282 INDEX Computer models for brittle damage, 15f, 17f for damage zone thickness, 245f 247f, 249f for displacement, 86f for dynamic rupture, 43f, 248,

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1 INDEX Acoustic emissions (AEs) in faults, 235f in fault strength, , 231t, 232f, , 235f friction and, 233f Acoustic energy, 238f 239f Active faults, 4f AEs. See Acoustic emissions Alaska. See Denali earthquake (2002) Altyn Tagh fault, 225 Analytical methodology, 10 field observations for, 22, 27t petrography in, 22, 23f 26f, 27, 27f for seismic rupture parameters, 22, 23f 26f, 27, 27t Apparent stress, Arima Takatsuki Tectonic line, 49 Aseismic fault creep, 47 48, 81 82, , 210 Aseismic spatial slip distribution, 205, 206f Asperity contact size, 182f Asperity drag, 208f Atacama fault system. See Caleta Coloso fault Axial displacement, 233f Axial force in sawcuts, 116f in slip, 116f Axial shortening, 231t Background stress, 245f Backscattered electron photos, 119, 121f 122f Bautista Formation Clark fault in, 5f, 6 fossil fault core in, 7 10, 8f, 13, 14f Holocene rupture and, 8 9, 9f incipient fracturing of, 11t, 12f, 13 Rock House Canyon and, 5f, 6, 7f in San Jacinto Fault, 4, 5f, 6 sediments in, 7 9, 8f 9f Tonalite in, 6 7, 7f Bimaterial effect, 264 Bimaterial faults, 263t, , 271f Bimaterial interfaces, Bolnay earthquake (1905) displacement in, 219 fault branching in, , 219f 220f fault strands in, 220 rupture maps of, 219f 220f Tsetserleg earthquake (1905) and, 219 Boudinage, 208f, 209 Brazilian disc method, 63 Brittle crust, xi Brittle damage. See also Dynamic brittle damage computer models for, 15f, 17f 1D wave analysis for, 55, 56f, in San Jacinto Fault, 16t, 17 19, 17f Brittle off fault damage constitutive model for, 257, 257t, constitutive stress strain and, dynamic crack growth law for, in earthquake rupture dynamics, , , 265f 267f, 269f 272f, 273, 274f 275f, 276 energy based approach for, inelastic deformation in, 244, , 259f numerical method for, , 263t stress intensity factors of, Bulge zones, 139f Byerlee strength, 187, 187f, 198, 211 Calcite, mixed calcite dolomite gouges, 83t Calcite grains, 84 85, 85f Caleta Coloso fault FIPs in, 38 41, 39f, 41f 42f, 43 fluid inclusion in, 38, 39f geologic setting for, 39f Carbonate rocks, 203f Case studies, of strike slip earthquakes Bolnay Earthquake (1905), , 219f 220f Denali earthquake (2002), , 220f 221f Kunlun earthquake (2001), , 222f 224f Cataclasite. See Gouge Cataclasitic deformation, Chattering vibrations, 146 Chelungpu fault, 19 Chi Chi earthquake, 21 Chile. See Caleta Coloso fault China. See Kunlun earthquake (2001) Chipping, 92, 93f Cirque de Navacelle, 201, 202f, 203, 203f Clark fault, 5f, 6 Clast size distribution analysis, 94 95, 95f 97f Clast size distribution (CSD) curves, 94 95, 96f 97f Cleavage planes, 92, 93f Cohesion, 66, 66f Composite cataclasite, 24f Compressional loading experiments, 55 Fault Zone Dynamic Processes: Evolution of Fault Properties During Seismic Rupture, Geophysical Monograph 227, First Edition. Edited by Marion Y. Thomas, Thomas M. Mitchell, and Harsha S. Bhat American Geophysical Union. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 281

