 7 The resistance began to decline 3 T h e p h r a s e r k s - a n d - m o r d s c r e s a s a t h a s a p h y s a l p r e s - e n c e e r e a l w o r s o p p o s e d a v a l p r e s e n c e e o n e w o r W o r d S p D e n o f b r k s - a n d - m o r r, a t h / w w w o r d s p y o m / w o r d s / b r k s - a n d - m o r r s p s t d A u g N B. L A S S O N, T H E H T O R Y A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E F O U R T H A M E N D M E N T T O T H E U N E D S T A T E S C O N S T U T N S e e, e T h e A n e r a M e c h a n m : T h e C c k w o r k C o m p u r, T H E E C O N - O M T e p 1 9, a t h / w w w c o n o m o m / d p? s _ = s t d A u g A n c n t G r e e k S c n : H e r o o f A x a n d r, T e c h n o g y M u s e u m o f T h e s s a n a t h / w w w d u r / e n / a e 5 / 5 5. h l s t d A u g ) e r o v e n d e s a m e n g e, a m o n g o e r g s, e c e n B s e e a o R U D I V O L T S O C T Y A N D T E C H N O L O G A L C H A N G E , e d S e e, e A. W O L A H T O R Y O F S C N C E, T E C H N O L O G Y A N D P H O S O P H Y T H E 1 6 T H A N D 1 7 T H C E N T U R S s e e a o W L M F L D G O G B U R N, T E C H N O L A L T R E N D S A N D N A T N A L P O L Y, I N C L U D G T H E S O C L I M P L I C A T N S O F N E W I N V E N T N S S e e, e O G B U R N, s u p r a n o 6, a t 6 6 e s n c e c h n o g a l c h a n g e h a s b e e n s o m u c h a p a r t o f e x t u r e o f e h a l p r o c e s s, a t c a n n o t b e - n o r e d w h e n e r e o f c h n o g y c h a r. S e e. a t e s c r g h - r a l r e s n c e d r e n t c h n o g s Ab ic ta r@ A[ ]e ib ite th ic in th ld (a to irtu in th lin ld )@. y, fin itio ic ta ttp :/.w.c ic ta.a (la vis ite ). IS IT IT IO (1 )..g., tikyth is lo te IS (S t. ), ttp :/.e is t.c is la ystory.cfm tory id (la vis ite ); ie ie tis ts le ia lo lo iki, ttp :/.tm th.e.g t/ tm (la vis ite (h in te th te in th th in in th first tury.c.); ls I, IE IC (4 th )..g., F, IS IE IL IN IE (1 ); ls IL IA IE IN IG IC IO IC IN IA IO IO (1 )..g., te (Ar is ta to te lo ic th te th is toric th it ig th fu tu te lo is te d@) id (d ib in is to ic is ta to iffe te lo ie ).

3 FILE:C:\BRENNER.DTP Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM 2005] UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY 3 in the nineteenth century because of the implementation of technologiescincluding the telegraph, electricity, the telephone, and the automobilecthat would proliferate and permeate the fabric of society. 8 The success of these and subsequent technologies produced a cultural climate which embraced new technology. 9 Our receptivity to technology accelerates the processes of invention and implementation which, in turn, influence how we live; we move further and further away from the Abricks and mortar@ reality that produced the Fourth Amendment. 10 And that brings us to the question at hand: Can the Fourth Amendment's privacy guarantees be adapted to deal with a world in which technology is increasingly pervasiveca world of ubiquitous technology? 11 8 B u t s e e. a t , a n d 5 3 a r s n c e e s e c h n o g s 9 S e e, e S T E V E N J O H N S O N, I N T E R F A C E C U L T U R E : H O W N E W T E C H N O L O G Y T R A N S F O R M S T H E W A Y W E C R E A T E A N D C O M M U N A T E s t e d s e e a o V O L T s u p r a n o 5, a t , S e e S e c n a. 1 1 T h e p h r a s e s b u u s c h n o g a n d b u u s c o m p u a r e u s e d r c h a n g e a b r e r c h n o g s a t a r e w o v e n e b o f e v e r y d a y. S e e, e N W r s, P e r s o n a l P a c y a n d P o p u r U b u u s T e c h n o g y, U b o n f , a t h / w w w c c c k / p r o c / u b o n m a r / P a p e N 2 0 W r s d s t d A u g J o h n B u n o s : U b u u s c o m p u g v o e s h a v g c o m p u g d e v e s e s s e n e v w h e r e e h o m e, o e o r p u b a r e a, a s w e a s e a s n a r a l w a r p e o p r a c t w e m. W e s s c h n o g s, s e n s o r s, r a d e q u e n c y e n a n F ) g s a n d m a c h e - - m a c h e c o m m u n a n s w p y a b r o n e w a r e a o f c o m p u g. J o h n B u, G e a n G r o u p S d s U b u u s C o m p u g, D a P a c y, N e o r k W o r, D e c. 2 2, , a t h / w w w w s n o m / n e w s / / g e r m a g r o u p l s t d A u g T h a r c u s e s o n o m m u n a c h n o g s s a d o s a d u s l o r a g r u r a l c h n o g s. c o n c e r n w c h n o g s a t c a n b e u s e d g e n e r a r m a n, c o c t r m a n a n d / o r s h a r e r m a n. S e e S e c n a. T h e F o u r A m e n d m e n t, o f c o u r s e, c o n c e r n e d w c h a n n e g h o w w e n r c e m e n t d s, r o u g h s e a r c h e s, a n d o b s, r o u g h s e u r e s, r s o f id (e ly re is ta to th te lo ie )..g., IC (1 ); ls I, te tio I.A., in fr Au iq ito te lo y@ Au iq ito tin g@ in te ly to fe to te lo ie th in to th fa ric life.g., ia ll in te riv la iq ito lo ic ttp :/.u lic.u l.a.u je ts ic f/ te ia ls rs/ ia ll% in te.p f. (la vis ite ). la te iq ito tin in lv in tin ic tia lly ery- in th ffic lic ll y, tu ys fo le to in te ith th ir le te lo ie io fr id tific tio (R ID ta in to in ic tio ill la ig le in th is tin la rm tu ie iq ito tin ta riv tw ld ttp :/.n fu io.c.h tm (la vis ite ). is tic le fo Ac ic tive@ te lo ie in te f, y, in tria ic ltu te lo ie Its is ith te lo ie th to te in fo tio lle in fo tio in fo tio tio II., in fr th is ith lin la fo fin th ta in th iz va ie tie

