STUDIA ORIGIN ALIA 2 UNISA 1988

Transcription

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2 STUDIA ORIGIN ALIA 2 UNISA 1988

3 Power and beliefs in South Africa Economic potency structures in South Africa and their interaction with patterns of conviction in the light of a Christian ethic Klaus Niirnberger University of South Africa Pretoria

4 1988 University of South Africa AH rights reserved ISBN Typeset by Menlo Boekhandel Menlopark, Pretoria Printed by Sigma Press Koedoespoort Published by University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria

5 Table of contents Abstract... Acknowledgements... Xl Acknowledgement of copyright... xn Introduction... xni Chapter 1: The aim and method of this study The aim defined The problem analysed... * Economic power structures Patterns of conviction The interaction between structures and convictions Ethical evaluation Methodological considerations South Africa treated as a microcosm A systems-analytical approach Sources The emphasis on the structural dimension Level of sophistication... H 1.4 Summary PART 1: ECONOMIC POWER STRUCTURES IN SOUTH AFRICA Chapter 2: Space-potency relations The aim of this chapter v

6 2.2 The centre-periphery phenomenon described The South African case The overall centre-periphery structure Areas reserved for Blacks The urban centres Decentralisation Summary... 3^ Chapter 3: Population-potency relations The aim of this chapter... 3g 3.2 The population-potency model explained Potency distribution in the population The time factor added Irregularities The population-potency model applied to South Africa The three-dimensional model applied Irregularities in the basic model Galtung s dependency mode! (modified) Galtung s (modified) dependency model applied to South Africa South Africa as a 'commonwealth or 'constellation of states South Africa as a 'unitary state South Africa: the real position The location of identifiable groups within the system Summary Chapter 4: Need-potency relations The aim of this chapter The need-potency model explained The South African situation Summary Chapter 5: Causes of economic potency discrepancies The aim of this chapter A model of causation Asymmetrical market interaction The basic model explained Galtung s dependency model revisited A further note on decentralisation Potency discrepancies in relation to technological advance vi 3g

7 5.4.1 Structural mechanisms in general South African peculiarities The overall capacity of the economy Volitional factors Summary PART II: PATTERNS OF COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS AND THEIR RELATION TO SOCIETAL STRUCTURES IN SOUTH AFRICA Chapter 6: The relation between societal structures and convictions a theoretical model The aim of this chapter Basic convictions Components of convictions Types of conviction Mental predispositions Vital interests The interaction between normative system and vital interests Power, awareness and time Three decisive areas of conflict and interaction Summary Chapter 7: Structure-induced mental predispositions The aim of this chapter The relation between colonizers and colonised The Western dynamic The reaction of the South The crisis in the West The South African example The Whites The underdog population groups Summary Chapter 8: Convictions The aim of this chapter Main convictions in South Africa A-type B-type C-type D-type: vital interests vii

8 8.3 Combinations and syncretisms Combinations of convictions within types Combinations of convictions between types Correlations between convictions and structural positions The independence of convictions from structural positions and vice versa The interaction between convictions and structural locations A-type B-type C-type Summary Chapter 9: The interaction between convictions and interests The aim of this chapter Vital interests are justified in terms of convictions Justification in terms of religious convictions Manipulation of the system of meaning Acceptable presentation of the pursuit of interests Declaration of autonomy Justification in terms of cultural identity Justification in terms of the distribution of economic potential Vital interests influence perceptions Convictions determine and control interests A-type convictions B-type convictions C-type convictions D-type convictions Summary PART III: OUR FINDINGS IN THE LIGHT OF A THEOLOGICAL ETHIC Chapter 10: A theological-ethical critique in outline The aim of this chapter A theological-ethical critique of economic power structures A theological-ethical critique of convictions A theological-ethical critique of the interaction between structures and convictions Summary viii

9 Chapter 11: The positive contribution of a theological ethic in outline The aim of this chapter The missionary dynamic of the Word of God leads to syncretisms The ecumenical dynamic of the Word leads to wholesome confrontations The effects of ecumenical encounter are subversive Three Biblical paradigms on the use of structural power Application in outline Summary Selected Bibliography ix

10 Abstract South African society is characterised by a marked centre-periphery structure of economic power distribution. It is, at the same time, a prime example of a society divided by a plurality of religious, cultural and economic convictions. It is, furthermore, the target of intense moral challenges. As such it is an ideal laboratory for social-ethical research concerning the impact of structures on convictions and vice versa. This study is the attempt to develop a systems-analytical paradigm for the investigation of (a) economic power structures, (b) patterns of conviction, (c) the relation between the two and (d) a theological-ethical critique. Part I is devoted to economic power structures. The proposed model includes the relation of potency to geographical space (chapter 2), population (chapter 3), and need (chapter4). A model of causation and a few relevant causal systems close this part (chapter 5). Part II is devoted to convictions and their relation to societal power structures. It begins with a basic model of such relations (chapter 6). Then follow a historical survey of the emergence of structure-related mental predispositions or attitudes (chapter 7), an inventory of convictions relevant to the South African situation (chapter 8) and an analysis of the interaction between structure-related interests and convictions (chapter 9). Part III subjects the findings to a theological-ethical critique (chapter 10), and discusses the positive contribution a theological ethic could make to the solution of the problems concerned (chapter 11). Vital interests crystallise as the pivotal entity which mediates between structures and convictions. Being interpreted and prioritised needs they are derived from structural position, yet contain an element of meaning and normativeness. My main hypothesis is that vital interests manipulate convictions and thus obstruct structural change. This presents us with a challenge which reaches beyond the realm of conventional theological ethics and it calls for a dynamic new approach. x

11 Acknowledgements This study was conducted within the framework of the Investigation into Intergroup Relations of the South African Human Sciences Research Council under contract number 04/P017. Financial assistance rendered by the Human Sciences Research Council through its main committee for the HSRC Investigation into Intergroup Relations for undertaking the research is hereby acknowledged. The views expressed in this work or the conclusions drawn are those of the writer and should not be regarded as those of the Human Sciences Research Council or the Main Committee of the HSRC Investigation into Intergroup Relations. I also gratefully acknowledge the use of the multipurpose survey conducted by the HSRC for the purposes of the said Investigation. I wish to thank the Rector of the University of South Africa, Prof T. van Wijk, for his approval of my involvement in the project and the Head of the Department of Systematic Theology and Theological Ethics, Prof A. Konig, for his gracious support. My colleague, Mr J.L. Sebidi, relieved me to many of my routine obligations at the University. I held informal discussions on the theme with a number of experts in various disciplines and am grateful for their time and interest. Mr A. Court assisted me on a part-time basis with the collection of relevant literature. Mrs Harriet Goedhart was responsible for the typing and Mrs R. Gray and Mr R.K. Loveday for the editing and proofreading of the manuscript. All mistakes in the text are my own. A number of experts in various human sciences to whom I sent the first draft for comment, offered valuable critique and suggestions for which I am grateful. Finally, I wish to thank the Department of Publishing Services of the University of South Africa for publishing the manuscript in this form. xi

12 Acknowledgement of copyright The author acknowledges with gratitude the permission of the following bodies to utilise the stated material: Map of South Africa indicating Deconcentration and Industrial Development Points reproduced under Government Printer s Copyright Authority 8820 of 21 January 1988: (page 37). Tafelberg Uitgewers, Cape Town: Diagram depicting Black, Coloured and Asian townships in the PWV area (page 30). The Department of Development Planning, RSA: Diagram of the National Physical Development Plan of 1975 (page 26).. The Department of Geography, Queen Mary College, London (Prof D.M. Smith): Diagram concerning Black and White population distribution in Greater Johannesburg (page 31). The Inkatha Institute for SA: Diagrams depicting areas accessible to roads etc. in Natal and KwaZulu (page 27). The Johannesburg Stock Exchange: Chart depicting the rise and fall of SA Industrial Share Prices (page 57). The SA Geographical Journal: Diagrams concerning White population density in SA in 1867, 1904 and 1946 (page 24). The Southern Africa Labour & Development Research Unit, University of Cape Town: Diagram depicting Black population movements in SA (page 32). The Standard Bank Investment Corporation: Diagrams depicting Black and Coloured employment per square mile in SA (pages 109, 110). xii

13 Introduction In 1981 the South African Human Sciences Research Council launched a comprehensive Investigation into Intergroup Relations. The program was subdivided into thirteen fields, and religion was one of them. Research tenders invited under this heading included various aspects of the relation between social structures, ideology and religion. The present study was tendered, written and submitted to the Human Sciences Research Council as Research Report No. 04/PO17 in August The main report of the Investigation into Intergroup Relations was published in 1985 under the title The South African Society: Realities and Future Prospects. The volume on religion was published under the title Religion, Intergroup Relations and Social Change in South Africa. The chapter on economics (4.2) in this report was largely structured around the finding of the present study. Empirical data used in this study has largely been taken from the 1980 census and from social research conducted round about that time, including the Human Sciences Research Council s own multipurpose survey. It was not deemed wise to update the data for the present publication. In the first place dependable new census statistics are not available while in other fields social research has continued. To incorporate the latter would lead to diachronical distortions between different sets of data. In the second place the aim was to draw up a model for research, not to present final results which are difficult to obtain in a situation of flux. In the third place the author considers it safe to assume that the years between 1980 and 1983 represent something like a watershed in South African social history and thus merit investigation for their own sake. The watershed referred to is the turn of the social system from apartheid to a post-apartheid era which has since gathered momentum. The failure of traditional Verwoerdian policies could no longer be overlooked. The National Party was engaged in the difficult manoeuvre of setting the unwieldy apparatus of the state on a more realistic course. A new labour system became operative. The government tried to woo big business into cooperation. Free enterprise became the watchword for economic policy. New decentralisation and regionalisation policies took the place of the old homelands- and border areas approach. The new constitution which gave Indians and Coloureds limited participation in the central decision-making processes of the country, was still in the pre-referendum phase. Influx control had not yet been abolished. The Soweto uprising had been quelled and the current unrest sparked off by the exclusion of Blacks from the new constitution had not yet erupted. Violence was still sporadic. The most powerful and versatile internal opposition party in the country s history, the United Democratic xiii

