Dynamic torques 44 Dynamometer 24, 43, 152

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1 INDEX Abrasive wear 142 Absolute shaft encoder 21 Acceleration 8, 17, 25, 26 angular 25 Accuracy 179 Active length 40 Adhesive wear 142 Adiabatic compression 63 Air flow measurement 152 Airbox 152 Alarms 165 Aliasing 167 Alternating current 98 Ammeter 98, 99 Amplitude 26 Analogue-to-digital (AID) converter 160 Anemometer 86 cup 86 hot wire 86 propeller 86 vane 86 Angular acceleration 25 Angular position 20 Angular velocity 23 Autofrettage 132 Axis of measurement 27 Ball cratering test 146 Base bleed 88 Bearing materials 147 Bellmouth 74 Bellows gas meters 82 Bending effects 42 Bessemer 12 Bimetallic strips 55 Binary code 21 Bonding 38 Borehole probes 31 Boundary conditions 172 Bourdon tube 45 Brinell 123 Brittle fracture 115 Brittleness 115 Brunswick tube 88 Bubbles 89 Buckling 135 Buckling modes 171 Buoyancy force 82 Cable compensating 59 extension 59 Calibration 14, 54, 166 Calming length 75 Capillary pipe 92 Carbon dioxide (COz) 13 Casella instrument 51 Cathode ray oscilloscope 107 Centre-line average (CLA) 138 Charge amplifier 111 Charpy test 124 Charpy testers, instrumented 126 Chemical tracers 146 ChromeUalumel 57 CLA (centre-line average) 138 Clip-on ammeters 99 Coarse digitization 166 Coefficients of friction 140 Cold junction compensation 59 Combustion air conditions 151 Comet airliner 133 Compensating cable 59 Compression tests 121

2 184 Engineering Measurements Computer control systems 162 Computers 159 Condensing vessel (hypsometer) 54 Configuration effects 147 Constrictions 74 Contact electrical resistance 146 Control 159 of test equipment 163 Copper/constantan 57 Coriolis effect flowmeters 83, 156 Corrosion fatigue 132 Crack tip 135 Creep test 122 Cross-sectional area 71 'Cross-talk' 49 Crystal planes 116 Cup anemometer 86 Curved flow 87 Cut-off length 138 Cylinder pressure 157 Data acquisition 159, 165 rate 161 Dewar (Thermos-type) flask 54 Dial indicators 17 Dial thermometers 55 Diameter of gyration 8 Diaphragm gauge 45 Differential thermocouples 63 Digital meters 97 Digital oscilloscope 107 Digital shaft encoder 21 Dislocations 116 Displacement 26 Dissipation of heat 147 Doppler effect 22 Doppler methods 83 Draining 76 Drift 15 Dummy gauge 38,41 Dynamic characteristics 109 Dynamic torques 44 Dynamometer 24, 43, 152 Eddy current heating 43 Elastohydrodynamics 92 Electrical loading 113 Electrical measurements 97 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) 112 Electromagnetic interference 50, 108, 112 Electronic magnetometer 32 Electronic micrometer 17 Electronic voltmeters 106 Electrostatic voltmeters 102 Emissions measurement 157 Emissivity 67 Encoder digital shaft 21 incremental 21 absolute shaft 21 incremental optical 24 Endurance limit 132 Energy absorbed 125 Engine friction 156 Engine piston temperatures 68 Engineering Index 10 Erosion 142 Error 179 Error band 108 ESDU (Engineering Sciences Data Unit) 147 Excitation 43 Extension cable 59 Extensometer 119 Extrapolating back 14 Fatigue tests 115, 130 Fibre-optic based sensors 50 Fibre-optic gyroscope 24 Fillet radius 38