4 F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 4 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 To answer that question, we must do several things: The first is to identify the basic conceptions of privacy which existed in Twentieth Century American law: the Fourth Amendment standard and a tort standard derived from the work of Louis Brandeis and Charles Warren. The two sections immediately below undertake this analysis, 12 the purpose of which is to provide a benchmarkcto let us understand how our approach to privacy evolved to accommodate technologies. The next step is to adapt that approach to accommodate Twentyfirst century technologies. Section II of the article reviews existing and projected technologies and explains why the approach which evolved is inadequate. Section III considers how we can adapt our approach to deal with the era of ubiquitous technology. Finally, Section IV offers a brief conclusion. A. Fourth Amendment The... constitutional prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures, has its source in that principle of the common law which finds expression in the maxim that `every man's house is his castle.' English history discloses [that the]... constitutional provisions... had their origin `in the... unwarrantable intrusion of executive agents into the houses... of individuals....'' 13 The Fourth Amendment is predicated on a spatial conception of privacy. 14 It is intended to protect the sanctity of pri- r m a n. S e e S e c n a. 1 2 S e e ) a n d 1 3 U n d S s v. T h r e e T o n s o f C o a 2 8 F. C a s , W E n g h w, o f c o u r s e, w a s n o t a n e p r o v g s p e c l p r o c n r e h o m e. S e e L A S S O N, s u p r a n o 4, a t S e e O s a d v. U n d S s, U , ) h e w e k n o w n h r a l p u r p o s e o f e F o u r A m e n d m e n t... w a s p r e v e n t e u s e o f g o v e r n m e n l r c e s e a r c h a m a n h o u s e, h p e r s o n, h p a p e r s, a n d h e f - c. in fo tio tio I.A., in fr in fra '' I(A I(B ), ite ta te l, (E.D is ). lis la lo in id in ia te tio fo th te lm te ite ta te.s (1 (AT ll- is to ic th th to th ta fo to 's is is is fe ts.@)

5 FILE:C:\BRENNER.DTP Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM 2005] UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY 5 vate property from intrusions by public officials 15 which derives from English common law. Early common law punished Athose who invaded a neighbor's premises.@ 16 In fact, by the Twelfth-century, housebreaking had become one of the Amore serious crimes in medieval England@ and by the Sixteenth-century English law had developed specific prohibitions against housebreaking, burglary and trespass. 17 These laws were only concerned with trespasses by private persons because official searches were almost unheard of until the Fifteenth century. 18 In the latter half of the Fifteenth century, however, the King and Parliament began authorizing trade guilds to Aenter and search the workmanship of all manner of persons@ to enforce guild regulations. 19 Roughly a century later, the Court of the Star Chamber, charged with licensing books and regulating printing Adecreed that the wardens of the Stationers' Company... should have authority to open all packs and trunks of papers and books brought into the country, to search in any warehouse, shop, or any other place where they suspected a violation of the laws of printing to be taking place [and] to seize the books printed contrary to law@. 20 Other courts followed suit, issuing edicts authorizing similar searches directed at those suspected 1 5 S e e B o v. U n d S s, U , S e e W m J. C u d d T h e F o u r A m e n d m e n O s a n d O a l M e a n g ) n p u b h e d P h. d s e r n, C r e m o n t G r a d u a S c h o o n w a u o r 1 7. a t a t 3 6, 7 5. A w e n a c d u e d n k e e p e r s n e a r p o r s e a r c h g u e s r c o u n r m o n e e n k e e p e r s k e p t a p o r n o f w h a t - e v e r e y u n d a n d r n e d e r e s t o v e r l s e a r c h e r w h o o k e r e s t a n d m o n r e d e n k e e p e r s ' d c h a r g e o f o b a n. S e e L A S S O N, s u p r a n o 4, a t S e e L A S S O N, s u p r a n o 4, a t a t 2 5. T h e S n e r s ' C o m p a n y w a s a g u o f p r r s c h a r g e d w e n r c g e S r C h a m b e r r e s n s o n p r g. S e e, e T E L F O R D T A Y L O R, T W O S T U D S C O N S T U T N A L I N T E R P R E T A T N yd ite ta te.s (1 ). illia ih y, th t: rig in rig in in (1 (u lis.d is ta tio la te l) (o file ith th ). Id Id la te in req ir in ts to ts fo te fe it y; th in tio th fo tu th to Ao ffic ia s@ to th ito th in is th is lig tio te te Id ta tio ild in te ith fo in th ta 's tric tio in tin.g., IE IN IT IO IO (1 ).

6 F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 6 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 of libel, heresy and political dissent. 21 This led to the evolution of the general warrant, which was issued with no proof of individualized suspicion and in which no Anames are specified... and... a discretionary power given to messengers to search wherever their suspicions may chance to fall.@ 22 As arbitrary searches became more common, AEnglishmen began to insist that their houses were castles for the paradoxical reason that the castle-like security that those houses had afforded from intrusion was vanishing.@ 23 In several decisions issued in the mid-eighteenth century, English courts held that homes were protected from arbitrary action by government officials. 24 Most of these decisions grew out of an investigation into seditious libel: Ordered to find the author of a recently-published letter, officers acting under the authority of a general warrant searched five houses and made a number of arrests. 25 Those persons whose homes were searched sued the officers who conducted the searches for trespass, and the government Aundertook the responsibility of defending all actions arising from the warrant and the payment of all judgments.@ 26 To the delight of the British public, 2 1 S e e L A S S O N, s u p r a n o te 4, a t N o lim ita tio n s s e e m to h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d in g ivin g m e s s e n g e r s p o w e r s o f s e a r c h a n d a r r e s t in fe r r e tin g o u t o f fe n d e r s a n d e v id e n c e. P e r s o n s a n d p la c - e s w e r e n o t n e c e s s a r ily s p e c ifie d, s e iz u r e o f p a p e r s a n d e ffe c ts w a s in d is - crim in a te, everyth in g w a s le ft to th e d iscretio n o f th e b e a r e r o f th e w a r r a n t. Id. a t 2 6 ; s e e a ls o C u d d ih y, s u p r a n o te 1 6, a t L A S S O N, s u p r a no te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t 4 5 (q u o tin g W ilk e s v. W o o d, 9 8 E n g. R e p (C.D )). 2 3 C u d d ih y, s u p r a n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t ; s e e a ls o L A S S O N, s u pra n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t S e e M o n e y v. L e a c h, 9 7 E n g. R e p (K.B ); E n tick v. C a rrin g to n, 9 5 E n g. R e p (K.B ); W ilk e s, 9 8 E n g. R e p. a t ; H u c k le v. M o n e y, 9 5 E n g. R e p (K.B ). 2 5 S e e C u d d ih y, s u p r a n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t ; s e e a ls o L A S S O N, s u p r a n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t L A S S O N, s u p r a n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t 4 5.