14 Front, was only launched in The comeback of the African National Congress could not yet be foreseen. The massive disinvestment campaigns and other international economic pressures had not taken shape. South Africa looks much different now than it looked in The present study represents something like a photo of a ball shot into the air at the highest point of its course. For a second it does not seem to move and then it descends with accelarating speed. Developments during the last two years have taken place at a breathtaking pace. To capture this movement would imply conducting a new study which would in its turn be obsolete only a few months later. The basic insights gained by the present study on the theme of the relation between social structures and patterns of convictions would, however, only be elaborated, not altered. 1hope that the publication of the study will achieve three aims. In the first place it should further insight into the structure of South African society both on the level of economic power and of social consciousness. As such it should dispel long standing myths and misconceptions, particularly among South African Whites. In the second place it should provide further evidence concerning the perennial problem of the relation between social structures, interests and patterns of conviction in the social sciences. I also hope that it will contribute to theory formation on this vital issue. In the third place it should demonstrate the necessity of interdisciplinary research for the development of theological ethics as an academic discipline. The days of naive assumptions and dogmatic postulates are over. Thus it should be seen as a pilot study on empirical foundations for future work in the ethics of economic life. x i v

15 CHAPTER 1 The aim and method of this study 1.1 TH E AIM D EFINED T h e th e m e of th e p r e s e n t s tu d y n a tu r a lly fa lls in to th e follo w in g c o m p o n e n ts: (a) T h e interaction b etw een (b ) econom ic power stru c tu re s an d (c) p a t t e r n s o f conviction (d ) s e e n in th e lig h t of a C h r is tia n ethic. A s tu d y o f th is n a t u r e is p ro b le m - r a t h e r th a n d is c ip lin e - o rie n te d a n d c a n, t h e r e f o r e, o n ly b e u n d e r ta k e n on an i n t e r d is c ip lin a r y b a s is. I n te r d is c ip lin a r y w o rk can o n ly b e m e a n in g fu l if v a r io u s a s p e c ts a r e n o t sim p ly a d jo in e d to e a c h o th e r b u t p la c e d in to a s y s te m s - a n a ly tic a l m odel o r p a ra d ig m in w h ic h th e r e la tio n b e tw e e n all r e le v a n t f a c to r s is c le a r ly in d ic a te d. A g a in s t th e b a c k g r o u n d of th e m a ssiv e u s e a n d a b u s e o f r e s e a r c h f in d in g s b y p o lic y -m a k e rs a n d b u s in e s s m e n, r e s e a r c h h a s b ecom e a w a re of its so c ia l r e s p o n s ib ility a n d m oved b e y o n d th e id e a l of v a lu e - f r e e a n a ly s is. E v a lu a tio n of f in d in g s a n d 1

16 re c o m m e n d a tio n s h a v e beco m e p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f th e w o rk of th e H um an S c ie n c e s R e s e a r c h C o u n c il its e lf. E th ic a l e v a lu a tio n, h o w e v e r, im p lies r e tr a c tio n from " o b je c tiv ity " in to com m itm ent c o n c e rn in g th e n o rm a tiv e s y s te m of a p a r tic u la r c o n v ic tio n o r w o r ld - v ie w. O n th is b a s is we w e re a b le to fo rm u la te th e b a s ic aim s of th is s tu d y a s fo llo w s: (a ) A n a ly tic a l: T h e in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n so c ia l s t r u c t u r e s a n d p a t t e r n s of c o n v ic tio n w as in v e s tig a te d. (b ) C o n s tr u c tiv e : A v e r s a tile p a ra d ig m fo r in te r d is c ip lin a r y w o rk c o v e rin g b o th q u a n tifia b le a n d u n q u a n tif ia b le a s p e c ts w as d ra w n u p. (c ) E v a lu a tiv e : T h e o u tco m e of th e s tu d y w as s u b je c t to e th ic a l c r i t e r i a d e r iv e d from a p a r tic u la r c o n v ic tio n, v iz. th e C h r is tia n f a ith, a n d c e r ta in re c o m m e n d a tio n s w e re m ade o n th is b a s is. 1.2 TH E PROBLEM ANALYSED E conom ic p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s ( C h a p te r s 2-5) I a ssu m e th a t th e b a s ic in g r e d ie n t o f s o c ie ta r y s t r u c t u r e s is th e r e la tiv e d is tr ib u tio n of p o w e r o r p o te n tia l b e tw e e n d if f e r e n t s e c tio n s o f th e p o p u la tio n. I f u r t h e r a ssu m e th a t p o w e r is m ain ly d e r iv e d from f o u r s o u r c e s in a m o d e rn s o c ie ty ( c f. N a ttr a s s :2 8 3 ff): (a ) P o litic a l le v e r a g e, i. e. th e e f f e c tiv e r a n g e o f in f lu e n c e on d e c is io n -m a k in g p r o c e s s e s in m a tte rs of p u b lic p o lic y, in c lu d in g le g is la tiv e, a d m in is tr a tiv e, ju d ic ia r y, s e c u r ity a n d m ilita ry p o w e rs. (b ) E conom ic le v e r a g e, i. e. th e e f f e c tiv e c o n tr o l o v e r f a c to r s of p r o d u c tio n in r e la tio n to t h e ir im p o rta n c e in th e p r o d u c tiv e 2

17 p r o c e s s, th e r e la tiv e a b ility to d e te rm in e p a t t e r n s o f d i s t r i b u tio n a n d p u r c h a s in g p o w e r on th e c o n s u m e r s id e o f th e m a rk e t. (c ) C om m and o v e r te c h n o lo g ic a l e x p e r tis e a n d a p p a r a t u s, w h ich is a c tu a lly a fa c to r o f p ro d u c tio n a s m e n tio n e d u n d e r ( b ). (d ) S ocial p r e s t ig e. T h is s tu d y c o n c e n tr a te s on econom ic p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s fo r t h r e e r e a s o n s. F i r s t, th e econom ic d im e n sio n o f so c ia l p r o c e s s e s is c r u c ia l, if n o t f u n d a m e n ta l, to all o t h e r s. S e c o n d, th is d im e n sion h a s b e e n le s s in th e lim e lig h t th a n p o litic a l a f f a ir s in s tu d ie s on S o u th A fric a n s o c ie ty. T h ir d, I h a d to k e e p th is s tu d y to m a n a g e a b le p r o p o r tio n s. T h is d o e s n o t m e a n, h o w e v e r, th a t I am n o t a w a re o f th e c lo se in te r r e la tio n b e tw e e n all fo u r s o u r c e s of p o w e r a s th e s tu d y i ts e lf w ill c le a rly r e v e a l. T h e d is tr ib u tio n o f econom ic p o w e r o r p o te n tia l h a v e b e e n a n a ly s e d u n d e r fo u r h e a d in g s : - (a ) T h e s p r e a d o f econom ic p o te n c y o v e r geographical space ( c h a p te r 2 ). (b ) T h e d is tr ib u tio n o f econom ic p o te n c y b e tw e e n d if f e r e n t s e c tio n s o f th e population ( c h a p te r 3 ). (c ) T h e d if f e r e n tia l r e la tio n b e tw e e n econom ic p o te n c y o f d if f e r e n t g r o u p s a n d th e ir econom ic needs ( c h a p te r 4 ). (d ) Causes o f th e u n e q u a l d is tr ib u tio n o f p o te n c y in th e p o p u la tio n ( c h a p te r 5 ). T h e w e ll-k n o w n c e n t r e - p e r i p h e r y m odel of p o te n c y d is tr ib u tio n w as u s e d th r o u g h o u t th is s tu d y. It w as m ade d y n a m ic b y th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e d im e n sio n o f historical tim e. T h e d is c u s s io n r e v e a le d th a t th is m odel p o s s e s s e s e x c e p tio n a l e x p la n a to r y p o w e rs in th e S o u th A fric a n c a s e. We in c lu d e, u n d e r ( b ), a 3

18 c r u d e lo c a tio n of id e n tif ia b le so c ia l g r o u p in g s w ith in th e o v e ra ll p o w e r s t r u c t u r e P a tte r n s of c o n v ic tio n ( C h a p te r s 6-8 ) T h e r e la tio n b e tw e e n so cia l s t r u c t u r e a n d c o n s c io u s n e s s is a p e r e n n ia l p ro b le m, d a tin g b a c k to a n c ie n t G re e k p h ilo s o p h y. I ts n in e te e n th c e n tu r y v e r s io n of id e a lism v s. m a te ria lism is o u t d a te d. T h e m o d e rn ta s k is to fin d a s o p h is tic a te d p a ra d ig m of all th e f a c to r s in v o lv e d a n d th e com plex r e la tio n s b e tw e e n th e m. We b e g in th is p a r t, t h e r e f o r e, w ith a b r ie f d e s c r ip tio n of th e th e o r y w h ic h u n d e r lie s o u r s tu d y in th is r e g a r d ( c h a p te r 6 ). T h e e f f e c t o f s t r u c t u r e s on c o n s c io u s n e s s is m ost im m ed iate on th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l le v e l. I a ssu m e t h a t th e lo c a tio n of g r o u p s in th e o v e ra ll p o w e r s t r u c t u r e r is e to c e r ta in b a s ic m e n tal p r e d is p o s itio n s o r a t t i t u d e s. I th e r e f o r e o f f e r a h y p o th e tic a l r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e e v o lu tio n of s u c h m e n ta l p r e d is p o s itio n s o v e r h is to r ic a l tim e. I t ta k e s a c c o u n t of th e p o la r ity b e tw e e n d o m in a n t a n d d o m in a te d g r o u p s in s o c ie ty, w h ic h is a v a ria tio n on th e c e n t r e - p e r i p h e r y m o tif on th e le v e l of c o n s c io u s n e s s ( c h a p te r 7 ). W ork in g from th e o th e r s id e of th e s tr u c tu r e - c o n v ic tio n d ia le c tic, I th e n d re w u p a ty p o lo g y of c o n v ic tio n s o p e r a tiv e in th e S o u th A fric a n s itu a tio n. H e re I d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n th e follow ing t y p e s : (a ) r e lig io u s o r m e th a p h y s ic a l c o n v ic tio n s, (b ) c o n v ic tio n s r e la te d to g r o u p i d e n tity, (c ) c o n v ic tio n s r e la te d to th e d is tr ib u tio n of econom ic p o te n tia l, (d ) c o lle c tiv e i n t e r e s t s. 4