2 282 INDEX Computer models for brittle damage, 15f, 17f for damage zone thickness, 245f 247f, 249f for displacement, 86f for dynamic rupture, 43f, 248, 259f, 265f, 269f for earthquake faulting, 181f 187f of grain size analysis, 95f of log grain sizes, 96f for microstructures, 92f for pseudotachylytes, 28f for pulverization, 52f, 56f, 59f 60f, 62f, 71f for shear strain analysis, 94f for stick slip events, 111f 112f, 115f 118f, 123f 124f, 127f 128f, 162f 163f, 166f of synthetic seismograms, 272f of 2D fractal dimensions, 97f Confining pressure in fault strength, 230, 233, 233f, 235, 235f in strike slip experiments, 105 6, 108, 111, 112f, 114, 114t, 115f 116f, 117, 118f, 119, 120f 122f, , 128f Constitutive model for brittle off fault damage, 257, 257t, damage in, 257t regimes for, Constitutive stress strain brittle off fault damage and, Gibbs free energy in, Helmotz free energy in, Context dependent profiles, , 181f 187f Continental strike slip faults. See Strike slip faults Corona Heights, 200f Corrugated fault surfaces, 200f Coseismic damage compressional loading experiments for, 55 dynamic brittle damage in, 64 69, 65f 66f, 68f dynamic loading in, 48 off fault damage and, 53 55, 54f, 56f, pulverization and, 47 53, 49f 52f, 59f 60f, 61, 62f, 63, 75, 76t slip rates in, 246f wave speeds in, 72 73, 72f Coseismic fluid flow, Coseismic foliations domains in, 97, 98f, 99 in gouges, 81 82, 84f, 86 89, 87f 90f, 97, 98f, PSS and, 84f, 86, 87f, 88 89, 89f 90f, 92 93, 94f, 97, 98f, 99 striking foliations and, 86, 87f, 97, 99 Coseismic melt overpressure, 31, 31f Coseismic pulverization, 71 Coseismic shear, 81, 98f, Coseismic spatial slip distribution, 206f Coulomb Byerlee friction criterion, 211 Coulomb friction, 259 Cracks, Crack to pulse like rupture transition, 245f 246f, 248 Creep aseismic fault creep, 47 48, 81 82, , 210 Hurst exponents in, 206f stress and, Critical stress, 190f, 239f Critical weakening strain, 184f Critical weakening velocity, 181f Crossed polarizers, 49f Crystalline rocks, 69 71, 71f CSD curves. See Clast size distribution curves Cumulative slip, 265f 266f, , 269f, 271f Damage constitutive model, 257t Damage density dynamic rupture and, 269f 270f in earthquake rupture dynamics, 259f, 265f 267f, Damaged solids, Damage zones, 39f, 41 geometries for, 72f, 249, 249f pulverization in, 51 53, 52f rupture speeds in, 244 scaling for, 247f, Upheaval Dome Impact structures in, Damage zone thickness computer models for, 245f 247f, 249f crack to pulse like rupture transition in, 245f 246f, 248 fault geometry for, 245f 246f, 248 models for, 244, 245f 247f, plastic strain distribution in, 247f, 248 seismogenic depth and, , , 249f, theoretical estimates for, DDS test apparatus. See Double direct shear test apparatus Deformation textures, 121f Deformed gouge microstructures clast size distribution analysis for, 94 95, 95f 97f displacement in, 89, 91f 92f foliation development in, 86 89, 87f 90f foliation geometry in, 84f, 87f, 91f 92f, 92 93, 94f fracturing mechanisms in, 88f 90f, 90, 92, 93f grain size analysis for, 91f, 93 94, 94f 95f shear strain in, 84f, 87f, 91f 92f, 92 93, 94f Denali earthquake (2002) Denali fault system in, 220f 221f, fault branching in, , 220f 221f faulting in, 218 rupture maps of, 220f 221f Depression zones, 139f Depth dependence. See also Flash heating; Thermal pressurization dynamic fault weakening and, , 191 of earthquake faulting, , 191 earthquake propagation and, , 190f Depth dependent profiles, , 181f 187f Design slip duration. See Slip duration Design stiffness. See Stiffness Displacement. See also Microstructure analysis axial displacement, 233f in Bolnay earthquake (1905), 219 computer models for, 86f in deformed gouge microstructures, 89, 91f 92f in faults, 251 friction and, 233f seismic displacement, D fractal dimensions and, 97f