7 FILE:C:\BRENNER.DTP Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM 2005] UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY 7 the plaintiffs won, and their verdicts were upheld on appeal. 27 Encouraged by their success, John Entick, the victim of a similar search, sued the officers who searched his home for trespass and won a verdict of, The Court of Common Pleas upheld his verdict: [O ]u r la w h o ld s th e p ro p e rty o f e ve ry m a n s o s a c re d th a t n o m a n c a n s e t h is fo o t u p o n h is n e ig h b o u r's c lo s e w ith o u t h is le a ve. [If] h e d o e s, h e is a tre s p a s s e r.... T h e d e fe n d a n ts h a ve n o rig h t to a va il th e m s e lve s o f th e u s a g e o f th e s e w a r - ra n ts.... [W ]e c a n s a fe ly s a y th e re is n o la w in th is c o u n try to ju s tify th e d e fe n d a n ts in w h a t th e y h a ve d o n e ; if th e re w a s, it w o u ld d e s tro y a ll th e c o m fo rts o f s o c ie ty. The effect of these decisions was to apply the same standard to public and private actors: In either instance, a trespasser could be held civilly liable for entering another's property Awithout lawful authority@. 30 The primary difference was that a public actor could rely upon a warrant, as well as upon a property owner's consent, as authorization for an entry a t a t 4 7 ; s e e a o E n k, 9 5 E n g. R e p. a t : T h e p... d e c r e ] a t e d e n d a n a a n C a g n a n d o e r s, m e s s e n g e r s o r d a r y e K g ] w r c e a n d a r m s b r o k e a n d e n r e d h d w e g - h o u s e..., c o n u e d e r e u r h o u r s w o u t h c o n s e n t a n d a g a s t h w a a t e d r b e d h e p e a c e a b p o s s e s s n e r e o b r o k e o p e n e d o o r s e r o o m s, a n d e c k s,... b r o k e o p e n e b o x e s, c h e s, d r a w e r s, e o f e p h h o u s e,... s e a r c h e d a n d e x a m e d a e r o o m s... h d w e g... a n d a e b o x e s.. a d o v e r, p r d, a n d e x a m e d a e p r a p a p e r s... o f e p e r e u n d, w h e r e b y e s e c r e t a e o f e p b e c a m e w r o n g d c o v e r e d a n d m a d e p u b... e d a m a g e o f e p p o u n d s E n k, 9 5 E n g. R e p. a t W L M B L A C K S T O N E, C O M M E N T A R S O N T H E L A W S O F E N G L A N D A s o n e s c h o r n o d, a w a r r a n t o u a c t a s a s o r t o f d e c Id Id ls tic la in tiff la [d th th fe ts [N th rrin to three th in in to th in ith fo te is llin tin th fo ith is in is ill, ll th tim is tu im in th le io th f, th to th th lo th ts tc., th la in tiff in is in ll th in is llin ll th.; re ie in to in ll th iv te th la in tiff th fo th ffa irs, tc., th la in tiff fu lly is lic to th th la in tiff,,0 Id tic IL IA III, IE (1 ). la te Aw ld laratory

8 F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 8 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 During this era, American colonists were waging their own war against writs of assistance, a variant of the general warrant. 32 Although their legal challenge to the writs failed, 33 the resentment generated was a driving factor for the Revolution and, later, in the adoption of the Bill of Rights. 34 The Fourth Amendment was therefore a product of the same concerns that resulted in the law of trespass' being applied to public actors: Ato guard individuals against improper intrusion into their buildings where they had the exclusive right of possession@. 35 It was intended to secure spatial privacycto restrict law enforcement's ability to break down doors and rummage through rooms, boxes, chests, drawers, etc. 36 Like its English analogue, the Fourth Amendment was intended to preserve privacy by discouraging law enforcement trespasses, 37 and that conception of privacy prevailed unchallenged until the second decade of the Twentieth century when the Supreme Court heard its first wiretap case. There were only a few Fourth Amendment cases in the Nine- d g m e n t.... A w l w a r r a n t... w o u c o m p e l a... d e c d v e r d t r e d e n d a n t g o v e n t o l a n y s u b s e q u e n t w s u r d a m a g e s A k h R e e d A m a r, T h e B o f R h A s A C o n s n, Y A L E L , s e e a o P a h e r v. S p r a g u e, W L ) a w a r r a n t a d e n s e a n a c n r s p a s s 3 2 S e e L A S S O N, s u p r a n o E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e e d., a t 5 3 a w o f a s s n c e o n e c o u e a r c h a n y h o u s e, s h o p, w o u s e, e b r e a k o p e n d o o r s, c h e s, p a c k a g e s... a n d r e m o v e a n y d o r u n c u s m e d g o o d s o r m e r c h a n d a t a t ; s e e a o M a r s h a B a w, c U , J o n e s v. G s o n, W L * S e e s u p n o E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e e d S e e, e H u m e s v. T a b e r, W L * ) a r r a n t n o d e n s e a n a c n s p a s s a g a s t a s h e r w h o s e a r c h e d e w r o n g h o u s e J o n e s, W L a t * 5 c n s p a s s a g a s t a n s p e c r o f r e v e n u r s e g g o o d s w o u t a w a r r a n P a h e r v. S p r a g u e, W L ) a w a r r a n t a d e n s e a n a c n r s p a s s ju la fu ld ir te ic fo th fe ernm ffic ia in la it fo.@ il ill ig ts titu tio.j (1 ); ls tc (N.Y (v lid is fe to tio fo tre ). te fin (w ith rit is ta ld As areh tc.; ts proh ib ite to is e@) Id Id ls ll v. rlo 's In.,.S (1 ). ib (N.H ). ra te fin.g., (R.I. (w fe to tio in tre in iff th ); (a tio in tre in Ain to e@ fo izin ith t); tc (N.Y (v lid is fe to tio fo tre ).