19 My h y p o th e s is is th a t a f f in ity to s t r u c t u r a l lo c a tio n b e c o m e s m ore m a rk e d a s we m ove dow n th is lis t ( c h a p te r 8 ) T h e in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n s t r u c t u r e s a n d c o n v ic tio n s ( c h a p te r 9) In th e d ia le c tic a l re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n so c ia l s t r u c t u r e s a n d p a t te r n s of c o n v ic tio n c o lle c tiv e i n t e r e s t s p la y a p iv o ta l r o le. I d e fin e d i n t e r e s t s a s i n t e r p r e te d a n d p r io r itis e d n e e d s. O n th e o n e h a n d n e e d s a r e a f u n c tio n of a g r o u p 's lo c a tio n in th e p o te n c y s t r u c t u r e. O n th e o th e r h a n d t h e ir i n t e r p r e ta t i o n a n d p r io r itis a tio n d e p e n d s on c e r ta in p e r c e p tio n s, v a lu e s, n o rm s a n d g o als d e r iv e d from c o n v ic tio n s. T h e r e is a c o n tin u ity b e tw e e n m e n tal p r e d is p o s itio n s a n d i n t e r e s t s, th e l a t t e r c o n c e p t d e n o tin g, in c o n tr a s t w ith th e fo rm e r, c o n c r e te a n d s p e c ific c o n c e p tu a lis a tio n s. T h e in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n s t r u c t u r e s a n d c o n v ic tio n s c a n th e n b e s e e n to b e o p e r a tin g in tw o s ta g e s (b e tw e e n s t r u c t u r e s a n d i n t e r e s t s a n d b e tw e e n i n t e r e s t s a n d c o n v ic tio n s ) a n d in tw o d ir e c tio n s (fro m s t r u c t u r e s o v e r i n t e r e s t s to c o n v ic tio n s a n d th e o th e r w ay r o u n d ). T h e r e la tio n b e tw e e n lo c a tio n in th e so cia l s t r u c t u r e a n d i n t e r e s ts is f a irly o b v io u s. I c o n c e n tr a te, t h e r e f o r e, o n th e m ore c o m p lic a te d r e la tio n b e tw e e n i n t e r e s t s a n d c o n v ic tio n s. C o n v ic tio n s e n ta il a n o rm a tiv e s y s te m, a g a in s t w h ic h th e p u r s u i t of i n t e r e s t s h a s to b e j u s tif ie d. T h is p r o c e s s is v a r ia b ly c a lle d r a tio n a lis a tio n, le g itim a tio n o r id e o lo g y (in th e c r itic a l s e n s e of th e te rm a s u s e d in r a d ic a l s o c io lo g y ). T h e c o n flic t b e tw e e n c o n v ic tio n s a n d i n t e r e s t s ( th e l a t t e r r e p r e s e n tin g s t r u c t u r e - r e l a t e d n e e d s a n d d e s ir e s ) m o v es a lo n g t h r e e 5

20 c h a n n e ls : p e r c e p tio n (g u id e d b y v a l u e s ), ju s tif ic a tio n ( g u id e d b y n o rm s) a n d m o tiv a tio n ( g u id e d b y g o a ls ). We c o n c e n tr a te on ju s tif ic a tio n - sh o w in g how i n t e r e s t s a r e ju s tif ie d in te rm s of th e n o rm a tiv e s y s te m of a c o n v ic tio n. In th is p r o c e s s c o n v ic tio n s a n d t h e ir n o rm a tiv e s y s te m s a r e m a n ip u la te d in c h a r a c te r is tic w a y s. O n th e o th e r h a n d c o n v ic tio n s also d e te rm in e a n d s c r e e n th e i n t e r p r e ta tio n a n d th e p u r s u i t of i n t e r e s t s a n d c h a lle n g e th e id e o lo g ic a l s e lf - ju s tif ic a tio n of i n t e r e s t g r o u p s in s o c ie ty. T h r e e f u r t h e r a s p e c ts n e e d to b e c o n s id e r e d - (a ) T h e r e la tiv e p o w e r o r p o te n tia l a t th e d is p o s a l o f a g r o u p, w h ic h i s, of c o u r s e, d ir e c tly r e la te d to its p o s itio n in th e p o w e r s y s te m. P o w e r o b v io u s ly d e te rm in e s th e d e g r e e to w h ic h g r o u p s a r e a b le to re a lis e th e ir id e a s a n d id e a ls in th e s t r u c t u r a l s p h e r e. (b ) T h e " h o riz o n " a n d g e n e r a l a w a re n e s s o f a g r o u p, w h ic h a r e p a r t ly d e te rm in e d b y its lo c a tio n in th e p o w e r g r id a n d p a r t ly b y i ts c o n v ic tio n s. T h e y d e te rm in e how f a r a g ro u p is c o n s c io u s of th e p o s s ib ilitie s a t its d is p o s a l to m ake an im p a c t on th e s t r u c t u r a l s p h e r e - w ith o u t w h ic h it w ill n o t e v e n t r y. (c ) T h e h is to r ic a l d im e n sio n. O n th e le v e l of c o n v ic tio n s we s p e a k o f t r a d itio n s in th is r e g a r d ; on th e le v e l of s t r u c t u r e s we s p e a k o f c h a in - r e a c tio n s of c a u s e a n d e f f e c t, o r m ore p r e c is e ly, o f e v o lv in g n e tw o r k s of c a u s a lity E th ic a l e v a lu a tio n ( C h a p te r s 10 a n d 11) I a ssu m e th a t th e r e is n o w ay in w h ic h an e th ic a l e v a lu a tio n can b e c o n d u c te d on th e b a s is o f a " n e u t r a l ", n o n -c o m m itta l, p u r e ly 6

21 r a tio n a l o r a n a ly tic a l s ta n c e. T h e ch o ic e of a p a r t ic u l a r c o n v ic tio n, v iz. th e C h r is tia n f a ith, c a n b e ju s tif ie d in tw o w a y s. T h e m o st o b v io u s is th a t th e a u th o r is a C h r is tia n th e o lo g ia n. T h e s e c o n d is th a t th e m a jo rity of th e S o u th A fric a n p o p u la tio n, a n d n o ta b ly its m ost p o w e rfu l d e c is io n - m a k e r s, claim a lle g ia n c e to th e C h r is tia n fa ith in som e fo rm o r o th e r. O n th is b a s is I o f f e r a c r itiq u e ( c h a p te r 10) a n d a p o s itiv e c o n tr ib u tio n of th e o lo g ic a l e th ic s ( c h a p te r 1 1 ). F rom th e d is c u s s io n so f a r t h r e e k in d s of in te r a c tio n o r c o n flic t of th e o lo g ic a l- e th ic a l r e le v a n c e e m e rg e : (a) C o n flic ts b e tw e e n d if f e r e n t c o n v ic tio n s. F rom a th e o lo g ic a l p o in t of view th is is th e a re a of m is s io n a ry d ia lo g u e o r e v a n g e lis a tio n. (b ) C o n flic ts b e tw e e n th e c o lle c tiv e i n t e r e s t s of v a r io u s g r o u p s in s o c ie ty. T h is is th e a r e a of so c ia l ju s t i c e. O b v io u s ly it h a s a d ir e c t b e a r in g on th e d e m a n d s fo r s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e. (c ) T h e c o n flic t b e tw e e n c o n v ic tio n s a n d c o lle c tiv e i n t e r e s t s, o r m ore p r e c is e ly, b e tw e e n n o rm a tiv e s y s te m s a n d id e o lo g ic a l s e lf - ju s tif ic a tio n s. In th e o lo g ic a l te rm s th is is th e a r e a of ju s tif ic a tio n a n d s a n c tif ic a tio n. I a s su m e th a t th e f i r s t tw o k in d s of c o n flic t a r e r e la tiv e ly lu c id. T h e y a r e also re c e iv in g m u ch a tte n tio n in m issio lo g ic a l a n d e th ic a l l i t e r a t u r e. T h e t h i r d k in d of c o n flic t is la r g e ly a terra incognita in th e o lo g ic a l c ir c le s, a t le a s t in i t s s o c ia l- s t r u c t u r a l a p p lic a tio n. I t is a lso th e m ost c ru c ia l b e c a u s e id e o lo g ic a l s e lf ju s tif ic a tio n e f f e c tiv e ly p r e v e n t s a n o rm a tiv e s y ste m fro m b e com ing o p e r a tiv e in th e s t r u c t u r a l s p h e r e. If t h a t w e re n o t th e c a s e, C h r is tia n s (a n d m a y b e o th e r s ) w o u ld lo n g h a v e c h a n g e d th e s y s te m. 7

22 My b a s ic c o n te n tio n is th a t th e th e o lo g ic a l- e th ic a l ta s k is to fa c ilita te r a t h e r th a n p r e v e n t o r a v o id th e s e c o n f r o n ta tio n s, a n d to c h a n n e l th e m, a t th e sam e tim e, in to a p r o c e s s o f c r e a tiv e r e c o n s tr u c tio n - c o n c e rn in g c o n v ic tio n s on le v e l ( a ), so cia l p o w e r r e la tio n s on le v e l (b ) a n d h u m an in t e g r i t y o n le v e l ( c ). 1.3 M ETHODOLOGICAL C O N S ID E R A T IO N S S o u th A fric a t r e a t e d a s a m icrocosm S o u th A fric a n s o c ie ty can b e d e s c r ib e d, a s m ost o th e r s o c ie tie s, a s a s y s te m of d if f e r e n tia te d a n d in s titu tio n a lis e d d is tr ib u tio n s of p o litic a l, econom ic a n d so c ia l p o te n tia ls w ith a h ig h le v e l o f b u ilt- in d is c r e p a n c ie s. D e te rm in a n ts in c lu d e : (a ) g e o g ra p h ic a l lo c a tio n, (b ) ra c ia l a n d e th n ic a ffilia tio n, (c ) c la s s a ffilia tio n, (d ) r u r a l - u r b a n g r a d i e n t, e tc. In th is r e s p e c t S o u th A fric a can b e c o n s id e r e d to b e a m icrocosm of th e g lo b a l s itu a tio n o f in e q u a lity. A t th e sam e tim e S o u th A fric a n s o c ie ty is c h a r a c te r is e d b y a m a rk e d p lu r if o r m ity o f p a t t e r n s o f c o lle c tiv e c o n v ic tio n s a n d m e n ta lity. D e te rm in a n ts in c lu d e : (a ) r e lig io u s tr a d itio n s, (b ) c u ltu r a l b a c k g r o u n d s, (c ) p e r c e p tio n s o f c o lle c tiv e i n t e r e s t s a n d so c ia l j u s tic e, (d ) e x p o s u r e to, o r iso la tio n fro m, o th e r g r o u p s a n d th e ir a lte r n a tiv e m in d s e ts, (e ) th e flow o f in fo rm a tio n a n d its d e lib e r a te m a n ip u la tio n b y p o w e rfu l g r o u p s, e tc. A gain S o u th A fric a can b e c o n s id e r e d to b e a m icrocosm o f w h a t o b ta in s in th e w o rld a s a w h o le. A lth o u g h th e th e s is th a t S o u th A fric a r e p r e s e n t s a m icrocosm of g lo b a l p ro b le m s in a c o n c e n tr a te d form s h o u ld n o t b e p r e s s e d a t th e e x p e n s e o f local p e c u lia r itie s, I a ssu m e th a t th e S o u th A fric a n c a se is illu m in e d b y th e w o rld s itu a tio n a s a w hole a n d 8

23 v ic e v e r s a. I g iv e m e th o d o lo g ic a l e x p r e s s io n to th is e x p e c ta tio n in th a t I p la c e th e S o u th A fric a n p e c u lia r itie s in to a b r o a d e r, m ore g e n e r a lis in g fra m e w o rk a s I p ro c e e d from s te p to s te p ( a ) A s y s te m s - a n a ly tic a l a p p ro a c h A s m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r, a s tu d y of th is n a t u r e can o n ly b e d o n e a p p r o p r ia te ly on an in te r d is c ip lin a r y b a s is. I n te r d is c ip lin a r y w o rk seem s to b e p r o f ita b le o n ly if th e d if f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s a n d d im e n sio n s a r e n o t a r b i tr a r i ly jo in e d to e a c h o th e r b u t in t e g r a t e d in a c o m p re h e n s iv e s y s te m s - th e o r e tic a l m odel o r p a ra d ig m w h ic h d e fin e s th e com plex r e la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n all r e le v a n t f a c to r s. T h e fu n d a m e n ta l aim o f th is s tu d y is to c o n tr ib u te to th e d e v e l o p m en t of s u c h a p a ra d ig m (C h e c k la n d ). T h e p a r t ic u l a r m e th o d o lo g ic a l d if f ic u lty in th is c a s e is th a t a p a ra d ig m h a s to b e d e v is e d w h ic h is v e r s a tile e n o u g h to com bine b o th " h a rd " (= q u a n tif ia b le ) a n d " s o ft" ( n o n - q u a n tif ia b le ) com pon e n ts o f th e s y s te m. E conom ic s t r u c t u r e s a r e an ex a m p le o f th e fo rm e r; p a t t e r n s o f c o n v ic tio n a r e an e x am p le o f th e l a t t e r. We p r o c e e d e d a s fo llo w s: (a ) C o n c e rn in g " h a r d " c o m p o n e n ts, v iz. econom ic s t r u c t u r e s, we c o n s tr u c te d g r a p h ic m o d els w h ic h we a tte m p t to s u b s ta n tia te w ith e m p iric a l (m ain ly s ta tis tic a l) d a ta. (b ) C o n c e r n in g " s o ft" c o m p o n e n ts, v iz. c o n v ic tio n s, we d re w u p a s e r ie s o f h y p o th e s e s w h ic h we a tte m p te d to c la r if y b y m e an s of e x a m p le s. We t h u s u s e d th e p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l m e th o d in a p a r t ic u l a r w a y. (c ) T h e e th ic a l e v a lu a tio n w as c o n d u c te d on th e b a s is o f th e o lo g ic a l-e th ic a l p o s tu la te s. 9

24 O b v io u s ly th e m e th o d s u tilis e d in (b ) a n d (c) a r e n o t e n tir e ly s a tis f a c to r y b e c a u s e th e y can o n ly le a d to p re lim in a ry r e s u l ts w h ic h n e e d e x te n s iv e f u r t h e r in v e s tig a tio n a n d m ay p ro v e to b e c o n te n tio u s on e v e r y le v e l o f o p e r a tio n. T o a c h ie v e e x h a u s tiv e d o c u m e n ta tio n in (b ) a n d fu ll th e o lo g ic a l a c c o u n ta b ility in (c ) w ould d e m a n d, h o w e v e r, a t le a s t tw o f u r t h e r v o lu m es a n d m uch m ore tim e th a n I h a d a t my d is p o s a l. T h e e m p h a s is o f th is c o n tr ib u tio n, t h e r e f o r e, d o e s n o t lie in th e p r e s e n ta tio n of e m p iric a l r e s e a r c h b u t in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a w o rk a b le p a ra d ig m fo r s u c h r e s e a r c h. S in ce th e m odel is th e o u tco m e o f a d e c a d e o f w o rk on so c io - s t r u c t u r a l a n d id e o lo g ic a l is s u e s in th e o lo g ic a l- e th ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e, th e a u th o r is c o n fid e n t th a t it w ill p ro v e to b e a u s e fu l p o in t o f d e p a r t u r e fo r f u r t h e r i n - d e p th in v e s tig a tio n s S o u rc e s S o u rc e s c o n s u lte d h a v e b e e n m ain ly l ite r a r y a lth o u g h I a lso d id a s u b s ta n tia l am o u n t o f o rig in a l w o rk in th e s ta tis tic a l fie ld. All d ir e c t s o u r c e s h a v e b e e n lis te d b u t it is q u ite im p o ssib le to g iv e a c c o u n t o f all th e r e a d in g o v e r th e y e a r s w h ic h h a s c o n tr ib u te d to th e p r e s e n t s ta g e in th e e v o lu tio n o f my th in k in g on th e is s u e s c o n c e r n e d. C o n c e r n in g r e p r e s e n t a t iv e n e s s a n d r e lia b ility o f th e s o u r c e s, I a s s u m e d th a t c r itic a l (a n d p a r tic u la r ly s e lf - c r itic a l) l it e r a t u r e is, in g e n e r a l, m ore a p t to r e v e a l u n b ia s e d t r u t h th a n its a p o lo g e tic a n d s e lf - ju s tif ic a to r y c o u n te r p a r t. 10

25 1.3.4 T h e e m p h a sis o n th e s t r u c t u r a l d im e n sio n It will o c c u r to th e r e a d e r th a t th e f i r s t p a r t o n econom ic p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s is m uch m ore e la b o r a te th a n s u b s e q u e n t p a r t s d e a lin g w ith c o n v ic tio n s a n d t h e ir r e la tio n s h ip w ith s t r u c t u r e s. V a rio u s c o n s id e r a tio n s le d to th is e m p h a s is. In th e f i r s t p la c e d is c i p lin e s in v e s tig a tin g th e s p ir itu a l a n d p e r s o n a l s id e s o f h u m a n e x is te n c e, in c lu d in g th e o lo g y, te n d to u n d e r e s tim a te th e im p o rta n c e of s o c ie ta l s t r u c t u r e s - e v e n fo r t h e i r ow n s p e c ific fie ld of i n t e r e s t. S e c o n d ly, so c ia l s c ie n c e s w h ic h d e a l w ith g ro u p r e l a tio n s, o fte n do n o t ta k e s u f f ic ie n t c o g n iz a n c e o f th e c ru c ia l d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n r e la tio n s b e tw e e n e q u a ls ( h o riz o n ta l r e la tio n s h ip s ) a n d th o s e b e tw e e n m ore p o w e rfu l a n d le s s p o w e rfu l p a r t n e r s ( v e r tic a l r e la t io n s h ip s ). T h a t is w h y th e k e y c o n c e p t in o u r s tu d y is th e d is tr ib u tio n of p o w e r o r p o te n tia l in th e p o p u la tio n. In th e t h i r d p la c e, eco n o m ics as a s c ie n c e h a s n o t s p e n t a g r e a t d eal of i ts e n e r g ie s on th e d e v e lo p m e n t of a c o m p re h e n s iv e p ic tu r e of econom ic p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s in S o u th A fric a. A p ro b le m w h ic h is n o t s e e n in i ts o v e ra ll d im e n s io n s, is u n lik e ly to b e ta c k le d w ith p a r t ic u l a r v ig o u r. B y s u g g e s tin g a s y s te m s - a n a ly tic a l a p p ro a c h to th e w hole i s s u e, w e t r y to b la z e a t r a il in th is r e g a r d. In c o n tr a s t, v a r io u s id e o lo g ic a l a n d r e lig io u s c o n v ic tio n s fo u n d in S o u th A fric a h a v e b e e n e x te n s iv e ly d e s c r ib e d a n d d o c u m e n te d. In a s tu d y w h ic h is s u p p o s e d to b e b r i e f, a d u p lic a tio n o f th is w o rk w o u ld b e o u t of p la c e L ev el o f s o p h is tic a tio n No c o m p lic a te d m a th e m a tic a l a n d s ta tis tic a l m e th o d s h a v e b e e n e m p lo y e d. My aim w as to m ake my c o n tr ib u tio n a c c e s s ib le to a n y 11

26 p e r s o n w ho e n jo y e d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n, i r r e s p e c tiv e of h is p a r tic u la r p r o f e s s io n a l q u a lif ic a tio n s. F o r th e g r e a t e r p a r t it claim s to b e b a s e d on p la in common s e n s e. 1.4 SUMMARY I d e fin e d th e aim of th e s tu d y a s fo llo w s: th e in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n econom ic p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s a n d p a t t e r n s of c o n v ic tio n in S o u th A fric a w as in v e s t i g a te d, a s y s te m s - a n a ly tic a l m odel w as to b e d e v e lo p e d fo r in te r d is c ip lin a r y s tu d ie s of t h is in te r a c tio n a n d th e r e s u l ts of th e in v e s tig a tio n s u b je c te d to a th e o lo g ic a l- e th ic a l c r itiq u e (1.1 ). E ach o f th e fo u r c o m p o n e n ts o f th e p ro b le m, v iz. s t r u c t u r e s, c o n v ic tio n s, in te r a c tio n a n d e th ic a l c r i t iq u e, w e re b r ie f ly c irc u m s c r ib e d a n d all a s s u m p tio n s w e re m ade e x p lic it ( 1.2 ). F in a lly m e th o d o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts w e re b r ie f ly d is c u s s e d : S o u th A fric a is ta k e n a s a m icro co sm, a s y s te m s - a n a ly tic a l a p p r o a c h is e m p lo y e d, th e n a t u r e of th e s o u r c e s u s e d, th e e m p h a sis on th e s t r u c t u r a l d im e n sio n of th e p ro b le m a n d th e le v e l of s o p h is tic a tio n w e re a c c o u n te d fo r ( 1.3 ). 12

27 PART I Economic power structures in South Africa

28 CHAPTER 2 Space-potency relations 2.1 THE AIM OF T H IS CH A PTER P a r t I a s a w hole is an a tte m p t to d e v e lo p a m odel o f econom ic p o w e r s t r u c t u r e s in S o u th A fric a. C h a p te r 2 d e a ls w ith th e f i r s t d im e n sio n of th is t a s k, v iz. an a n a ly s is o f th e s p r e a d of econom ic p o te n tia l o v e r g e o g ra p h ic a l s p a c e. We b e g in w ith a few g e n e r a l c h a r a c te r is tic s o f th e s o -c a lle d c e n t r e - p e r i p h e r y p h e n o m e n o n in g e o g ra p h ic a l te r m s. A f te r th a t we t u r n to th e S o u th A fric a n e x a m p le. In e a c h c a se we g iv e som e in d ic a tio n s o f th e r e a s o n s fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e d is c r e p a n c y in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f econom ic p o te n c y b e tw e e n g e o g ra p h ic a l r e g io n s. 2.2 THE C EN TRE-PERIPH ER Y PHENOMENON DESCRIBED T h e lin k b e tw e e n econom ic p o te n tia l a n d g e o g ra p h ic a l s p a c e h a s b e e n in v e s tig a te d fo r q u ite som e tim e b y eco n o m ic g e o g r a p h y. H e re th e b a s ic in s ig h t is th a t econom ic a c tiv ity a n d p o te n tia l te n d to g r a v ita te to w a rd s c e r ta in u r b a n com m ercial a n d in d u s tr ia l 15

29 c e n t r e s. T h e ir r e s p e c tiv e e n v ir o n m e n ts a r e r e n d e r e d p e r ip h e r a l in te rm s of econom ic p o te n tia l a n d a c tiv ity. T h is in s ig h t is e x p r e s s e d in th e s o -c a lle d c e n t r e - p e r i p h e r y (o r c o r e - p e r ip h e r y ) m odel. H e in ric h v o n T h iin e n 's w o rk (1826) seem s to h a v e b e e n se m in a l. It w as follow ed b y A lfre d W eber (1922) a n d W alter C h r is ta lle r (1933) a n d th e n b y m any o th e r s. T h e m odel d re w th e a tte n tio n o f r a d ic l r a t h e r th a n lib e ra l eco n o m ic s, w h e re it is w id e ly u s e d to d a y ( e. g. S e n g h a a s ). B u t it is also u tilis e d b y W e ste rn m a in lin e so cio lo g y ( e. g. B e h r e n d t 1965) a n d v a r io u s o th e r d is c ip lin e s. (R e fe r to Sm ith 1977, Sm it 1981, A n zu ck 1982). T h e d is c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n c o re a n d p e r i p h e r y is a u n iv e r s a l p h e n o m e n o n. It can b e s tu d ie d on th e b a s is o f: (a ) T h e w o rld a s a w h o le: th e USA c o n s titu te s th e econom ic c e n tr e in g lo b a l d im e n sio n s w ith W e ste rn E u ro p e a n d J a p a n th e m ain s u b c e n tr e s. T h e S o v ie t U nion a n d its s a te llite s c o n s titu te a sm a lle r s y s te m w h ic h is p a r tly d e p e n d e n t on a n d p a r t ly in c o m p e titio n w ith th e W e ste rn s y s te m. (b ) A w hole c o n tin e n t s u c h a s E u ro p e : th e econom ic c e n tr e of E u ro p e s tr e tc h e s from s o u th e r n S c a n d in a v ia to n o r th e r n Ita ly a n d fro m e a s te r n F r a n c e to w e s te r n P o la n d. All a ro u n d th is co m p lex we fin d le s s d e v e lo p e d a r e a s ; n o r th e r n S c a n d in a v ia, S c o tla n d, I r e la n d, P o r tu g a l, s o u th e r n I ta ly, G re e c e, T u r k e y, B u lg a r ia, e tc. T h e in d u s tr ia l c o re s tr e tc h e s from B irm in g h am a lo n g th e R h in e v a lle y to Milan w ith m ajo r s u b c e n tr e s in P a r is, H a m b u rg, B e r lin, e tc. (c) A la r g e c o u n tr y s u c h a s B ra z il: th e econom ic c e n tr e of B ra z il is lo c a te d in th e tr ia n g le Sao P a u lo -R io d e J a n e ir o - B elo H o riz o n te w ith R e c ife a n d P o rto A lle g re a s th e m ain s u b c e n tr e s. (d ) A sm all c o u n tr y s u c h a s S w a z ila n d ; th e econom ic c e n tr e is s itu a te d in th e a r e a c o m p ris in g M babane a n d M an zin i. (e ) An u r b a n com plex s u c h a s th e W itw a te rs ra n d w h e re th e econom ic c e n tr e is th e J o h a n n e s b u r g CBD w ith a s e r ie s of s u b c e n tr e s s c a t te r e d f u r t h e r a fie ld (s e e f ig u r e 8 a ). 16

30 METROPOLIS COLONY Figure 1 A co lonial e m p ire c o n s titu te s a s y ste m o f a d o m in a n t a n d a n u m b e r of d e p e n d e n t c e n tr e s a n d t h e ir r e s p e c tiv e p e r i p h e r ie s. T h e in te r a c tio n n e tw o r k (c o m m u n ic a tio n s, t r a n s p o r t ) is g e a r e d to th e d o m in a n t c e n t r e. "A ll r o a d s le a d to R om e!" T h a t is th e re a s o n w h y co lonial c e n tr e s (N ew Y o rk, Rio de J a n e ir o, L a g o s, C a p e T ow n) te n d e d to d e v e lo p on th e c o a s t n e a r e s t to th e main h a r b o u r of th e co lonial p o w e r ( f ig u r e 1 ). B a sic a lly th e y w e re a d m in is tra tiv e a n d tr a d in g c e n tr e s a n d th e in la n d w as "o p e n e d " in a ra d ia l fa sh io n from th e s e p o in ts. T h e r e is a s tr o n g p r im a r y c o rre la tio n b e tw e e n th e econom ic p o te n tia l a n d a c tiv ity o f c e r ta in g r o u p s a n d t h e ir g e o g ra p h ic a l 17

31 d is ta n c e to th e c o re : th e n e a r e r a g ro u p is s itu a te d to th e c o r e, th e h ig h e r its p r o d u c tiv ity a n d in c o m e. A s e c o n d a r y d e v e lo p m e n t is ab le to r e v e r s e th is t r e n d : im p o v e ris h e d p e r ip h e r a l p o p u la tio n g r o u p s m ove to in n e r c ity a r e a s w h ic h r a p id ly d e te r io r a te w hile th e a f f lu e n t c e n tr e p o p u la tio n m oves in to th e s u r r o u n d in g s u b u r b s. T h e l a t t e r m ay e v e n a c q u ir e a b a n d o n e d o r n e g le c te d r u r a l a r e a s a n d d e v e lo p them w ith s u p e r io r te c h n o lo g y a n d a h ig h le v e l o f c a p ita l in v e s tm e n t in to v ia b le, so m etim es lu c r a tiv e u n d e r ta k in g s. T h e so cio -e co n o m ic d is c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n c e n tr e a n d p e r ip h e r y is an a ll- in c lu s iv e p h e n o m e n o n a n d h a s m u lti-d im e n s io n a l c h a r a c te r is tic s. E co n om ically c e n tr e s a r e c h a r a c te r is e d b y a c o n c e n tra tio n of in d ic a to r s o f econom ic p o te n c y s u c h a s : (a ) A h ig h ly d if f e r e n tia te d a n d i n te g r a te d econom y w ith s tr o n g lin k a g e s b e tw e e n a la r g e v a r ie ty o f s p e c ia lis e d a n d co m p lem e n ta ry i n d u s t r ie s. (b ) C a p ita l a c c u m u la tio n a n d r e s u l ta n t la b o u r p r o d u c tiv ity. (c ) A d e v e lo p e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e, s u c h a s co m m u n icatio n s a n d t r a n s p o r t n e tw o r k s, w a te r a n d e n e r g y s u p p lie s e tc. (d ) A h ig h le v e l o f te c h n o lo g ic a l s o p h is tic a tio n, e x p e r t is e, tr a in in g a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l in itia tiv e. (e) F ie rc e ly c o m p e titiv e m a rk e ts fo r s k ills, la b o u r, g o o d s a n d s e r v i c e s. (f) A h ig h v e lo c ity o f all so c io -e c o n o m ic p r o c e s s e s. (g ) S tro n g p o p u la tio n c o n c e n tr a tio n s le a d in g to flo u r is h in g c o n s u m e r m a r k e ts. (h ) A h ig h m a te ria l s ta n d a r d of liv in g. P e r ip h e r a l e c o n o m ie s, in c o n tr a s t, a r e c h a r a c te r is e d b y a th in s p r e a d o f in d ic a to r s o f econom ic p o te n tia l: (a ) S u b s is te n c e a g r ic u ltu r a l p r o d u c tio n, o r c o n c e n tr a tio n on one i n d u s t r y, e v e n o n e p r o d u c t. (b ) A low le v e l of c a p ita l in v e s tm e n t a n d low la b o u r p r o d u c tiv ity. (c ) A p o o rly d e v e lo p e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e. (d ) L ittle s o p h is tic a tio n, e x p e r t is e, tr a in in g a n d r i s k - ta k i n g i n i t i a tiv e. (e) L ittle c o m p e titio n. (f) A r e la x e d p a c e in all so c io -e co n o m ic p r o c e s s e s. (g ) Low m a te ria l s ta n d a r d s of liv in g. (h ) P o p u la tio n s s p r e a d o v e r v a s t a r e a s w ith o n ly r u d im e n ta r y local m a rk e t fo rm a tio n. 18