3 Index 185 Film thickness 147 Finite element analysis 170 Flexible coupling 22 Floating bell instruments 52 Flow in pipes 73 in rivers 72 visualization 22 Flowmeter (propeller-type) 14 Flow-straighteners 76 Fluid flow 71 Fluid level inclinometers 32 Fluidized bed 54 Flume 71 Flux gate compass 20, 32 Focal plane shutters 22, 89 Focus 30 Force 35 Foundations 27 Four-point bending 131 Four-wire systems 65 Fracture surface 134 Fracture toughness testing 135 Freezing points 55 Frequency modulation 111 Frequency response 48 Friction coefficient 146 Friction measurement 140 Fuel flow 153 Full-scale output 166 Gas bubbles 4 7 Gas-holder 84 Gauge factor 37 Gear pumps 82 Glass thermometers 53 Global Positioning System (GPS) 19 Gravimetric fuel measuring 154 Gravity 35 Gray code 21 Grease 94 Gyroscope 20,24 'fibre-optic' 24 Half-speed prisms 91 Hall effect 18 sensor 158 Hardness 115 tests 123 Health monitoring of machinery 146 Heat loss errors 60 Helmholtz resonator 47 High strain rate 130 High-pressure viscosity 92 High-speed position control 162 Hooke's Law 119 Hot wire anemometer 84, 86 Human errors 5 Hysteresis 180 Immersion error 55 Impact tests 124 Inclinometer 20 Incremental encoder 21, 24 Indenters 123 Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) 157 Infra-red 19, 67 Injector needle lift 158 In-line torque transducer 45 Input impedance 113 Instrument terms 179 Instrumentation 5, 97 Instrumented Charpy testers 126 Interference 111 Internal combustion (IC) engines 151 Internet 10 Invar 38 Inverting prisms 91 Iron/constantan 57 Izod tests 124

4 186 Engineering Measurements Lamp-and-scale galvanometers 101 Laplace transform 110 Laser Doppler anemometry 83 Leads resistance 42, 64 Lens design 169 Level of uncertainty 109 'Liberty' ships 115 Line sensing camera 29 Linear position 17 Linear speed 22 Linear transducers 17 Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) 18 Linearity 180 Load cells 35 Load washer 49 Load-extension diagram 119 Local gravity variations 35 Low flow rates 87 Low-pass filters 112 Lubricants 144 Magnetic compass 20 Manometers 51 Melting points 69 Mercury 51 Mercury in glass thermometer 53 Metal foil strain gauges 3 7 Metal thermocouples 53 Metering pumps 82 Meters 97 Micro-hardness testers 124 Micrometers 17 Microsoft 'Windows' 161 Micro-strains 7 Milli-Newtons 52 'Mimic' diagram Moh's table 123 Morse tests 156 Motoring test 156 Mountings 27 Moving coil meter 97, 101 Moving iron galvanometers 99 Moving magnet meters 101 Moving particles 22 'Mu' metal 112 Multi-meter 98 Multiple tum potentiometer 21 Negative feedback 109 Newcomen 11 Noise 111, 182 Non-invasive methods 83 Norton 113 Nozzles 74 Nyquist 166 Open channels 71 Open-loop control 163 Optical devices 50 Optical fibres 50, 113 Optical system 168 Optical tachometer 23 Opto-isolator 50 Oranges 71 Orientation of the specimens 148 Orifice 74 plates 74 Oscilloscopes 106 Parallax errors 98 Particles 89 Peak-to-peak 26 Peltier effect 43, 58 Penetrometer 94 Percentages 9 Personal computer (PC) 159 Photo masks 28 Photo-cell 12 Photographic measurement 89 Photographic methods 22

5 Index 187 Photo-resist 28 Push-pull testing 131 PID control 164 Piezo transducers 48 Quarrying 31 Piezo-electric 111 accelerometer 25 R. (roughness average) 138 transducers 48 Racing car 89 'Pin-on-disc' machine 142 Radar 19 Pipe pressure losses 92 Radiation losses 63 Piston pumps 82 Radio 44 Piston ring temperatures 158 Radio-altimeters 19 Pitot-static tubes 87 Radius of gyration 8 Platinum 57 Rangefinder 19 Platinum resistance thermometers Rate-of-tum indicator Reciprocating pump 80 Platinum/rhodium 64 Reed switch 23 Pocket 60 Reference fuel 154 Poisson contraction 119 Reference junction 58 Position 17 Reference thermocouple 54 angular 20 Refrigeration systems 68 Position sensing 28 Relaxation test 122 Position sensitive detector 31 Remote monitoring 165 Positive displacement meters 82 Residual stresses 132 Positive displacement pumps 82 Resistance heating 58 Potentiometer Resistance measurement 40 multiple tum 21 Resistance strain gauges 36 rotary 21 Resistance thermometers 53, 64 Potentiometers 17, 104 Resolution 180 Potentiometric voltmeter 104 Resonance 47 Pressure 35 Resonant frequencies 28 gauges 45 Response time 68, 109, 182 transducers 45 Reverse pitot 88 Proof stress 121 Reversing flow 86 Propagating crack 131 Reynolds numbers 77 Propeller 14 Ring-main (piezometer ring) 76 Propeller anemometer 86 Rivers 71 Propeller type flowmeter 71 RMS vibration velocity 26 Properties of materials 115 Rolling bearings 28 Proximity probes 26 Root mean square (RMS) 26 Proximity sensor 18 Rosettes 40 Pulsating flows 84 Rotameters 79 Pulse counting 23 Rotary measurement 19