9 FILE:C:\BRENNER.DTP Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM 2005] UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY 9 teenth century and perhaps the best known is Boyd v. United States. Boyd involved the Acompulsory production of a man's private papers,@ which the Court found to be the Aequivalent@ of a search and seizure. 38 The Court struck down the practice in an opinion which cited Entick and seemed to fuse the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination with the Fourth Amendment's prohibition against Aunreasonable searches and seizures.@ 39 The opinion quotes Entick extensively for the proposition that an unauthorized violation one's Apapers@ is a trespass. 40 The focus was on spatial privacycon the government's Agoing@ or Aseeing@ something it should notceven though the Aintrusion@ was accomplished indirectly B o, U. a t A c o u r t o r d e r w a s u s e d r e q u e h e c a n e c a s e s u r r e n d e r a n v o e c o n c e r n g e p u r c h a s e o f 2 9 c a s e s o f p g s s.. a t O r d e r s u e d a s p a r t o f a n v e s a n w h e e r h e c a n h a d u n w a v o e d p a g d u s o n e g s s a t a t S e e s u p n o E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e e d.. T h e S u p r e m e C o u c d B o F o u r A m e n d m e n t - F A m e n d m e n t s n a n a s e v e r a l c a s e s, n o n e o f w h h v o e d e n a l F o u r A m e n d m e n t s c e n a r w h h e g o v e r n m e n t s e a r c h e s r a n d s e e s e v e n c e. S e e B r a m U n d S s, U , ) o e r c e d c o n s s n c a s e S n e v. U n d S s, U , ) c n r e c o v e r d a m a g e s r e s u n w c u t o n d e r a - o w n e d n d B r o w n v. W a e r, U , ) r a n d w e s s ' a p p e a l o f c o n m p t c n r r e s g a n s w e r q u e s n s p u t h C o u n s e a n v. H h c o c k, U , ) r a n d w e s s ' a p p e a l o f c o n m p t c n r r e s g a n s w e r q u e s n s p u t h o v e r r u d p a r t b y K a s a r v. U n d S s, U S e e g e n e r a U n d S s v. Z u c k e r, U , M a n y o f e s e c a s e s, a n g w s o m e w e r d e r a l c o u r t d e c n s o m e r a, v o e d c o m p e g s o n y m w e s s e s. S e e, e J e r s o n, 9 6 F , W a s h ) o m p e g w e s s s a g a s t h e r h u s b a n d w o u v F o u r A m e n d m e n D a v S b u r g w s : F e d e r a m m a y p a r t e x p e c k o f e a r d e c n s r p r e t i n g e F o u r A m e n d m e n e e h e n c e n r y a n d e n e e n c e n e B o f R h - c d g e F o u r A m e n d m e n t - o n a p p d e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n D u r g s a m e e p e r i o d, m o s t a l w s w e r e e n a c d b y e s s, n o t e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n C a l p r o s e c u n s a o s t yd.s to ir At la im ts@ in th to in ic in th la te la Id is in tig tio in to th At la im ts@ la fu lly id yin tie th la Id Id Id ra te fin rt ite yd 's th ifth fu io lysis in ic in lv th trad itio th io in ic th fo iz id v. ite ta te.s (1 (c fe io ); to ite ta te.s (1 (a tio to fo tre la fu lly fe lly la ); lk.s (1 (g jury itn te ita tio fo fu in to tio to im ); lm itc.s (1 (g jury itn te ita tio fo fu in to tio to im ), le in tig ite ta te.s (1 ). lly ite ta te.s (1 ). th lo ith lo fe is io fr th is in lv llin te tim fro itn.g., In re ffe (D (c llin itn to te tify in ld io la te th t). id te in rite lis in la in th la ly is io in te th th t. In th ig te th tu th in te th tury, th ill ig ts in lu in th th ly lie to th fe t. in th is tim crim in la te th ta te th fe t. rim in tio lm