3 INDEX 283 Displacement records, 112f, , 157 Dissimilar materials, 263t, 268 Dixie Valley fault, 200f, 208f, 209 Dolomite grains, 84 85, 85f, 141 Domains in coseismic foliations, 97, 98f, 99 shear of, 81, 86 89, 87f 89f, Double direct shear (DDS) test apparatus for geometries, 154, 155f 156f, 156 for instrumented laboratory stick slip, 154, 155f 156f, for stick slip events, 163f, for stiffness, 154t for stress drop, 154 triaxial apparatus compared to, 165 Dynamic brittle damage in coseismic damage, 64 69, 65f 66f, 68f strain rates in, 64 67, 65f 66f Dynamic changes, of wave speeds, 259f, 265f 267f, Dynamic crack growth law, Dynamic fault slip, 106 Dynamic fault weakening. See also Rock friction context dependent profiles in, , 181f 187f depth dependence and, , 191 depth dependent profiles in, , 181f 187f experimental fault rock for, 134 frictional melting in, 189 geodynamic settings in, gouge layers in, 134, 137 loading in, 134 macroscopic friction in, 135t, 136, , 143f microanalysis for, microstructures in, 135t, , 137f 139f, powder rolling in, , , 141f 144f, 145 ROGA for, 134, 135t, 147, 148f, 149 rolling friction in, 137f 139f, 142f, 143, 144f, in seismogenic environments, , 181f 187f shear in, slip and, thermal mechanisms in, thermo chemical pressurization in, 189 Dynamic friction in high stress events, 127f in stick slip events, 128f in strike slip experiments, 246 Dynamic loading in coseismic damage, 48 SHPB for, 47 48, 55, 60f Dynamic off fault damage. See Brittle off fault damage Dynamic rupture in bimaterial faults, 271f computer models for, 43f, 248, 259f, 265f, 269f coseismic fluid flow and, damage density and, 269f 270f fault properties in, xii in fluid inclusion, 39 41, 40f 43f, 43 in granite, 265f, 267f, 269f, 273, 275f in strike slip faults, 244 subshear velocity in, 268 temporal evolution in, 266f, 270f Dynamic rupture propagation. See Earthquake rupture dynamics Dynamic strain, 231t Dynamic stress, 230f Dynamic stress drop, , 236f Dynamic tensile loading, Earthquake faulting computer models for, 181f 187f depth dependence of, , 191 earthquake rupture dynamics and, , 185f 187f flash heating in, , 181f 182f thermal pressurization in, , 182f 184f Earthquake hazard assessment, 224 Earthquake mechanics. See also Scaling corrugated fault surfaces in, 200f fault roughness for, , 199t, 203f, 212, 213f fractal geometry for, 202f Hurst exponents for, , 199t LiDAR for, 199, 200f, 201, 203 4, 203f 204f 1D slip front in, 211f stress in, 210 wavelet transform for, 202f Earthquake propagation depth dependence and, , 190f ruptures in, 225 seismogenic environments and, 172, , 190f at seismogenic zone bases, , 190f Earthquake rupture dynamics bimaterial faults in, 263t, , 271f brittle off fault damage in, , , 265f 267f, 269f 272f, 273, 274f 275f, 276 cumulative slip in, 265f 266f, , 269f, 271f damage density in, 259f, 265f 267f, dissimilar materials and, 263t, 268 earthquake faulting and, , 185f 187f fault rupture speed in, 265f 266f, initial damage density in, 263t, , 269f 270f near fault ground motion in, 269f, 271, 272f, 273 resolution test for, 273, 