6 188 Engineering Measurements Rotary potentiometer 21 Rotary vane pumps 82 Rotating magnet 23 Rotating object 91 Rotation 20 Rotational speed 23 Roughness average, Ra 138 Rounding errors 166 Running-in 145 Safety cut-outs 165 'Salt gulp injection' method 72 Sampling rate 166 Satellites 19 Savery 11 Scale effects 147 Scale model 168 Scatter 182 Seebeck or thermocouple effect 56 Self-compensation 38 Self-heating 66 Semiconductor strain gauges 39 Semiconductor temperature sensors 53 Sensitivity 179 Shaft encoders 24 Shear beam 36 Sheath 60 Sheathed thermocouples 60 Shielding 113 Shore 123 Shot peening 133 Signal attenuation 110 Signal conditioning 97, 110 Signal processing 110 Signal-to-noise ratio 112 Silicon semiconductor position sensitive detector 30 Silos 19 Sizeeffect 131 Sleeve 60 Slip rings 44, 66 Slip zone 92 SLR camera 22, 90 Small near-horizontal forces 52 Smoke 12 s-n curve 132 Spectral analysis 27 Spectrum analyser 28 Speed 17,22 linear 22 rotational 23 Spirit level 20 Spreadsheets 173 Spring balances 35 Stability 182 Stagnation pressure 87 Stagnation temperature 63 Static characteristics 108 Static pressure 87 Static tensile tests 118 Static torques 44 Steady flow 73 Steady state response 109 Stiction 98 Storage methods 84 Strain gauge 37 Streak pictures 91 Streaks 22 Streams 71 Stress 35 concentration 8 gradient 131 intensity factor 135 Stress-raisers 8 Stroboscopic 22, 23 Structural finite element analysis 170 Surface coating 69 fatigue 142

7 Index 189 films 144 floats 71 profile measurements 137 profilometers 137 roughness 139 temperature 66 thermocouples 66 Surveying 20 Surveyor's wheel 20 Swirl 87 Systematic errors 3, 109 Tachogenerators 23 Tachometers 23 'Talysurf 138 Tank 19,84 Telemetry 66 Temperature 53 changes 46 compensation 64 Temperature-indicating paints 69 'Templugs' 158 Tensile test 115 Theodolites 20 Thermal expansion 37, 149 Thermal imaging camera 66 Thermistors 53, 68, 87 Thermochromic liquid crystal 69 Thermocouple 56, 108 transmitter 110 Thevenin 113 Thin coatings 146 Thomson effect 58 Three-wire method 65 Threshold 180 Time deterministic 161 Time-dependent errors 15 Torque 35, 43 arm 43 measurement 152 transducer 43, 94 Torsional vibration 44 Total temperature 63 Transducers 97, 108 Transfer function 110 Transient response 110 Transmitter 58 Trend analysis 27 Triple point 54 Turbine meters 79 Turbulence 87 Two-wire method 64 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) 121 Ultrasound 19, 72 Vane anemometer 86 Velocity 22, 26 angular 23 measurement 86 Venting 76 Venturis 74 V emier scales 17 Vibration 8 Vibration measurement 25 Vickers 123 Video cameras 91 Viscometer 92 Viscosity 92 Viscous flowmeter 85, 152 Voltmeter 98 electronic 106 electrostatic 102 Volumetric efficiency 80 Volumetric measuring (fuel) 154 Watchdog function 165 Water flow 91 Watt 168 Wattmeters 102

8 190 Engineering Measurements Wear adhesive 142 abrasive 142 debris 146 of piston rings 158 rates 144 regime 141 Weigh-bridges 35 Weston standard cell 106 Wheatstone bridge 40, 46, 64, 103 Willans line tests 156 Wind speed 86 Yield point 119 Zero shift 182

Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements

Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements Third Edition Richard S. Figliola Clemson University Donald E. Beasley Clemson University John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane