Preface... (vii) Acknowledgement... (ix)
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1 Preface... (vii) Acknowledgement... (ix) Chapter 1 Measurement Systems An Overview and Basic Concepts Introduction The Process of Measurement Scope of Instrumentation Jargon of Instrumentation Basic Principles of Measurement Direct Comparison Indirect Comparison Complexity of Measurement Methods Primary Measurement Secondary Measurement Tertiary Measurement Applications of Measuring Instruments Instruments for Monitoring Instruments for Controlling Instruments for Experiments and Analysis Generalized Input-Output Model of Measurement System Stages of the Measuring System Types of Inputs Desired Inputs Interfering Inputs Modifying Inputs Classification of Instruments Manual and Automatic Instruments Active (Self-operated) and Passive (Power-operated) Instruments Self-contained and Remote Indicating Instruments The extent or degree of illumination Deflection (luminous and Null intensity) Output is Instruments measured in 22the units Candela Analog and Digital Instruments Detecting, Recording, Monitoring and Controlling Instruments Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Instruments 24
2 (xii) Contents 1.11 Objectives of Instrumentation 25 Summary 26 Key Concepts 27 Review Questions 29 Multiple Choice Questions 31 Answers 33 Chapter 2 Characteristics of Instruments Introduction Static and Dynamic Quantities Static Characteristics Range Span Accuracy Precision Calibration Drift Sensitivity Threshold Resolution Tolerance Readability and Least Count Backlash Zero Stability Stiction (Static Friction) Dynamic Characteristics Speed of Response and Measuring Lag Fidelity and Dynamic Error Overshoot Dead Time and Dead Zone Frequency of Response Modeling for Dynamic Performance Systems of Various Orders Zero Order System First Order System Second Order System Standard Test Signals Step Signal Ramp Signal Parabolic Signal Simple Harmonic Input (Sinusoidal) Impulse Signal Dynamic Response of First Order System Unit Step Response of First Order System (Step Input) Unit Ramp Response of First Order System (Ramp Input) Harmonic Sinusoidal Response of First Order System 61
3 (xiii) 2.9 Dynamic Response of Second Order System Step Response of Second Order System Harmonic/Sinusoidal Response of Second Order System 64 Summary 67 Key Concepts 67 Review Questions 69 Multiple Choice Questions 71 Answers 73 Chapter 3 Inaccuracies in Instruments Introduction Terminology Terms used to Describe Inaccuracy in the Instrument Error of Measurement and Measurement of Error Error of Measurement Measurement of Errors Error Sources/Causes of Error Classification of Errors Random Errors (or Precision or Accidental Error) Disturbance in the Equipment Fluctuating Experimental or Environmental Conditions Systematic Error (or Bias Error) Calibration Error Gross Errors or Human Errors Operational Errors Observation Errors Equipment Defects and Instrumental Errors Inherent Defects Misusing or Mishandling Errors Loading Errors Illegitimate Errors Blunders and Chaotic Errors Other Errors Backlash Mechanical Friction Hysteresis Drift Reading Error 95 Summary 95 Key Concepts 96 Review Questions 98 Multiple Choice Questions 98 Answers 100
4 (xiv) Contents Chapter 4 Transducers and Measurement of Displacement Introduction Classification of Transucers Mechanical Transducers Electromechanical Transducers Merits Classification of Electromechanical Transducers Resistive Type Transducers Variable Resistance Transducers Sliding Contact Devices The Pots The Resistance Strain Gauges Thermistors Inductive Type Transducers Non-Self-Generating Variable Self Inductance-Single Coil Type Transducer Non-Self-Generating Variable Self Inductance Two Coil (or Single Coil with Center Tap) Type Transducer Non-Self-Generating Variable Mutual Inductance Two Coil Transducer Non-Self-Generating Variable Mutual Inductance Three Coil Transducer Self Generating Type Inductive Transducers Eddy Current Transducers Magnetometer Search Coil Capacitive Transducers Piezoelectric Transducers Photoelectric Effects Photo Emissive Photo Conductive Transducers Photo Voltaic Cells Hall Effect Magnetostrictive Transducer Ionization Transducers Digital Displacement Transducers 133 Summary 135 Key Concepts 136 Review Questions 137 Multiple Choice Questions 138 Answers 140 Chapter 5 Measurement of Temperature Introduction Basic Concepts of Temperature Measurement of Temperature Temperature Measuring Instruments 149