275f single material damage in, 263t, , 265f slip rates in, 265f 266f, Earthquake source properties instrumented laboratory stick slip for, , 153f, 154t, 157, 158t, 159f 160f, 160, , 166f, 167f lab inferred source properties and, 151 scaling relationships for, 161, 162f 163f, stick slip events and, 161, 162f 163f, EDS maps. See Energy dispersive X ray spectroscopy maps Effective stress profiles in geodynamic settings, for seismogenic environments, Elastic parameters, 114t Elastic unloading, , 114t Elasto dynamics, 69 El Mayor earthquake (2010), 218

4 284 INDEX Energy. See also Fracture energy acoustic energy, 238f 239f Gibbs free energy, Helmotz free energy, in loading, 117, 117f 118f in melt formation, 126 pseudotachylytes and, radiated energy, , 168f in stick slip events, 118f in strike slip experiments, 117, 118f temperature and, 127 velocity and, 161, 162f Energy based approach, Energy dispersive X ray spectroscopy (EDS) maps for microstructures, 88f 90f SEM compared to, Epitode veins, 24f Equilibrium, 57 Erzincan earthquake (1939), 225 Exhumation depth, 3 4, 6 Experimental fault rock, 134 Experimental friction evolution, 136f Exponential increase, , 237f Exposures fault exposure age, 6 lower trasects in, 8 9, 9f in San Jacinto Fault, 7 9, 8f 9f upper transects in, 7 8, 8f Fabric development. See Grain size reduction Failure strength, 53 55, 54f Fault branching in Bolnay earthquake (1905), , 219f 220f in Denali earthquake (2002), , 220f 221f geometrical asperities and, 218 in Kunlun earthquake (2001), , 222f 224f for strike slip earthquakes, , Fault exposure age, 6 Fault geometry, 245f 246f, 248 Faulting, 3. See also Earthquake faulting asperity contact size in, 182f in brittle crust, xiii in Denali earthquake (2002), 218 in El Mayor earthquake (2010), 218 in Erzincan earthquake (1939), 225 fault zone structures in, in Izmit Ducze sequence (1999), 218, 225 in Kunlan earthquake (2001), 218, 225 in Manyi earthquake (1999), 225 thermal pressurization in, 183f Faulting conditions, 135t, , 146f Fault mechanics, xiii Fault parallel slip, 118f Fault parallel velocity, 272f Fault properties in dynamic rupture, xii slip in, 118f surface melting and, , 119f 120f Fault roughness boudinage in, 208f, 209 for earthquake mechanics, , 199t, 203f, 212, 213f fractal geometry of, 202f fracture linkage in, 208f, 209 Hurst exponents in, 207 polishing in, 207, 208f, 209 rupture mechanics and, , 211f scaling for, 199, 200f, 201, 202f 206f, 203 5, 213f slip and, 209 striation in, 207, 208f, 209 velocity and, 198 wear in, 207, 208f, 209 Fault rupture speed, 265f 266f, Faults. See also Strike slip faults active faults, 4f AEs in, 235f bimaterial faults, 263t, , 271f displacement in, 251 fault rupture speed, 265f 266f, friction in, 251 geometries for, 199, 204 5, 212, 221, , 244, 245f Hurst exponents in, 204f, 207 hydraulic properties of, 243 long faults, 245f morphology of, plastic strain distribution in, 247f quartzitic faults, topography of, 199, 199t, 200f, 212, 224 Fault strands, 220 Fault strength AEs in, , 231t, 232f, , 235f confining pressure in, 230, 233, 233f, 235, 235f dynamic stress drop in, , 236f foreshocks in, 240 fracture energy and, 239, 239f friction and, , 233f 234f granite for, 230f high frequency stress in, 230f, 231, , 236f precursory processes and, , 240 strain gauges for, 231 triaxial loading cells and, 230 Fault surfaces frictional heating of, , 121f 124f LiDAR for, 199, 200f, 201, 203 4, 203f 204f Fault system scale, 50f 52f, Fault valving process, 37 Fault zone structures in faulting, fault mechanics and, xiii Field data. See also Petrographic data petrographic data in, 26f, for pseudotachylytes, 27 28, 27t for seismic rupture parameters, 23f 25f, 27 28, 27t, 28f SEM in, 29, 30f Field observations, 22, 27t FIPs. See Fluid inclusion planes

