Contemporary Human Geography 3 rd Edition

Transcription

1 Chapter 13 Lecture Contemporary Human Geography 3 rd Edition Chapter 13: Urban Patterns Marc Healy Elgin Community College

2 13.1 The Central Business District The best-known and most visually distinctive area of most cities is downtown, which geographers define by the more precise term central business district (CBD). Public, consumer, and business services cluster in the CBD because of its accessibility.

3 13.1 The Central Business District

4 13.2 Defining Urban Settlements Central City A central city (or simply city) is an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit. Most central cities have declined in population since 1950.

5 13.2 Defining Urban Settlements Urban Area An urban area consists of a central city and its surrounding built-up suburbs. The U.S. census recognizes two types of urban areas: The urbanized area is an urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants. An urban cluster is an urban area with between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants.

6 13.2 Defining Urban Settlements Urban Area

7 13.2 Defining Urban Settlements Metropolitan Area The metropolitan statistical area (MSA) includes the following: An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000. The county within which the city is located. Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central city s county.

8 13.2 Defining Urban Settlements Local Government Fragmentation The process of legally adding land area to a city is annexation. Cities are now surrounded by suburban jurisdictions whose residents prefer to remain legally independent of the central city.

9 13.2 Defining Urban Settlements Local Government Fragmentation

10 13.2 Defining Urban Settlements Overlapping Metropolitan Areas MSAs in the northeastern U.S. form one continuous urban complex, extending from north of Boston to south of Washington, D.C. Geographer Jean Gottmann named this region Megalopolis, a Greek word meaning great city. Other U.S. urban complexes include the southern Great Lakes between Milwaukee and Pittsburgh and southern California between Los Angeles and Tijuana.

11 13.2 Defining Urban Settlements Overlapping Metropolitan Areas

12 13.3 Models of Urban Structure Concentric Zone Model According to E.W. Burgess s concentric zone model, a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings.

13 13.3 Models of Urban Structure Sector Model According to Homer Hoyt s sector model, a city develops in a series of sectors.

14 13.3 Models of Urban Structure Multiple Nuclei Model Harris and Ullman s multiple nuclei model sees a city as a complex structure that includes more than one center.

15 13.3 Models of Urban Structure Peripheral Model Harris s peripheral model sees an urban area as an inner city surrounded by suburban nodes tied together by a beltway.

16 13.4 Applying the Models Social Area Analysis The study of where people of varying living standards, ethnic background, and lifestyle live within an urban area is social area analysis. Social area analysis helps to create an overall picture of where various types of people tend to live, depending on their particular personal characteristics. Concentric zone model Sector model Multiple nuclei model

17 13.4 Applying the Models Social Area Analysis Concentric zone model Newer houses are much more likely to be located in an outer ring and older houses in an inner ring.

18 13.4 Applying the Models Social Area Analysis Sector model Income levels tend to conform to the sector model.

19 13.4 Applying the Models Social Area Analysis Multiple nuclei model Groups tend to cluster by race and ethnicity according to the multiple nuclei model.

20 13.4 Applying the Models Limitations of the Models None of the three models completely explains why different types of people live in distinctive parts of a city. If the models are combined, they help geographers explain where different types of people live in a city. Critics see the models as simplistic and failing to consider the variety of reasons that lead people to select particular residential locations.

21 13.5 Structure of Europe s Cities CBDs in Europe Residences More people live downtown in cities outside North America. Consumer services Europe s CBDs contain more day-to-day consumer services.

22 13.5 Structure of Europe s Cities CBDs in Europe Public services Churches and former royal palaces are often the most prominent structures. Business services Business services in Europe s CBDs are less likely to be housed in skyscrapers than those in North America.

23 13.5 Structure of Europe s Cities The Three Models in Europe Concentric zones As in the United States, the newer housing in the Paris region is in outer rings, and the older housing is closer to the center. Unlike in U.S. urban areas, much of the newer suburban housing is in high-rise apartments rather than single-family homes.

24 13.5 Structure of Europe s Cities The Three Models in Europe Concentric zones

25 13.5 Structure of Europe s Cities The Three Models in Europe Sectors As in U.S. urban areas, higherincome people cluster in a sector in the Paris region.

26 13.5 Structure of Europe s Cities The Three Models in Europe Multiple nuclei In contrast to U.S. urban areas, most ethnic and racial minorities reside in the suburbs of Paris.

27 13.6 Cities in Developing Countries Ancient and Medieval City: Beijing A succession of invaders and dynasties shaped what is now the central area of Beijing. Two dynasties had especially strong impacts on the early structure of Beijing. Beijing during the Yuan Dynasty Beijing during the Ming Dynasty

28 13.6 Cities in Developing Countries Ancient and Medieval City: Beijing Beijing during the Yuan Dynasty Kubla Khan constructed a new city called Dadu beginning in 1267.

29 13.6 Cities in Developing Countries Ancient and Medieval City: Beijing Beijing during the Ming Dynasty After capturing Dadu in 1368, the Ming dynasty reconstructed it over the next several decades.

30 13.6 Cities in Developing Countries Precolonial and Colonial City: Mexico City The Aztecs founded Tenochtitlán in 1325 on a marshy Island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. The node of religious life was the Great Temple.