5 (xv) 5.4 Measurement of Temperature by Changes in Physical Dimensions Measurement of Temperature by Expansion of Solids Measurement of Temperature by using Expansion of Liquids Pressure Thermometers Electrical Effects on Temperature Thermo Resistive Elements Fundamentals of Thermo Electricity Laws of Thermo-Electric Power Measurement of Temperature by Electrical Methods Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) or Electrical- Resistance Thermometers Thermistors (Thermal Resistors) Thermocouples Semiconductor Junction Temperature Sensors The Linear Quartz Thermometer Thermometers using Changes in Emitted Thermal Radiation-Pyrometers Types of Pyrometers Total Radiation Pyrometer Optical Pyrometer or Disappearing Filament Pyrometer or Monochromatic Brightness Radiation Thermometer Infrared Pyrometer Temperature Measurement by Changes in Chemical Phase 188 Summary 189 Key Concepts 190 Review Questions 192 Multiple Choice Questions 194 Answers 195 Chapter 6 Measurement of Pressure Introduction Definitions And Terminology Atmospheric Pressure (P A ) Absolute Pressure (P ABS ) Gauge Pressure (P > P A ) Vacuum Pressure (P A > P or P < P A ) Relation between Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum Pressure Static Pressure Total or Stagnation Pressure Dynamic or Impact or Velocity Pressure Classification of Pressure Measuring Devices Dead Weight Tester 204
6 (xvi) Contents 6.5 Manometers Piezometer U-Tube Manometer Single Column Manometer U-Tube Differential Manometer Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer Mechanical Displacement Type Gauges Ring Balance Manometer Bell Type Pressure Gauges Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge Tip Travel of Bourdon Tube Errors and their Rectification (in Bourdon Tube) Bourdon Tube Shapes and Configurations Elastic Diaphragm Gauges Bellows Gauges Strain Gauge Pressure Cells The McLeod Gauge Formula for Errors Thermal Conductivity Gauges Pirani Gauge Thermocouple Type Conductivity Gauge Ionization Gauge 238 Summary 239 Key Concepts 239 Review Questions 241 Numerical Problems 243 Multiple Choice Questions 244 Answers 246 Chapter 7 Flow Measurement Introduction Nature of Flow Classification of Flow Measurements Primary or Quantity Methods Tilting Trap Meter Positive Displacement Meters Flow (Obstruction) Meters Venturi Meter Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate Flow-Nozzle Meter Variable Area Meter or Rotameter Turbine Meters Magnetic Flow Meters Vortex Shedding Flow Meters 272
7 (xvii) 7.9 Measurement of Fluid Velocities Total - Pressure Probe (Pitot Static Tube) Direction - Sensing Probes or Yaw-Angle Probe Anemometers Hot Wire Anemometers Hot Film Anemometers Measurement by Scattering Laser Doppler Anemometry Ultrasonic Anemometry The Interferometer The Schlieren The Shadow Graph Calibration of Flow Measuring Devices Flow-Visualization Techniques Dye Injection Chemical Precipitates Smoke Trails and Smoke Wire Hydrogen Bubble Visualization Laser Induced Fluorescence 288 Summary 289 Key Concepts 289 Review Questions 291 Multiple Choice Questions 293 Answers 295 Chapter 8 Measurement of Liquid Level Introduction Measurement of Liquid Level Classification of Liquid-Level Measurement Methods Direct Liquid Level Measurement Devices Sight Glass Tube Float Gauges Float-Tape Liquid Level Gauges Float Shaft Liquid Level Gauge Indirect Liquid Level Measurement Devices Hydrostatic Pressure Devices (Bubbler or Purge System) Hydrostatic Pressure Devices for Open Tanks Hydrostatic Pressure Devices for Closed Tanks: Bubbler or Purge System Electric Liquid Level Sensors Rheostat Operated by a Float Capacitive Liquid Level Sensor Gamma Ray Liquid Level Sensor Ultrasonic Liquid Level Gauge 315
8 (xviii) Contents 8.11 Inductive Methods or Magnetic Level Indicator Cryogenic Fuel Level Indicator 317 Summary 319 Key Concepts 319 Review Questions 320 Multiple Choice Questions 321 Answers 323 Chapter 9 Measurement of Speed Introduction Classification of Tachometers Mechanical Tachometers Revolution Counter and Timer Tachoscope Hand Speed Indicator (Modified Tachoscope) Slipping Clutch Tachometer Centrifugal Force Tachometer Vibrating Reed Tachometer Electrical Tachometers Drag Cup Tachometers (Automobile Speedometers) Commutated Capacitor Tachometer Tacho Generators Inductive Pick up Tachometer Capacity Type Pick-up Tachometer Photo Electric Tachometer Stroboscope 343 Summary 346 Key Concepts 346 Review Questions 348 Multiple Choice Questions 349 Answers 352 Chapter 10 Measurement of Vibration and Acceleration Introduction Vibration Measurement Transducers used in Vibration Measurement Fixed Reference Type Transducer Seismic Type Transducer List of Transducers/Instruments used to Measure Vibration/Acceleration Piezo Electric Accelerometer Seismic Displacement Sensing Accelerometer Strain - Gauge Accelerometer Capacitance Vibration Sensor/Accelerometer 364