10 F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 1 0 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l Letters The most relevant Nineteenth-century Supreme Court decision is Ex parte Jackson, 42 which was an appeal from a conviction for sending Aa circular concerning a lottery@ through the U.S. Mail. 43 In Jackson, the Court held that Congress had the power to prohibit mail from being used to deliver certain types of material as long as the restrictions were enforced in accordance with rights of: fa r g re a te r im p o rta n c e th a n th e tra n s p o r ta tio n o f th e m a il.... [A ] d is tin c tio n is to b e m a d e b e tw e e n d iffe re n t kin d s o f m a il m a tte r,cb e tw e e n w h a t is in te n d e d to b e k e p t fre e fro m in s p e c tio n, s u c h a s le tte rs, a n d s e a le d p a c k a g e s s u b je c t to le tte r p o s ta g e ; a n d w h a t is o p e n to in s p e c tio n, s u c h a s n e w s p a p e rs, m a g a zin e s,... a n d o th e r p rin t e d m a tte r, p u r p o s e ly le ft in a c o n d itio n to b e e xa m in e d. L e tte rs a n d s e a le d p a c k a g e s... a re a s fu lly g u a rd e d fro m e xa m in a tio n a n d in s p e c tio n, e x c e p t a s to th e ir o u tw a r d fo rm a n d w e ig h t, a s if th e y w e re re ta in e d b y th e p a rtie s fo r - w a rd in g th e m in th e ir o w n d o m ic ile s. T h e c o n s titu tio n a l g u a ra n ty o f th e rig h t o f th e p e o p le to b e s e c u re in th e ir p a p e r s a g a in s t u n re a s o n a b le s e a r c h e s a n d s e izu re s e xte n d s to th e ir p a p e rs, t h u s c lo s e d a g a in s t in s p e c tio n, w h e re ve r th e y m a y b e. W h ils t in th e m a il, th e y c a n o n ly b e o p e n e d a n d e xa m in e d u n d e r lik e w a rra n t, is s u e d u p o n... o a th o r a f - firm a tio n, p a rtic u la rly d e s c rib in g th e th in g to b e s e ize d, a s is req u ire d w h e n p a p e r s a r e s u b je c t e d to s e a r c h in o n e 's o w n h o u s e h o ld.... [A ]ll re g u la tio n s a d o p te d a s to m a il m a tte r... m u s t b e in s u b o rd in a tio n to th e g re a t p rin c ip le a a y s t o o k p c e e s c o u r, w h e r e e F o u r A m e n d m e n t d n o t a p p D a v E. S b e r g, T h e O a l U n d e r s n d g o f U n r e a s o n a b S e a r c h e s a n d S e u r e s, 5 6 F L L. R E , ) o t n o s o m d s e e, e M r T e x a s, U , U lw la in th ta te ts th th id ly. id te in rig in ta in le iz A. V. (2 (fo te itte );.g., ille v..s (1 )..S (1 ). Id

11 FILE:C:\BRENNER.DTP Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM 2005] UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY 11 e m b o d ie d in th e fo u rth a m e n d m e n t o f th e C o n s titu tio n. 4 4 To the modern eye, Jackson seems to extract a concept of Aportable privacy@ from the notion of spatial privacy upon which the Fourth Amendment was predicated. Sealed letters and packages carry with them the privacy accorded the premises from which they originated; violating that privacy is a trespass which must be authorized by a warrant. 45 This appears to extend the original Fourth Amendment understanding of privacy as Aprivacy of place,@ to transcend the bricks-and-mortar approach meant to limit law enforcement intrusions into Aprivate@ physical spaces. To us, Jackson seems to anticipate Katz, 46 the Twentieth-century decision in which the Court expanded the Fourth Amendment to privacy beyond Aspace.@ 47 It is doubtful that the Jackson Court viewed its holding in that light. It is more probable that the Court simply believed it was extending spatial privacy to Apapers@ which were in transit from one person to anothercthat were moving from one Aprivate@ space to another. Viewed in this light, the decision is but an application of the concern with spatial privacy and with the confidentiality of private Apapers@ that appears in Entick and the other English trespass decisions. 48 This interpretation is also supported by Boyd's concern with non-traditional trespass into the privacy of one's Apapers.@ 49 But certain aspects of Jackson are still relevant to this discussion. For one thing, while Jackson did not specifically involve technology, it did provide the factual predicate for the holding. The colonial era postal service was ad hoc, notoriously 4 4. a t m p h a s a d d e d 4 5 S e e s u p n o s 3 7, 4 4 a n d a c c o m p a n g x U K a d c u s s e d S e e n o s a n d a c c o m p a n g Id (e is ). ra te yin te t..s (1 ). tz is is in fra. in fra te yin te x t. 4 8 S e e s u p ra n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d S e e s u p ra n o te s E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d. - E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d. a n d a c c o m p a n y in g te x t.

12 F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 1 2 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 unreliable and offered no guarantees that what was sent would not be read by government authorities, postal employees or anyone who happened to have access. 50 The situation did not seem to improve much after the Revolution, with the establishment of a formal postal service. 51 In a letter to the Marquis de Lafayette, soon-to-be President George Washington observed that sending a letter through the post office meant that his words Ashould become known to all the world.@ 52 By the nineteenth century, postal employees were at least trying to maintain the Asecrecy@ of communications sent through the mail. 53 Interestingly, as Smith notes: [th e ] g re a te s t p ro te c tio n fo r p o s ta l s e c r e c y c a m e n o t fro m a la w o r re g u la tio n, b u t fro m a p h ys ic a l in n o va tio n. In th e m id s a d h e s ive e n ve lo p e s w e re in trod u c e d, p ro vid in g fo r th e first tim e a n e a s y m e a n s fo r s e a lin g o n e 's p e rso n a l 5 4 w ritin g s b e fo re e n tru s tin g th e m to th e p o s ta l s e rvic e. The self-sealing adhesive envelope was much more effective than its precursor, the wax-sealed envelope. 55 Thus, the Jack- 5 0 S e e R O B E R T E L L S M B E N F R A N K L ' S W E B S P R A C Y A N D C U R O S Y F R O M P L Y M O U T H R O C K T O T H E I N T E R N E T , C o n w h o w e r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t g b y C r o w n a u o r s d e v e p e d c o d e s e n c r y p t e r s.. a t a t a t a t D u r g e N e e n C e n w a s e s k o f e P o s t O e w e o u t a d n d a g b a c k p r e - R e v o n a r y e s a t r c e p g m a a n d r e a d g w a s n o t e s p e c u n c o m m o n d c e w a n e w r e s p e c t r c o n e n l a t m e n t o f t r s n s A t m - c e n e s k w a s n o t t c o m p.. a t a t A n N e w Y o r k T e s e d l n o d a t a r s e a d w r e d w a r, a n d w h h e p r y g e s o f e v g e p o s s s s o o n p e e p e d, w a s s o o n s u p e r s e d e d b y e e n v e p e, w h h s e c u r e d e v b o f e IS IT H, IN IT E: IV I- IT (2 ). lo is ts pryin th itie lo to th ir le tte Id Id Id Id in th in te th tury, it th ta th ffic to ip tra itio tin to lu tio tim th in te tin il in it ia lly nca to rep la it ith fo fid tia tre le te in tra it. id tury, th ta ye le te Id Id im ito ria te th le tte A` le ith its fe in to ic th in ye th illa tm is tre fte th lo ic th in io la ility th