5 INDEX 285 Flash heating, in earthquake faulting, , 181f 182f fracture energy from, 185f 186f in geodynamic settings, temperature and, 173, as thermal mechanisms, velocity and, weakening times in, 181f Yield strength of, Flow banding, 26f Flow streaking, 26f Fluid inclusion in Caleta Coloso fault, 38, 39f dynamic rupture in, 39 41, 40f 43f, 43 methodology for, 38, 39f microfractures in, 37 41, 43, 43f Fluid inclusion planes (FIPs). See also Microfractures in Caleta Coloso fault, 38 41, 39f, 41f 42f, 43 salinity in, 39 41, 42f, 43 tensile stress fields for, 43 Foliation development, 86 89, 87f 90f Foliation geometry, 84f, 87f, 91f 92f, 92 93, 94f Foreshocks epicenters in, 235f in fault strength, 240 fracture energy in, 239, 239f hypocenters in, 235, 235f Fossil fault core, 7 10, 8f, 13, 14f Fourier amplitude spectra, 272f, 273, 274f 275f, 275 Fourier transform method Hurst exponents in, 201 for scaling, 200f, 201, 202f 206f, for slip roughness, 204 5, 205f 206f Fourier velocity spectra, 273, 274f Fractal geometry, 202f Fracture density, 40f, Fracture energy fault strength and, 239, 239f from flash heating, 185f 186f in foreshocks, 239, 239f temperature and, from thermal pressurization, , 185f 186f Fracture linkage, 208f, 209 Fracturing of cleavage planes, 92, 93f Hertzian fracturing, 50, 50f, 90, 92, 93f Hurst exponents in, 199t incipient fracturing, 11t, 12f, 13 pulverized texture in, 3 4 stress and, Fracturing mechanisms, 88f 90f, 90, 92, 93f Friction. See also Pseudotachylytes; Stick slip events AEs and, 233f Coulomb friction, 259 displacement and, 233f dynamic friction, 127f 128f, 246 in faults, 251 fault strength and, , 233f 234f frictional melting, 189 frictional sliding, 105 6, 121f 122f, , 124f, 127f 128f frictional strength, 136f, , 143f 144f, 145, 187f friction law, map of, 146f in 1D wave analysis, powder rolling and, 143f 144f rock friction, 134 rolling friction, 137f 139f, 142f, 143, 144f, 145, 146 SHIVA for, slip weakening friction, 259f slip weakening friction law, Frictional heating of fault surfaces, , 121f 124f in stick slip events, , 127f 128f in strike slip experiments, 105, , 121f 124f Fukui earthquake, 154 Gabbro faults, 133 Gauss Lobatto Legendre nodes, 264 Geodynamic settings in dynamic fault weakening, effective stress profiles in, flash heating in, thermal pressurization in, thermal profiles in, Geologic setting for Caleta Coloso fault, 39f of San Jacinto Fault, 4, 5f, 6 in Taiwan, 22, 23f Geology, 6 7, 7f, 224 Geomaterials, 53 55, 54f Geometrical asperities fault branching and, 218 in rupture mechanics, , 211f Geometries for background stress, 245f for damage zones, 72f, 249, 249f DDS test apparatus for, 154, 155f 156f, 156 for faults, 199, 204 5, 212, 221, , 244, 245f for sub Rayleigh wave speed ruptures, 72f for surface ruptures, Gibbs free energy, Glass textures, 122f, 126 Gouge flakes, 135t, , 145, 147 Gouge holders, 84f Gouge layers in dynamic fault weakening, 134, 137 in PSZ, , 142f slip in, 111, 119, 121, 121f, , 129 Gouge powder, 141 Gouges coseismic foliations in, 81 82, 84f, 86 89, 87f 90f, 97, 98f, mechanical data for, 86, 86f methodology for, 82 84, 83t, 84f microstructure analysis for, 83 84, 83t, 84f microstructures for, 84 90, 85f 97f, 92 95

6 286 INDEX Gouges (cont d) mixed calcite dolomite gouges, 83t, 98f SEM for, 87f starting materials for, 84 86, 85f for strike slip experiments, 111 Grain size microstructures and, 84 strain rates and, 64 67, 65f 66f Grain size analysis computer models of, 95f for deformed gouge microstructures, 91f, 93 94, 94f 95f Grain size reduction, 95f, 97, 97f 98f, 99 Granite dynamic rupture in, 265f, 267f, 269f, 273, 275f for fault strength, 230f pulverized granite, 48 49, 49f quartz and, 147 Radiant Red granite, 134, 135t, 136, 136f ROGA for, 147 SEM of, 119f, in stick slip events, 158t in strike slip experiments, 106, 108 Gutenberg Richter law, 234 Haiyuan fault, 206f Healing rates, 41, 43 Healing waves, 66, 66f Heat. See Temperature HEL. See Hugoniot Elastic Limit Helmotz free energy, Hertzian fracturing, 50, 50f, 90, 92, 93f High frequency stress, 230f, 231, , 236f High slip velocities, 95f, 97, 97f 98f, 99 High stress events, 127f Holocene rupture, 8 9, 9f Hoping river. See Taiwan Horizontal slip rate, 245f Host rock, 26f Hugoniot Elastic Limit (HEL), 53 55, 54f Hurst exponents in creep, 206f for earthquake mechanics, , 199t in fault roughness, 207 in faults, 204f, 207 in Fourier transform method, 201 in fracturing, 199t in scaling, 202f, 203 4, 206f slip and, 205, , 211f Hydraulic properties of faults, 243 hydraulic diffusivity in, 184f in thermal pressurization, Hypocenters in foreshocks, 235, 235f plastic strain distribution and, 249f Impedance, , 168f Imperial Valley earthquake, 206f Incident stress waves, 58 59, 59f 60f, 61, 62f, 63 Incipient fracturing, 11t, 12f, 13 Incipient pulverization. See Pulverization Inelastic deformation, 244, , 259f Initial damage density, 263t, , 269f 270f Injection veins, 25f Instrumented laboratory stick slip DDS test apparatus for, 154, 155f 156f, for earthquake source properties, , 153f, 154t, 157, 158t, 159f 160f, 160, , 166f, 167f lab inferred source properties and, , 166f loading in, slider block model for, 161 Intermediate principal stress, 245f Iquique earthquake, 240 Izmit Ducze sequence (1999), 218, 225 Jogs. See Fault branching Kelvin Voigt visco elastic layers, 264 Kinetic energy. See energy Kolsky bar. See Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar apparatus Kunlun earthquake (2001) fault branching in, , 222f 224f faulting in, 218, 225 Kunlun pass fault in, , 222f 224f morphology of, rupture maps of, 222f 224f slip rates in, 222 Lab inferred source properties earthquake source properties and, 151 instrumented laboratory stick slip and, , 166f Laboratory earthquakes. See Precursory processes Landers earthquake (1992), , 268 Laser vibrometers for slip duration, 108, 123 in strike slip experiments, 111, 112f, 123 LiDAR. See Light Detection And Ranging Life cycles, of powder rolls, , 141f 142f Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR), 199, 200f, 201, 203 4, 203f 204f Lithology, 49 50, 50f Loading. See also Dynamic loading; Stiffness in dynamic fault weakening, 134 elastic parameters for, 114t elastic unloading, , 114t energy in, 117, 117f 118f in instrumented laboratory stick slip, shear loading stiffness in, 157, 158t, 159f in stick slip events, 157, 158t, 159f stress in, sub Rayleigh wave speed ruptures in, 72 73, 72f supershear wave speed in, 72f, 73 S wave Mach cones in, 74, 74f tectonic loading, 197 Triaxial loading frame, 107f unloading stiffness in, 160f