32 T h e d if fe re n c e can b e o b s e r v e d e q u a lly w e ll, h o w e v e r, in o th e r d im e n sio n s of life. In th e c e n t r e, so cia l o rg a n iz a tio n m a te ria lis e s on a l a r g e r a n d m ore s o p h is tic a te d s c a le ; c u ltu r a l a c tiv itie s a re m ore v a r ie d a n d r e a c h h ig h e r s ta n d a r d s ; p o litic a l a c tiv ity is m ore p r o g r e s s iv e ; fam ilies a r e r e d u c e d to th e b a s ic u n it of p a r e n t a n d c h ild r e n ; i n te r g r o u p r e la tio n s a r e s e g m e n ta r y a n d v e r s a tile ; th e g ro w n r e la tio n s h ip s of tr ib a l s o c ie ty h a v e m ade w ay fo r s u p e r f ic ia l a n d c a s u a l v o lu n ta r y a s s o c ia tio n s ; s ta tu s a n d ro le a r e a c h ie v e d r a t h e r th a n a s c r ib e d ; r e la tio n s te n d to b e im p e rso n a l a n d f u n c tio n a l r a t h e r th a n h o lis tic a n d e x is te n tia l; tim e is e x p e r ie n c e d as a s c a r c e r e s o u r c e ; s y s te m s o f m e a n in g, v a lu e s, n o rm s, re lig io u s c o n v ic tio n s, e tc. te n d to b e m ore s e c u la r, p lu r a lis tic a n d r e l a t iv e, e tc. C a u s e s o f th is p h e n o m e n o n in c lu d e, in te r aka (A n z u c k 1982): (a ) H isto ric a l a d v a n ta g e s o f som e lo c a litie s o v e r o t h e r s, e. g. m in e ra l d e p o s its, tr a d e r o u te in t e r s e c tio n s, c o a s ta l o u tle ts, a d m in is tr a tiv e c a p ita ls, r ic h s o ils, e tc. (b ) E conom ies o f s p a c e a n d d is ta n c e, e. g. p ro x im ity to a b u n d a n t s u p p lie s of th e m ain f a c to r s of p r o d u c tio n, co m p lem e n ta ry i n d u s t r i e s, s e r v i c e s, m a rk e ts a n d a w e ll-d e v e lo p e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e. (c ) T h e s u b s e q u e n t g e n e r a tio n of a c u m u la tiv e so c io -e co n o m ic d y n a m ic, so m etim es c a lle d th e a g g lo m e ra tio n e f f e c t, w h ic h s u c k s th e p o te n tia l o f its e n v ir o n m e n t in to its v o r te x a n d p r e v e n ts th e fo rm a tio n o f c o m p e tin g c e n tr e s in th e v ic in ity, e v e n a t p la c e s w h ic h w o u ld o th e r w is e p o s s e s s a p o te n tia l fo r c e n tr e fo rm a tio n. (d ) T h e u s e o f eco n o m ic, p o litic a l a n d m ilita ry p o w e r b y c e n tr e e lite s to s tr e n g t h e n t h e ir c o m p e titiv e o r d o m in a n t p o sitio n a t th e e x p e n s e o f w e a k e r g r o u p s a n d a r e a s. T h u s th e in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n la r g e r a n d sm a lle r c e n t r e s, a s w ell as b e tw e e n c e n tr e s a n d t h e ir r e s p e c tiv e p e r i p h e r ie s, te n d s to o p e ra te to th e g r e a t e r a d v a n ta g e of th e s tr o n g a n d th e l e s s e r a d v a n ta g e (o r th e d is a d v a n ta g e ) o f th e w e a k. P o te n tia l d o e s n o t b a la n c e o u t; it g r a v ita te s to w a rd s p la c e s w h e re it is a lr e a d y 19

33 c o n c e n tr a te d. T h e p h y s ic a l m odel to b e a p p lie d h e r e is n o t th a t of c o m m u n icatin g t u b e s, b u t o f th e p a ra lle lo g ra m o f fo rc e s (M y rd a l 1957). C e n tr e s o f c o m p a ra b le s t r e n g t h co m p ete w ith e a c h o th e r ; y e t th e y also te n d to b ecom e i n te g r a te d in an e v e r m ore co m p lic a te d n e tw o rk o f in te r a c tio n, in te r d e p e n d e n c e a n d d iv isio n of la b o u r. W eaker c e n t r e s, in c o n tr a s t, te n d to becom e s a te llite s of s tr o n g e r c e n t r e s. T h e o u tco m e is a h ie r a r c h y o f c e n tr e s of d e c lin in g im p o rta n c e w h ic h s tr e tc h e s its te n ta c le s in to th e re m o te s t v illa g e s o f th e p e r i p h e r y. T h u s th e d e n s ity o f econom ic in te r a c tio n d e c r e a s e s dow n th e follo w in g lis t: (a ) i n tr a - c o r e (b ) i n t e r - c o r e (c ) c o r e - p e r ip h e r y (d ) p e r i p h e r y - p e r ip h e r y. T h e n e tw o r k o f c o m m u n ic a tio n, t r a n s p o r t a n d tr a d e th e r e f o r e follow s a ra d ia l p a t te r n w ith s tr o n g lin k s b e tw e e n th e com m a n d in g c e n tr e a n d i ts d e p e n d e n c ie s b u t v e r y little in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n th e l a t t e r ( f ig u r e 2 ). All in te r c o u r s e r u n s v ia th e co m m an d in g c e n tr e (G a ltu n g 1971: 8 9 f f ) : T h is d o e s n o t m e a n, h o w e v e r, th a t s u c h c o n c e n tr a tio n s of econom ic a c tiv ity a n d p o te n tia l c a n n o t s h if t in g e o g ra p h ic a l s p a c e o v e r h is to r ic a l tim e. In th e e a r ly p h a s e s o f com m ercial c a p ita lism th e c e n tr e o f g r a v ity s h if te d from N o rth I ta ly (V e n ic e, M ilan, G e n o a, F lo re n c e ) to th e Low C o u n tr ie s (A n tw e rp a n d A m s te r d a m ). T h e I n d u s tr ia l R e v o lu tio n a n d th e E m p ire m ade E n g la n d th e econom ic c e n tr e o f th e w o rld u n til W orld War II b r o u g h t its r a p id d e c lin e in f a v o u r o f c e n tr a l E u ro p e. E u ro p e a s a w hole lo st its lead in g p o sitio n in th e w orld to th e USA (W ilson 1974). 20

34 F igure 2 D e p e n d e n t c e n tr e s a r e p a r tic u la r ly p ro n e to r a p id g r o w th, d e c lin e a n d p o s s ib le c o lla p s e. In B ra z il a th r iv in g c e n tr e on th e n o r th - e a s te r n c o a s t (R e c ife, S a lv a d o r) c o lla p s e d to g e th e r w ith th e w o rld s u g a r m a rk e t in th e 1650s le a v in g an a r e a of e x tre m e p o v e r ty e v e r a f t e r. Sao P a u lo a n d v ic in ity e m e rg e d a s th e new c e n tr e of th e c o u n tr y d u r in g th e la s t c e n tu r y on th e b a s is o f c o ffe e, a n d l a t e r, s e c o n d a r y i n d u s t r y. 21

35 2.3 THE SOUTH AFK1CAIN UAbL T h e o v e ra ll c e n t r e - p e r i p h e r y s t r u c t u r e In S o u th A fric a th e P r e to r ia - W itw a te r s r a n d - V e r e e n ig in g com plex (PW V ), w ith J o h a n n e s b u r g a s its c o r e, fo rm s th e com m anding c e n tr e w ith th e C a p e P e n in s u la a n d D u rb a n -P in e to w n tw o m ajor s u b c e n tr e s ( f ig u r e 3 ). P o rt E liz a b e th, E a st L o n d o n, B loem f o n te in, K im b e rle y a n d th e O FS g o ld fie ld s a r e le s s e r s u b c e n t r e s. T h e s y ste m s tr e tc h e s dow n to th e sm all r u r a l v illa g e s o f th e p e r i p h e r y. In p a s s in g we m ay m e n tio n th a t th e S o u th A fric a n c e n tr e is a s u b c e n tr e o f th e w o rld econom ic s y ste m d o m in a te d b y th e m e tro p - o le s in th e U SA, E u ro p e a n d J a p a n, th o u g h it is le s s d e p e n d e n t on e x te r n a l c a p ita l a n d c o n tro l th a n in c o m p a ra b le sem i- in d u s tr ia lis e d c o u n tr ie s s u c h a s B r a z il. We c a n n o t go in to th e s e in te r n a tio n a l c o n n e c tio n s ( c f. E h r e n s a f t ). C a p e T ow n d e v e lo p e d a s co lo n ial h a r b o u r a n d a d m in is tra tiv e c a p ita l o f th e C a p e C o lo n y. It w as o v e rs h a d o w e d b y J o h a n n e s b u r g b e c a u s e o f th e r ic h m in e ra l d e p o s its t h e r e, p a r tic u la r ly g o ld. P r e to r ia c o n tr ib u te d to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e PWV co m p lex a s a d m in is tr a tiv e c a p ita l of u n ite d S o u th A fric a. T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f com m erce a n d s e c o n d a r y i n d u s t r y fo llo w ed s u it - p a r tic u la r ly d u r in g a n d a f te r W orld War I I. D u rb a n b e g a n as co lonial h a r b o u r a n d a d m in is tra tiv e c a p ita l o f N a ta l, th e n becam e th e m ain c o a s ta l o u tle t fo r th e PWV co m p lex a n d s u b s e q u e n tly a t t r a c t e d c o n s id e ra b le com m e rcial i n t e r e s t s a n d s e c o n d a r y in d u s t r ie s (S ee f ig u r e 4) It is r e m a rk a b le th a t th e g o ld fie ld s o f th e O ra n g e F re e S ta te d id n o t d e v e lo p in to a n o th e r W itw a te rs ra n d. O ne re a s o n m u st b e 22

36 th e v ic in ity o f th e v ir u le n t m e tro p o lis o f J o h a n n e s b u r g. A n o th e r m ay b e th e a p p lic a tio n o f in f lu x c o n tr o l w h ic h p r e v e n te d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a p e rm a n e n t B lack u r b a n p o p u la tio n in th is r e g io n. T h e p h e n o m e n o n th a t a p o te n tia l c e n tr e c a n n o t e a s ily e s ta b lis h its e lf a g a in s t th e c o m p e titio n o f a s tr o n g e x is tin g c e n tr e le a v e s little h o p e fo r n ew c e n tr e s in 'B la c k S ta te s ' to g ro w to re a l econom ic s ig n if ic a n c e. Johanne sburg j1. Durban Figure 3 Gross dom estic product per square m ile in South A frica (Compiled by J B row ett. Source: Smith :20.) 23