13 FILE:C:\BRENNER.DTP Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM 2005] UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY 13 son Court's distinction between sealed mail and other material was made possible by an innovation in communications technology. Another pertinent aspect of Jackson was its focus on the privacy of communications. The mode of communication at issue in Jackson was not new but an innovation made it reasonable, for the first time, to expect that the contents of letters and parcels could be protected from Asnoops and other members of the 56 Whatever its import for Fourth Amendment jurisprudence, this development is significant because it parallels issues which were arising regarding contemporaneous technology, and anticipating issues which would develop regarding evolving technology. 2. Telegraphy In 1844, Samuel Morse sent the first public telegram using technology he developed in After Morse formed his telegraph company, Western Union, in 1845, the growth of Athe telegraph network was As lines were strung around the world, telegraphy Arevolutionized business practice, gave rise to new forms of crime, and inundated its users with 59 For practical reasons, telegraphy did not give rise to the privacy issues that had arisen with regard to materials sent through the mail. Unlike the postal system, telegraphy was a proprietary communication system where the contents of communications were revealed to agents of the telegraph company, who translated the messages into Morse Code and transmitted them to another agent, who translated them back from Morse Code and then delivered them to the recipient. 60 The lack of an analogue to the sealed envelope meant it was not reasonable for those who employed telegraphy to claim that the privacy of their communications had been compromised by Ainsiders@CWestern Union employees. 61 c o n te n ts fr o m a ll e ye s b u t th o s e fo r w h ic h th e y w e r e in te n d e d.@ Id. a t C a lifo r n ia v. G r e e n w o o d, U.S. 3 5, 4 0 ( ). 5 7 S M IT H, s u p r a n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t 6 6 ; s e e a ls o

14 F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 1 4 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 There were, however, efforts to prevent the disclosure of telegram contents to Aoutsiders.@ Some states made it a crime for a telegraph company or its employees to disclose the contents to anyone but the authorized recipient. 62 Some also adopt- T O M S T A N D A G E, T H E V T O R N I N T E R N E T H E R E M A R K A B L E S T O R Y O F T H E T E L E G R A P H A N D T H E N E T E E N T H C E N T U R Y ' S O N - L E P N E E R S a t a t 6 0. a t W h a v e r p e r s o n a l r m a n o r s e n e n w e r e c d e d e m e s s a g e e c o n l o f e o r a r. F u r e r, u n e e s a n w e U. M a a n e m p y e e h a n d g g r a p h c o u e a s a d m e s s a g e s w o u t k g a v g e c e s o f a n u n o p e n e d e n v e p e. T h e r e w a s n o p h a l e v e n c e o f a n r c e p n. A n d, u n e e p o s l s e r e, e - g r a p h s p e r m d e r e n n o f e v m e s s a g e. S M s u p r a n o E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e e d., a t 6 6 ; s e e a o A u r W. G r u m b e, T h e E r a o f M o r s e T e g r a p h P a 1, a t h / w w w r a d e ~ g s r a v e n / g r a p h _ s / g r u m b e / g r u m b e _ 1 l s t e d A u g ) T e g r a p h w a s n o d r e n t m o p e n g e v e r y b o d y m a a n d r e a d g e v e r y w o r d o f e n s e n d g e c o n n a c r o s s c o u n b y a p e c u r c o d e s y s m v e n d b y S a m u e l F. B. M o r s. 6 1 w o u s e e m, o f c o u r s e, a t m e s s a g e s c o u b e e n d p r e s e r v e e p r a c y o f e c o n n, b u t d n o t b e c o m e a c o m m o n p r a c e : W h e n w a s d u c e d, m a n y p e o p a n a d a t g r a p h n s - m s n w o u b e r m o r e s e c u r e a n e P o s l O e h a d b e e n a n d a t w o u p r o v e p e n e b s e c r e c y b e c a u s e e m e s s a g e s w e r e c o d e d, o r c o u b e c o d e d. B u t c o d g w a s n o t u s e d r m o s t b u s e s s a n d p e r s o n a l p o n d e n c e. h e m a r e a s o n w a s a t a s e n d e r c o u r e c o v e r d a m a g e s c a u s e d b y e r r o r s n s m s n b y e g r a p h c o m p a n y b u t w h e n n s m d e n c o d e d m e s s a g e s b w a s s n a n t w e r S M s u p r a n o E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e e d., a t 6 7. S e e, e P r o s e v. W. U n n T e C o U. 1, ) u s e e k g d a m a g e s r m k e m a d e n s m g c o d e d g r a p h m e s s a g e P o s l T e C a b C o. L o u C o n O C o S , C A p p ) u r d a m a g e s r e s u g o m r e d e e r c o d e d g r a p h m e s s a g e C a s o m e e s e n c r y p d m e s - s a g e s u s e d c c r a l a c S e e, e S v. C h a p m a n, W L , a t * 5 e v ) c c o m p e s e n t a h e r g r a m a d v g r o b b e r s w h e n a r g e s h m e n t o f c o s w o u b e a r r g 6 2 S e e M N. G E N. S T A T ) d P e r s o n v. W. U n n IC IA T: IN IN IO vii (1 ). Id Id vii. Id te in fo tio tim ts in lu in th truly le ft th tro th ig in to th lik th itu tio ith th.s il, lo lin te le tra ffic ld ily re ith ris in le in th tra lo ysic id in te tio lik th ta vic th te le ystem it te th te tio ery IT H, te fin ls rth in le y: rt ttp :/.fa ic.n t/ te le ta le in in.h tm (la vis it (A[ le y] iffe fro in 's il in it; th in th te ts try lia te in te e@) It ld th ld crypte to th iv th ir te ts th is id tic it first in tro le tic ip te th te le ic tra is io ld fa th th ta ffic th it ld id Aim tra le,@ th ld in fo in corres (T in th ld in tra is io th te le it tra itte its lia ility ig ific ly lo ). IT H, te fin.g., rim io l..,.s (1 (s it in fo is ta in tra ittin te le ic ); ta l.- le v. isville tto il.,.w (K y. t. (s it fo ltin fr fa ilu to liv te le ic ). rim in ls tim te to fa ilita te im in tivity..g., ta te (N (a lic Ac ip te is in la ip in ld ivin ). IN ' (1 (c ite in te io