31 13.6 Cities in Developing Countries Precolonial and Colonial City: Mexico City The Spanish conquered Tenochtitlán in 1521, and rebuilt it as Mexico City around a main square, called the Zócalo, on the site of the sacred precinct of the Aztecs.

32 13.6 Cities in Developing Countries Precolonial and Colonial City: Mexico City

33 13.7 Applying the Models to Developing Countries Concentric Zones in Developing Countries The concentric zone model has been applied most frequently to cities in developing countries. Geographer Harm deblij s model of sub-saharan African cities is an example. As cities grow rapidly in developing countries, rings are constantly being added on the periphery to accommodate immigrants from rural areas attracted by job opportunities.

34 13.7 Applying the Models to Developing Countries Concentric Zones in Developing Countries

35 13.7 Applying the Models to Developing Countries Sectors in Developing Countries In Latin American cities, wealthy people push out from the center in a well-defined elite residential sector.

36 13.7 Applying the Models to Developing Countries Multiple Nuclei in Developing Countries Cities in developing countries containing a complex mix of ethnic groups show evidence of the multiple nuclei model.

37 13.8 Urban Transportation Motor Vehicles The United States has more motor vehicles than licensed drivers. The U.S. government encourages the use of cars and trucks by paying 90 percent of the cost of interstate highways. European and Japanese cities have been especially disrupted by attempts to insert new roads and parking areas in or near the medieval central areas.

38 13.8 Urban Transportation Controlling Vehicles Demand to use congested roads is being reduced in a number of ways: Demolition Freeways that once sliced through CBDs have been demolished in a number of cities. Congestion charges Tolls Motorists must pay to drive into the CBDs of some cities. Higher tolls are charged during rush hour to drive on freeways in some cities.

39 13.8 Urban Transportation Controlling Vehicles Demand to use congested roads is being reduced in a number of ways: Permits To drive in the CBD during peak times, a motorist in some Asian cities must buy a license and demonstrate ownership of a parking space. Bans Cars have been banned altogether from portions of the CBD in a number of European cities.

40 13.8 Urban Transportation Controlling Vehicles Strategies to increase the use of existing roads include Traffic information GPS and electronic mapping provide drivers with information so that they can take routes that minimize congestion. Driverless vehicles Self-driving vehicles are likely to be introduced primarily as taxis.

41 13.8 Urban Transportation Public Transportation The principal exception to reliance on motor vehicles in the United States is in large central cities, where bus and rail service is used for many of the trips. Most Americans still prefer to commute by vehicle. Most people overlook the costs of congestion because they place higher value on the privacy and flexibility of schedule offered by a car.

42 13.9 Suburban Sprawl & Segregation Sprawl According to the density gradient, the number of houses per unit of land diminished as distance from the center city increased. Population decline and abandonment of old housing, as well as the diffusion of suburbs across a larger area flattened the density gradient in the twentieth century.

43 13.9 Suburban Sprawl & Segregation Sprawl

44 13.9 Suburban Sprawl & Segregation Suburban Segregation Suburbs are segregated in two ways: Segregated social classes Housing in suburban communites are usually built for people of a single social class, with others excluded by costs, as well as race and ethnicity in some suburbs. Segregated land uses Residents are separated from commercial and manufacturing activities that are confined to compact, distinct areas.

45 13.9 Suburban Sprawl & Segregation The Cost of Suburban Sprawl U.S. suburbs are characterized by sprawl, which is the progressive spread of development over the landscape. Sprawl is less common outside European cities.

46 13.9 Suburban Sprawl & Segregation The Cost of Suburban Sprawl

47 13.9 Suburban Sprawl & Segregation Suburban Services Many nonresidential activities have moved to the suburbs. Consumer services Retailing has been increasingly concentrated in planned suburban shopping malls of varying sizes. Corner shops have been replaced by supermarkets in small shopping centers. Business services and manufacturers Suburban sites are especially attractive to business services that do not require face-to-face contact and factories that have a lot of truck deliveries.

48 13.10 Sustainable Cities Inner-City Challenges Inner-city residents are frequently referred to as a permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of hardships: Inadequate job skills Inner-city residents are increasingly unable to compete for jobs because many lack technical skills since fewer than half complete high school. Culture of poverty Because of inadequate childcare services, single mothers may be forced to choose between working to generate income and staying at home to take care of the children.

49 13.10 Sustainable Cities Inner-City Challenges Homelessness Several million people are homeless in the United States. Crime Inner-city neighborhoods have a relatively high share of a metropolitan area s serious crimes, such as murder. Inadequate services Areas where healthy food is difficult to obtain, known as food deserts, are especially common in low income inner-city areas.

50 13.10 Sustainable Cities Inner-City Challenges

51 13.10 Sustainable Cities Inner-City Challenges

52 13.10 Sustainable Cities Inner-City Challenges Drugs Although drug use is a problem in suburbs as well, rates of use have increased most rapidly in inner cities. Municipal finances Central cities face a growing gap between the cost of needed services in inner-city neighborhoods and the availability of funds to pay for them. Deteriorated housing Landlords subdivide houses into apartments for lowincome families, a process known as filtering.

53 13.10 Sustainable Cities Gentrification Gentrification is the process by which higher income people move into deteriorated inner-city neighborhoods and renovate the housing. Houses may be larger or possess attractive architectural details than houses in the suburbs. Neighborhoods are often closer to workplaces and to consumer services such as theaters and restaurants.