37 Figure 4 White pop u lation d en sity as in d ic a to r o f the s h i f t o f the SA cen tre from the Cape to the W itwatersrand. Source: Adapted from Browett and F air 1974: 115. Econom ic a c tiv ity s p r e a d s in a r a d ia l fa s h io n from th e g r e a t c e n tr e s in to t h e ir r e s p e c tiv e p e r ip h e r ie s. A d e fin ite r a d ia l h ie r a r c h y o f c e n tr e s o f v a r y in g d e g r e e s o f d e p e n d e n c y d e v e lo p e d o v e r th e d e c a d e s. M ost p ro m in e n t is th e d e v e lo p m e n t alo n g th e m ain lin e s o f co m m u n ica tio n a n d t r a n s p o r t, p a r tic u la r ly b e tw e e n th e g r e a t e r c e n t r e s. While th e l a t t e r a r e h ig h ly i n t e g r a t e d, c o m m u n ic a tio n s b e tw e e n th e v a r io u s p e r ip h e r ie s a r e e ith e r a b s e n t o r th e y r u n v ia t h e ir r e s p e c tiv e c e n t r e s. T h e f u r t h e r one m o v es in to th e p e r i p h e r y, th e m ore is o la te d to w n s, v illa g e s a n d c o m m u n ities b e c o m e. T h e "N a tio n a l P h y s ic a l D e v e lo p m e n t P lan " o f 1975 ( f ig u r e 5) d o e s n o t seem to c o u n te r a c t th e g e n e ra l p a t te r n o f ra d ia l d e v e lo p m e n t, n o r d o e s th e "G ood H ope P la n " of 1981 (fig u re 9) (S o u th A frica 1975; De V illiers 1981) A re a s r e s e r v e d fo r B la c k s T h e r u r a l p e r ip h e r y is s p lit in to tw o u n e q u a l s e ts o f r e g io n s, th e W hite fa rm in g a r e a w h ic h s p r e a d s a c r o s s th e w hole c o u n tr y a n d th e p o c k e ts o f la n d r e s e r v e d fo r B lack o c c u p a tio n w h ic h form " b la c k s p e c k s on th e w h ite b a c k g r o u n d ". S m alle r p a tc h e s o f la n d tr a d itio n a lly o w n ed b y B la c k s h a v e b e e n d is s o lv e d a n d th e ir o c c u p a n ts h a v e b e e n r e s e t t le d on la n d a d ja c e n t to g r e a t e r b lo c s o f la n d o c c u p ie d b y B la c k s. T h is p o lic y o f "B la c k s p o t 24

38 rem o v a l" a n d " c o n so lid a tio n " is s till in p r o g r e s s (C o o p e r 1984: ). L a rg e n u m b e rs o f " r e d u n d a n t" B la c k s in W hite u r b a n a r e a s a n d " s q u a tte r s " on W h ite-o w n ed fa rm s h a v e b e e n r e s e t t le d in th e r u r a l a r e a s r e s e r v e d fo r B la c k s. T h e p o p u la tio n d e n s ity in th e l a t te r h a s in c r e a s e d d ra m a tic a lly a s a r e s u l t o f th e s e p o lic ie s as w ell a s n a tu r a l p o p u la tio n g ro w th o v e r th e la s t 25 y e a r s (S im k in s 1979: 2 0 ). T h e fo llo w in g s ta tis tic s d e m o n s tra te th e s e s h if ts in th e b la c k p o p u la tio n : D om estic A fric a n s in v a r io u s a r e a s in S o u th A fric a a c c o rd in g to Sim kins (1983: 58): M etropolitan areas 25,4% 26,7% White rural areas 35,1% 20,6% Black areas 40,9% 53,1% T h e r a d ia l lin e s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d d e v e lo p m e n t n e a tly a v o id th e g e o g ra p h ic a l a r e a s r e s e r v e d fo r B la c k s e x c e p t w h e re th e l a t t e r a r e in fa c t p a r t o f th e m e tro p o lita l r e g io n s ( e. g. n o r th of D u rb a n a n d n o r th of P r e to r i a ). W here th e s e lin e s do n o t c i r c u m v e n t B la c k a r e a s, th e y form " c o r r id o r s " of W h ite -o w n e d la n d th r o u g h th e m (s e e f ig u r e 9 fo r th e c o u n tr y a s a w hole a n d f ig u r e s 6 a n d 7 fo r a m ore d e ta ile d e x a m p le ). In te rm s of so cio -e co n o m ic p o te n tia l th e a r e a s r e s e r v e d fo r B la c k s, t h e r e f o r e, form th e o u te r p e r i p h e r y in th e to ta l s p a tia l s t r u c t u r e. T h is p a t te r n is o n ly r e n d e r e d in c o n s is te n t b y th e s e m i-a r id c o n d itio n s in th e w e s te r n p a r t s o f th e c o u n tr y. 25

39 Figure 5 N ational P hysical Development Plan 1975 o f the Department o f Planning and Environment - Republic of South A frica 26

40 27

41 T h e r u r a l la n d a r e a r e s e r v e d fo r B la c k s h a s lo n g c e a s e d to s u p p ly th e local B lack p o p u la tio n w ith a m ean s o f liv e lih o o d on th e b a s is o f tra d itio n a l s u b s is te n c e a g r ic u ltu r e (M oller 1982). T h e c a r r y in g c a p a c ity of th e s e la n d s h a s a c tu a lly d e te r io r a te d r a p id ly a s a r e s u l t o f p o p u la tio n p r e s s u r e, so il e r o s io n, o v e r - g ra z in g a n d o b so le te fa rm in g m e th o d s. F ood p r o d u c tio n h o v e r e d a ro u n d 45% o f s u b s is te n c e n e e d s in th e n in e te n - tw e n tie s a n d re m a in e d t h e r e u n til r e s e ttle m e n t b e g a n in e a r n e s t in From th e n it d r o p p e d to u n d e r 20% in 1970 a s p o p u la tio n d e n s ity in c r e a s e d (S im k in s :1 2 ). E ffo rts b y th e G o v e rn m e n t to a r r e s t th is d e te r io r a tio n a n d e n h a n c e p r o d u c tiv ity a r e u n a b le to k e e p p a c e w ith p o p u la tio n g r o w th. N ew com ers a re b e in g c o n c e n tr a te d in " c lo s e r s e t tle m e n ts" a n d r u r a l v illa g e s (S m it :4 ). In th e a b s e n c e o f a g r ic u ltu r a l o r in d u s tr ia l e m p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n itie s th e s e g r o u p s a r e e n tir e ly d e p e n d e n t on m ig ra n t la b o u r in th e W hite r u r a l a n d u r b a n a r e a s. T h e B la c k a r e a s c o n s is te n tly c o n tr ib u te o n ly 2-3% to th e S o u th A fric a n g r o s s d o m e stic p r o d u c t (B EN B O :6 9, ta b le B.7.1 ). B la c k 'n a tio n a l g o v e rn m e n ts ' c o n tr o lle d 8% of e x p e n d itu r e on p u b lic s e r v ic e s a n d r e c e iv e d 2.7% o f r e v e n u e from ow n s o u r c e s in 1978/9 (L o m b a rd 1980b: f i g. 9 ). S m all, d e p e n d e n t s u b c e n tr e s in B lack a r e a s (U lu n d i, M m abatho, L ebow akgom o e t c. ) a r e a r tif ic ia l c r e a tio n s w h ic h a r e to ta lly d e p e n d e n t on g r a n t s from P r e to r ia. If th e p o lic y o f c r e a tin g "B la c k S ta te s " w as to b e a b o lis h e d, th e y w o u ld p r o b a b ly co l la p s e. M any o f th e u r b a n c o n c e n tr a tio n s a n d r u r a l v illa g e s e s ta b lis h e d in B la c k a r e a s in r e c e n t y e a r s w ould p ro b a b ly d e v e lo p in to g h o s t to w n s in s u c h a n e v e n tu a lity b e c a u s e th e y la c k a n econom ic b a s e. 28

42 2.3.3 T h e u r b a n c e n tr e s D ue to th e " p u s h " of in c r e a s in g p o p u la tio n p r e s s u r e in B lack a re a s a n d th e "p u ll" of a c c e le r a tin g in d u s tr ia l d e v e lo p m e n t in th e W hite u r b a n c e n tr e s d u r in g th e p a s t h a lf c e n tu r y o r s o, th e r e h a s b e e n a g ro w in g in flu x o f B la c k s in to th e l a t te r ( N a ttr a s s 1983b: 5 ff; Sm it 1981: 17f; W ilson 1972: 1 4 4ff). B la c k to w n s h ip s w e re soon s e v e r e ly o v e rc ro w d e d a n d in fo rm a l s e ttle m e n ts s p r u n g u p on th e o u ts k i r ts o f to w n s all o v e r th e c o u n tr y (S m it 1981: 2 1 ff). W ith th e e x p a n s io n of W hite to w n s a n d th e p ro m u lg a tio n of " g ro u p a re a s " p o lic ie s, th e B lack u r b a n p o p u la tio n w as m oved to h ig h d e n s ity to w n s h ip s a t a c o n v e n ie n t d is ta n c e from W hite u r b a n a r e a s (S m it 1981: 73f f ; B e av o n ). T h e s e to w n s h ip s a r e p e r ip h e r a l in r e la tio n to th e econom ic a c tiv ity of th e u r b a n c e n tr e s c o n c e r n e d, p u r e 'd o rm ito ry to w n s ' w ith in a d e q u a te i n f r a s t r u c t u r e, s e r v ic e s, com m ercial o u tle ts a n d ta x a b le in c o m e. T h is h a s to b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t w h en th in k in g of th e d e v o lu tio n of p o w e r to local a u th o r itie s w h ic h h a s now b ecom e g o v e rn m e n t p o lic y. In a sim ila r m ove In d ia n t r a d e r s w ho h a d s e ttle d in in n e r c ity a r e a s as w ell a s p e r s o n s of m ix ed ra c e w e re r e s e t t le d o u t of tow n (M a a sd o rp 1977). T h e G ro u p A re a s A ct N o. 41 o f 1950 (a s a m e n d e d a n d c o n s o lid a te d ) d e fin e s a r e a s fo r o c c u p a tio n in p ro c la im e d u r b a n a r e a s b y th e f o u r m ajor ra c e g r o u p s. T h e a r e a r e s e r v e d fo r W hite o c c u p a tio n in v a r ia b ly in c lu d e s th e eco n o m ically p o te n t c e n tr e s o f econom ic a c tiv ity a s w ell a s la v is h s u b u r b a n s p ra w ls w hile o th e r 29

43 F igure 8a B lack, Coloured and Asian Townships in the PWV Area, (adapted from Smit 1981: 76) 30

44 Northmi Solaris F igures 8b and 8c Soatltcm Setota Un.ni Sibnrtn D istrib u tion of Blacks (top ) and Whites (Bottom) in greater Johannesburg in (taken from P.H. P irie in Smith 1976b:89-90) 31