9 (xix) Variable Induction Type Accelerometer LVDT - Accelerometer Reed Type Vibrometer Vibration Measurement using Stroboscope Factors Affecting the Choice of Transducers Calibration of Vibration Transducers Servo Accelerometer Digital Accelerometer 374 Summary 376 Key Concepts 377 Review Questions 378 Multiple Choice Questions 379 Answers 381 Chapter 11 Measurement of Force, Torque and Power Introduction Methods of Measurement of Force Direct Method Indirect Method Equal Arm Balance Unequal Arm Balance Pendulum Scale (Multi-Lever Type) Elastic Force Meter (Proving Ring) Strain Gauge Load Cell Hydraulic Load Cell Pneumatic Load Cells Measurement of Torque and Power Definitions of Torque and Power Relation between Torque and Power Dynamometers Mechanical/Prony Brake Dynamometer Hydraulic Dynamometer Eddy Current Dynamometer Electrical Generator Type Driving Dynamometer Transmission Dynamometer Torsion Meter Mechanical Torsion Meter Optical Torsion Meter Electrical Torsion Meters (Torque Measurement using Slotted Discs) Strain Gauge Torsion Meter 409 (Strain Gauges on Rotating Shafts) 409
10 (xx) Contents Summary 411 Key Concepts 411 Review Questions 413 Multiple Choice Questions 415 Answers 416 Chapter 12 Strain and Stress Measurement Introduction Fundamentals of Stress and Strain Strain Measurement Positive Strain Negative Strain The Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge The Metallic Resistance Strain Gauge Types of Strain Gauges Unbonded Strain Gauge Bonded Strain Gauges Selection and Preparation of Bonded Strain Gauge Surface - Preparation and Mounting of Strain Gauges Grid Materials Backing, Base or Carrier Material Bonding Materials or Cements (Adhesive) Factors Affecting Selection of Bonded Metallic Strain Gauges Temperature Compensation Temperature Compensation using an Adjacent Arm Compensating Gauge Self Temperature Compensation Gauge Rosettes (Multiple Grids) Wheatstone Bridge Circuit One Active Strain Gauge (Quarter Bridge) or Tension Measurement using Strain Gauge Two Active Strain Gauges (Half Bridge) or Tension and Compression Measuring Strain Gauges Calibration Applications of Strain Gauges 451 Summary 451 Key Concepts 452 Review Questions 454 Multiple Choice Questions 455 Answers 457 Chapter 13 Measurement of Viscosity and Surface Tension Introduction The Jargon of Viscosity 462
11 (xxi) 13.3 Classification of Viscometers Capillary Tube Viscometer Efflux Viscometers Redwood Viscometer Saybolt Viscometer Engler Viscometer Falling Sphere Viscometer Rotating Cylinder Viscometers Rotating Cylinder Viscometer (Concentric Cylinders Type) Rotating Cylinder Electrical Viscometer Surface Tension Measurement of Surface Tension Effects of Surface Tension Methods of Measuring Surface Tension Instruments used to Measure Surface Tension Du Noüy Ring Tensiometer Du Noüy-Padday Tensiometer Wilhelmy Plate Tensiometer Bubble Pressure Tensiometer Goniometer/ Tensiometer Some More Methods Spinning Drop Method Drop Volume Method Capillary Rise Method Stalagmometric Method Sessile Drop Method Vibrational Frequency of Levitated Drops Method Resonant Oscillations of Spherical/ Hemispherical Liquid Drop Method 480 Summary 481 Key Concepts 482 Review Questions 484 Multiple Choice Questions 484 Answers 486 Chapter 14 Measurement of Humidity/ Dampness and Density/Specific Gravity Introduction Terminology List of Instruments used to Measure Humidity Psychrometers (Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers) Sling Psychrometer 493
12 (xxii) Contents 14.6 Absorption Hygrometers Mechanical Humidity Sensing Absorption Hygrometer Electrical Humidity Sensing Absorption Hygrometer Dew Point Meter Fundamentals of Density and Specific Gravity Instruments to Measure Specific Gravity and Density Pycnometer Hydrometers Simple Hydrometer Photo-Electric Hydrometer Differential Type Bubbler Systems Differential Type Bubbler System with Two Vessels Attached by a Manometer and Reference Column Method Differential Type Bubbler System with Single Vessel Attached and Pressure Gauge Special Applications of Hydrometers 508 Summary 509 Key Concepts 509 Review Questions 511 Multiple Choice Questions 512 Answers 514 Chapter 15 Elements of Control Systems Introduction Basic Components of a Control System Control Systems Terminology Types of Control Systems Open Loop Control Systems (Non- Feedback Systems) Closed Loop or Feedback Control Systems Advantages of Feedback Control Systems Positive and Negative Feedback Differences between Open Loop and Closed Loop Systems Servo Mechanism Requirements of a Control System Stability Accuracy Speed of Response Control Systems Case Studies Speed Control System in Automobiles Speed Control System in IC Engines Temperature Control System of the Passenger Compartment of a Car Automatic Tank-Level Control System 540
13 (xxiii) Appendix 549 Index Liquid Level Control System (Automatic and Manual) Feedback System in Nature Biological System Position Control System Missile Launching and Guidance System 542 Summary 543 Key Concepts 544 Review Questions 545 Multiple Choice Questions 547 Answers 548
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