15 FILE:C:\BRENNER.DTP Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM 2005] UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY 15 ed statutes creating a cause of action for those whose messages went awry or were otherwise made public. 63 Some observers were concerned about the possibility that Western Union would disclose the contents of messages to authorities. This became a reality in 1877, when a Congressional committee, investigating the validity of votes cast in certain states, sought access to telegrams as evidence. 64 W e s te rn U n io n P re s id e n t W illia m O rto n o r d e re d [h is e m p lo y - e e s ] n o t to re s p o n d. H e a c c u s e d C o n g re s s o f re q u irin g h is e m p lo ye e s `to b e c o m e s p ie s a n d... in fo rm e rs a g a in s t th e c u s to m e rs w h o h a ve re p o s e d in u s th e g ra ve s t c o n fid e n c e c o n c e rn in g b o th th e ir o ffic ia l a n d th e ir p riva te a ffa irs.'... W ith D e m o c ra ts s u p p o rtin g d is c lo s u re a n d R e p u b lic a n s s u p - p o rtin g c o n fid e n tia lity, th e W e s te rn U n io n m a n a g e r w a s fo u n d in c o n te m p t o f C o n g re s s... a rre s te d b y a d e p u ty 6 5 s e r g e a n t o f a rm s o n C a p ito l H ill a n d d e ta in e d. T e le g r a p h C o., 7 7 N.W , (M in n ); 1 3 W A G N E R' S S T A T U T E S ' 5 1 (c it e d in E x p a r te B r o w n, W L 4 2 3, a t * 4 (M o )); s e e a ls o L ittle R o c k & F o r t S m ith T e l. C o. v. D a v is, W L , a t * 3 (A rk ) (n o tin g s ta te s ta tu te s im p o s in g c ivil lia b ility a n d c r im in a l p e n a ltie s ) (c it in g S C O T T & J A R N A G A N, L A W O F T E L E- G R A P H S '' ). T h e e ffic a c y o f th e s e la w s, w h ic h w e r e e n a c te d in Aa b a r e m a jo r ity@ o f s ta te s,@ is u n c e r ta in. S e e, e.g., S M IT H, s u p r a n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t 6 8. A N e w Y o r k T im e s e d ito r ia l fr o m c la im e d th a t vio la tio n s o f th e s e la w s w e r e h a r d to d e te c t a n d th a t W e s te r n U n io n e m p lo ye e s w e r e s u b je c t to A` s tro n g te m p ta tio n s '@ to ig n o r e th e m. Id. (q u o tin g T h e N e w Y o r k T im e s, D e c e m b e r 3 1, , a t 4 ). 6 3 S e e V A. C O D E A N N. ' (M ic h ie ): [T ]e le g r a p h c o m p a n ie s s h a ll b e lia b le fo r s p e c ia l d a m a g e s o c c a s io n e d in... d e liv e r in g d is p a tc h e s, o r fo r th e d is c lo s u r e o f th e c o n te n ts o f a n y p r iv a te d is p a tc h to a n y p e r s o n o th e r th a n to h im to w h o m it w a s a d d r e s s e d, th e a m o u n t o f th e s e d a m a g e s to b e d e te r m in e d b y th e ju r y u p o n th e fa c ts in e a c h c a s e. G rie f a n d m e n ta l a n g u is h o c c a s io n e d to th e p la in tiff m a y b e c o n - s id e r e d b y th e jury in th e d e te r m in a tio n o f th e q u a n tu m o f d a m a g e s. (q u o te d in C o n n e lly v. W. U n io n T e l. C o., 4 0 S.E , (V a )); s e e a ls o I N D. R E V. S T A T. ' ( ) (c ite d in W. U n io n T e l. C o. v. B ie r h a u s, 3 6 N.E , (In d. C t. A p p )). 6 4 S e e S M IT H, s u p r a n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d., a t Id. a t ; s e e a ls o E R N E S T J. E B E R L IN G, C O N G R E S S IO N A L I N V E S T IG A -

16 F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 1 6 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 Orton eventually gave in; Western Union delivered A30,000 political telegrams... to the House Committee on Privileges and Elections in the winter of 1877.@ 66 The messages, however, were never used in the investigation, 67 but the episode sparked a debate about the confidentiality of telegrams. Congressman James Garfield argued for legislation guaranteeing confidentiality, but other members of Congress believed that the A`security of society'@ was more important than confidentiality. 68 Over the next few years, Congress debated whether telegrams Ashould be compared to Post Office material and therefore kept confidential@ or Ashould be available by subpoena.@ 69 For the public, confidentiality Awas a double-edged sword: a requirement of non-disclosure or of instant destruction of messages would protect privacy but also allow the company to escape liability for errors@, since the evidence would have been destroyed. 70 Western Union responded by reducing the retention time for copies of messages, and in 1880 a House Committee Areported out favorably a bill... to protect telegrams to the very same extent as sealed letters in the Post Office.@ 71 The House did not act on the bill and the proposal died, in part because of events occurring elsewhere. 72 In 1880, Jay Gould, Aperhaps the most hated capitalist of America's T N S : A S T U D Y O F T H E O R A N D D E V E L O P M E N T O F T H E P O W E R O F C O N G R E S S T O I N V E S T A T E A N D P U N H F O R C O N T E M P T S e e g e n e r a U n d S s v. B a b c o c k, 2 4 F. C a s M o ) u g o n O n m o n v a c a s u b - p o e n a r e q u g p r o d u c n o f e g r a m s 6 6 S M s u p r a n o E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e e d., a t A K e n c k y C o n g r e s s m a n s a G a r h a d a n e w n g d s e n e n a b o u t e c o n e n o f g r a m s a t IO IG IN IG IS (1 ). lly ite ta te (C.C (r lin rto 's tio to te irin tio th te le ). IT H, te fin Id Id tu id fie ld A` fa le tim ta lity'@ th fid tia lity te le Id Id Id Id Id