45 COu u *4-1 < MIGRANTS -ILLEGAL (Source: M uller 198^:5) 32

46 ra c e g r o u p s a r e s e ttle d in n a rro w ly d e lin e a te d a n d r e s t r i c te d " g h e tto s " (S ee f ig u r e 8a fo r th e P W V -area a n d f ig u r e s 8b a n d 8c fo r a v is u a l im p re s s io n of th e d if f e r e n t lo c a tio n s a n d d e n s itie s of th e tw o m ain ra c e g r o u p s in J o h a n n e s b u r g.). A t th e sam e tim e th e in flu x o f B la c k s in to W hite u r b a n a r e a s h a s b e e n s u b je c te d to d ra c o n ic c o n tr o ls. L a b o u r n e e d s o f th e c e n tr e s w e re in c r e a s in g ly m et b y m ig ra n t la b o u r e r s r e s id in g in h o s te ls a d ja c e n t to B lack to w n s h ip s w hile t h e ir fam ilies re m a in e d e ith e r in t h e ir r u r a l hom es o r w e re r e s e t t le d in q u a s i- u r b a n c o n c e n tr a tio n s in th e r u r a l a r e a s r e s e r v e d fo r B la c k o c c u p a tio n. T h e s e p o p u la tio n g r o u p s a r e eco n o m ically p a r t o f th e u r b a n c e n tr e s b u t s o c ia lly th e y a r e s t r a n g e r s is o la te d from th e r e s t o f th e u r b a n p o p u la tio n (E ra s m u s 1977a: 2 9 ff). In th e v ic in ity o f W hite u r b a n c e n tr e s b u t in s id e th e r u r a l a r e a s r e s e r v e d fo r B la c k s la rg e c o n c e n tr a tio n s o f B la c k in fo rm a l s e t tle m e n ts (slu m s) cam e in to b e in g. W hile le g a lly th e y form p a r t o f th e "B la c k S ta te s " th e y a re e co n o m ically in te g r a l p a r t s o f th e u r b a n - i n d u s tr ia l c e n t r e s. T h e ir i n h a b ita n ts a r e com m u tin g to a n d from tow n on a d a ily o r w e e k ly b a s is. T h e d e fa c to p o p u la tio n of B o p h u th a ts w a n a, fo r in s ta n c e, is c o n c e n tr a te d on th e b o r d e r s of th e B la c k a r e a s a d jo in in g th e P r e to r i a - B r i ts - R u s t e n b u r g d e v e lo p m e n t a x is a n d alm o st 50% liv e w ith in a r a d iu s o f 50 km from P r e to r ia (S m it 1981: ). S im ilar c o n c e n tr a tio n s can b e fo u n d in K w a -N d e b e le n e a r P r e to r ia, in U m lazi a n d Kwa M ashu n e a r D u rb a n a n d in M d a n tsa n e n e a r E a s t L o n d o n. F ig u re 8 d, ta k e n from M uller (1984: 5) g iv e s a good in d ic a tio n of s ta te c o n tro lle d s e ttle m e n t, im m ig ra tio n a n d com m u tin g p a t t e r n s o f B la c k s in S o u th A fric a. 33

47 D ue to th e " p u s h " ot econom ic p r e s s u r e s in rsiack r u r a l a r e a s a n d th e "p u ll" of th e u r b a n - i n d u s tr ia l c e n tr e s th e in f lu x of B la c k s in to th e c itie s is a c c e le r a tin g in s p ite o f e v e r tig h te n in g b u r e a u c r a tic a n d p o lice c o n tr o ls. It is e s tim a te d t h a t, b y th e y e a r 2000, 23 m illion B la c k s w ill h a v e b e e n u r b a n is e d in som e w ay o r a n o th e r (C o o p e r 1984: ). V a rio u s a v e n u e s p r e s e n t th e m s e lv e s : (a ) D o rm ito ry to w n s in B lack r u r a l a r e a s w h ic h d e p e n d on m ig ra n t la b o u r. (b ) S ite a n d s e r v ic e sc h e m e s fo r B la c k s w ith u r b a n r i g h t s in W hite to w n s. (c ) In fo rm a l s e ttle m e n ts (slu m s) in B lack r u r a l a r e a s n e a r e s t to th e u r b a n c e n t r e s. (d ) Ille g a l in f iltr a tio n in to W hite u r b a n a r e a s a n d th e concom i t a n t fo rm a tio n o f slu m s a n d h ig h d e n s ity liv in g in e x is tin g h o u s e s in B lack to w n s h ip s. All th e s e a v e n u e s a n d m any m ore - w ill b e fo llo w ed D e c e n tra lis a tio n F o r q u ite som e tim e d e c e n tr a lis a tio n p o lic ie s o f th e S o u th A fric a n G o v e rn m e n t w e re b a s e d on id e o lo g ic a l c o n s id e r a tio n s. B la c k s w e re to b e d ra w n b a c k o r p u s h e d b a c k from W hite a r e a s to B lack a r e a s. W hite p r iv a te in itia tiv e w as n o t to b e allow ed w ith in th e B lack a r e a s. G o v e rn m e n t a g e n c ie s c o n d u c te d r u r a l s ta b ilis a tio n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t sc h e m e s a s w ell a s sm all sc a le com m ercial a n d i n d u s tr ia l p r o je c ts. W hite e n t r e p r e n e u r s w e re e n c o u ra g e d to m ove clo se to th e b o r d e r s o f B la c k a r e a s to ta k e a d v a n ta g e of an a b u n d a n c e o f B la c k co m m u te r la b o u r. B lack la b o u r s u p p ly in W hite r u r a l a r e a s w as d r a s tic a lly r e d u c e d th r o u g h th e a b o litio n o f th e s q u a t t e r s y ste m a n d s tr ic t l y c o n tr o lle d in W hite u r b a n a r e a s th r o u g h in f lu x c o n tr o l. 34

48 T h is p o lic y le d to a r e la tiv e r e d u c tio n of th e B lack p o p u la tio n in W hite r u r a l a r e a s a n d a g r e a t e r c o n c e n tra tio n o f B la c k s in B lack a r e a s (c f b e lo w ). B lack a r e a s a n d b o r d e r in d u s tr ia l a r e a s d id n o t d e v e lo p in a n y m e a n in g fu l w a y, e x c e p t w h e re th e l a t t e r w e re n a tu r a l e x te n s io n s o f e x is tin g u r b a n c o n c e n tr a tio n s s u c h a s R o ssly n n e a r P r e to r ia. B y th e e n d of th e s e v e n tie s it b ecam e c le a r to A f r ik a n e r a c a d e m ic s a n d p o lic y -m a k e rs th a t th e id e o lo g ical o b je c tiv e s w e re u n r e a lis tic a n d a m ore p ra g m a tic a p p ro a c h w as a d o p te d (S m it 1981: ). U rb a n B la c k s w e re now c o n s id e r e d to b e p e rm a n e n t r e s i d e n ts in W hite a r e a s a n d a m ore lib e r a l p o lic y to w a rd s them e m e rg e d (th e r i g h t to b u ild a n d ow n h o u s e s, tr a d e u n io n r i g h t s, b e t t e r t r a i n in g fa c ilitie s e t c. ). In f lu x c o n tr o l w as t ig h te n e d, a p p a r e n tly w ith th e aim o f f r e e z in g th e n u m b e r of u r b a n B la c k s a s f a r as p o s s ib le. T h e "G ood H ope P lan " s u b d iv id e d th e e n tir e c o u n tr y in to d e v e lo p m e n t r e g io n s w h ic h in c lu d e B lack a n d W hite a r e a s a n d e v e n c u t a c r o s s e x is tin g " in te r n a tio n a l" b o u n d a r ie s. T h u s th e T r a n s k e i's n o r th e r n p a r t w as g r o u p e d to g e th e r w ith N a ta l, th e s o u th e r n p a r t w ith th e E a s te r n C a p e. A n u m b e r o f " d e c o n c e n tr a tio n p o in ts " a n d " in d u s tr ia l d e v e lo p m e n t p o in ts " h a v e b e e n d e m a rc a te d b o th in s id e a n d o u ts id e th e B lack a r e a s. S tro n g in c e n tiv e s fo r i n d u s t r ia lis ts to m ove to th e s e g ro w th p o in ts h a v e b e e n i n s t i tu t e d. A d e v e lo p m e n t b a n k h a s b e e n e s ta b lis h e d. C o o p e ra tio n b e tw e e n W hite a n d B lack c a p ita l a n d in itia tiv e h a s b e e n m ade p o s s ib le. I t is c le a r th a t eco n o m ically s p e a k in g th e o ld id e a o f s e p a r a te d e v e lo p m e n t h a s b e e n a b a n d o n e d in fa v o u r of th e d o c tr in e of " in te r d e p e n d e n c e " (S ee f ig u r e 9 ). (S ee T om lin so n 1983: fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o lic y ). 35

49 2.4 SUMMARY In th is c h a p te r we a n a ly s e d s p a tia l (g e o g ra p h ic a l) a s p e c ts o f econom ic p o w e r d if f e r e n tia ls in S o u th A fric a. T h e u n iv e r s a l p h e n o m e n o n o f th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f econom ic a c tiv ity a n d p o te n tia l in c e r ta in g e o g ra p h ic a l c e n tr e s a n d th e c o n c o m ita n t r e la tiv e u n d e rd e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e ir r e s p e c tiv e p e r i p h e r ie s w as b r ie f ly d e s c r ib e d a n d a few c a u s e s w e re in d ic a te d ( 2. 2) We th e n t u r n e d to th e S o u th A fric a n c a s e. H e re a p a r tic u la r ly m a rk e d c e n t r e - p e r i p h e r y p a t te r n e v o lv e d o v e r th e la s t c e n t u r y. T h e s o -c a lle d PWV a r e a is in a com m anding p o s itio n w h ile th e C a p e P e n in s u la a n d D u rb a n -P in e to w n a r e a form sm a lle r s u b c e n tr e s ( ). T h e p e r ip h e r a l p o s itio n o f th e a r e a s r e s e r v e d fo r B la c k s a n d th e r e s u l ta n t to ta l d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e ir p o p u la tio n s on th e econom ic c e n tr e s w e re d is c u s s e d ( ). We th e n h ig h lig h te d a few a s p e c ts of th e s itu a tio n in th e u r b a n c e n tr e s a n d th e e f f e c ts of s p a tia l ra c e p o lic ie s on th e u r b a n is a tio n o f B la c k s ( 2, 3. 3 ). We c lo se d w ith a b r ie f c o n s id e ra tio n of d e c e n tr a lis a tio n in a s p a tia l p e r s p e c tiv e ( ). T h e o v e ra ll p ic tu r e w h ic h e m e rg e d is a p o la r is a tio n b e tw e e n eco n o m ically p o w e rfu l u r b a n - i n d u s tr ia l c e n tr e s firm ly u n d e r W hite c o n tro l a n d sm a ll, s c a t te r e d a n d eco n o m ically in s ig n if ic a n t p e r ip h e r a l a r e a s to w h ic h h a lf o f th e B la c k p o p u la tio n h a s b e e n r e s t r i c t e d. 36

50 j m CD. L i- a J 0 V + 0 \ / ^ n. O \ -t & \ 7 f \ / y ^ \ / \ / S Q ffl \ -'.-j o f c D \ r 0 0 ' ' u p v'0 development region s 37