17 FILE:C:\BRENNER.DTP Dec 12/13/05 Tue 12:49PM 2005] UBIQUITOUS TECHNOLOGY 17 Gilded acquired Western Union. 73 The public's distrust of Gould led to demands that the government take over Western Union, both to prevent price gouging and to protect the privacy of telegraphic messages. 74 The debate over government acquisition of Western Union continued for years and finally ended when Jay Gould died in 1892; 75 by then, the public's reliance on telegraphy was being replaced by a new technologycthe telephone. 76 When Gould died, the Bell Telephone Company had been in existence for fifteen years. 77 ABoston and New York were talking to Chicago, Milwaukee, Pittsburg, and Washington. 7 3 Id. 7 4 Id. a t Id. a t R o n n ie J. P h illip s, D ig ita l T e c h n o lo g y a n d In s titu tio n a l C h a n g e fr o m th e G ild e d A g e to M o d e r n T im e s : T h e Im p a c t o f th e T e le g r a p h a n d th e In te r n e t, 3 4 J. O F E C O N. I S S U E S 2 6 7, ( ), a t h ttp :/ / d ig lib.lib.u tk.e d u / u tj/ je i/ 3 4 / je i p d f (la s t vis ite d A u g ). Id. It w a s a c o m p e tin g te c h n o lo g y th a t u ltim a te ly d e s tro ye d th e W e s t e r n U n io n m o n o p o ly. W ith th e g r e a tly in c r e a s e d d e m a n d fo r th e te le g r a p h in th e p e r io d a fte r th e C ivil W a r, th e s e a r c h b e g a n fo r th e c r e a tio n o f a Ah a r m o n ic te le g r a p h@ th a t w o u ld e n a b le th e s im u lta n e o u s tra n s m is s io n o f m u ltip le m e s - s a g e s. In th e s, A le x a n d e r G r a h a m B e ll w a s te a c h in g d e a f m u te s in B o s to n. T w o lo c a l w e a lth y b u s in e s s m e n, w h o e a c h h a d a d e a f c h ild, w e r e im p r e s s e d b y B e ll's p e r s o n a lity a n d d e c id e d to b a c k h im in th e r a c e to b e a t W e s te r n U n io n in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a p r a c tic a l h a r m o n ic te le g r a p h. W h ile w orkin g o n th e h a r m o n ic te le g r a p h, B e ll d is c o v e r e d b y a c c id e n t th e p r in c ip le s o f th e te le p h o n e. T h e n e w te c h n o lo g y w a s d e m o n s tra te d a t th e C e n te n n ia l E x p o s itio n o f in P h ila d e lp h ia. A fte r a p a te n t d is p u te w ith B e ll T e le p h o n e, in N o v e m b e r W e s te r n U n io n fo r m a lly c o n tra c te d to r e lin q u is h th e r ig h ts to th e n e w te le p h o n e te c h - n o lo g y to B e ll, u n d e r th e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e n e w te c h n o lo g y w o u ld n o t c h a l- le n g e th e te le g r a p h. B e ll T e le p h o n e, fo r m e d in M a y , w a s a n im m e d ia te s u c c e s s.... [W ]ith in th r e e y e a r s th e r e w e r e 3 0,0 0 0 p h o n e s in u s e a r o u n d th e w o r ld. In , th e r e w e r e m o r e th a n 2 5 0,0 0 0 p h o n e s in u s e w o r ld w id e. B y th e tu r n o f th e c e n tury, th e te le g r a p h h a d s e e n its h e yd a y. 7 7 S e e s u p ra n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d..

18 e F IL E :C : \ B R E N N E R.D T P D e c 1 2 / 1 3 / 0 5 T u e 1 2 :4 9 P M 1 8 M IS S IS S IP P I L A W J O U R N A L [V o l. 7 5 One-half of the people of the United States were within talking distance of each other.@ 78 It had been transmitting a million messages a day since 1888, install its first million telephones in 1898, and would string its first million miles of wire in AA new generation had grown up, without the prejudices of its fathers. People had grown away from the telegraphic habit of thought, which was that wire communications were expensive luxuries for the few.@ Telephony Telephones were less expensive to use than telegraphy, and they held out the possibility of providing more confidentiality because one could communicate directly, instead of relying on telegraph agents to code, transmit, and de-code the contents of the communication. 81 However, the early telephone system was not actually secure because it was not a truly automated system: O n e Ap a rty lin e@ w o u ld s e rve fo u r o r m o re c u s to m e rs. S im p ly b y p ic k in g u p th e te le p h o n e,... c u s to m e r s c o u ld h e a r th e c o n ve r s a tio n o f a n o th e r if th e lin e w e re in u s e.... [T ]h is w a s c o m m o n b e c a u s e a p a r ty-lin e c u s to m e r w o u ld h a ve n o o th e r w a y o f k n o w in g w h e th e r th e lin e w a s fre e... e x c e p t to p ic k u p th e p h o n e a n d lis te n. T h e re w a s n o d ia l to n e in th o s e d a ys ;... o p e rato rs w o u ld d ire c t th e c a ll m a n u a lly a t a s w itc h b o a rd. In s m a ll to w n s, yo u c o u ld s im p ly a s k th e o p e rato r fo r th e n a m e o f th e p e r s o n yo u w a n te d to re a c h.... If th e o p e ra to r h a d... trie d to p la c e a c a ll to th e s a m p e r s o n a n d g o t te n n o a n s w e r, s h e m ig h t te ll th e c a lle r th a t 7 8 H E R B E R T N. C A S S O N, T H E H IS T O R Y O F T H E T E L E P H O N E ( ); s e e a ls o s u p r a n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d C A S S O N, s u p r a n o te 7 8, a t Id. a t ; s e e a ls o J O H N W. O L IV E R, H IS T O R Y O F A M E R IC A N T E C H N O L O G Y ( ) (AT h e te le p h o n e, u n lik e th e te le g r a p h..., w a s th e in s tru m e n t o f, a n d fo r, th e p e o p le. It s e r v e d in d ivid u a ls o f lim it e d m e a n s a s e ffic ie n tly a s th e m a n o f w e a lth.@). 8 1 S e e s u p ra n o te E r r o r! B o o k m a r k n o t d e fin e d. a n d a c c o m p a n yin g te x t.