7 INDEX 287 Log grain sizes, 96f Long distance pulverization, 69 71, 71f Long faults, 245f Lower transects in exposures, 8 9, 9f incipient pulverization in, 14f, 15, 15f, 16t, 17, 17f petrographic analysis for, 9f, 13, 14f, 15 in San Jacinto Fault, 13, 14f, 15, 15f, 16t, 17, 17f Mach cones, 73 Macroscopic friction, 135t, 136, , 143f Mainshocks, 232, , 235f 236f, 239f, 240 Manyi earthquake (1999), 225 Maps. See also Rupture maps EDS, 83 84, 88f 90f of friction, 146f of slip, 198 Mechanical data, 86, 86f Melt formation, 126 Mendola formation, 82, Methodology. See also Analytical methodology for fluid inclusion, 38, 39f for gouges, 82 84, 83t, 84f for pulverization, 58 59, 60f, 61, 62f, 63 for SHPB, 55, 56f, 57 Microanalysis, Microcrystallites, 29, 30f Microfractures, 37 41, 43, 43f Microstructure analysis for gouges, 83 84, 83t, 84f SEM for, , 137f 139f, 140 Microstructures. See also Deformed gouge microstructures computer models for, 92f in dynamic fault weakening, 135t, , 137f 139f, EDS maps for, 88f 90f for gouges, 84 90, 85f 97f, grain size and, 84 powder rolling in, 137, 137f 139f, in pulverization, 48 51, 49f 51f SEM for, 88f 91f, 93f smooth surfaces in, 135t, , 137f starting materials for, 84 86, 85f Mixed calcite dolomite gouges, 83t, 98f Mongolia. See Bolnay Earthquake (1905) Morphology, Natural slip duration. See Slip duration Natural stiffness. See Stiffness Near fault ground motion, 269f, 271, 272f, 273 North Anatolian fault, 225 Nucleation, of earthquakes, , 237f Numerical method bimaterial effect in, 264 for brittle off fault damage, , 263t friction law for, model for, 259f, 263, 263t resolution for, Numerical models PaxIt! software for, 10 for seismic risk mitigation, xi Nyquist spatial frequency, 201, 203 Oceanic transform faults. See Seismogenic environments Off fault damage coseismic damage and, 53 55, 54f, 56f, pulverization and, 59f 60f, 61, 62f, 63 1D slip front, 211f 1D wave analysis for brittle damage, 55, 56f, dynamic tensile loading in, equilibrium in, 57 friction in, Parallel polarizers, 49f Parameter values. See Geodynamic settings PaxIt! software, 10 Peak shear stress, 114, 115f 116f, 128f in stick slip events, 231t, 239f Petrographic analysis for lower transects, 9f, 13, 14f, 15 of upper transects, 10, 11t, 12f Petrographic data in field data, 26f, for seismic rupture parameters, 23f, 26f, 28 29, 30f, 31 Petrography, 22, 23f 26f, 27, 27f Petrophysical properties, 74 Piezo ceramic sensors, , 232f, 234 Plastic strain distribution in damage zone thickness, 247f, 248 in faults, 247f hypocenters and, 249f Pliocene Pleistocene faults. See Seismic rupture parameters Polishing, 207, 208f, 209 Polycrystalline dolomite particles, 92, 93f Pore fluid pressure, 41 Pore fluids, See also Dynamic fault weakening Powder flakes. See Powder rolling Powder rolling, xii in dynamic fault weakening, , , 141f 144f, 145 faulting conditions for, 135t, , 146f frictional strength and, 136f, , 143f 144f, 145 friction and, 143f 144f gouge powder in, 141 life cycles in, , 141f 142f in microstructures, 137, 137f 139f, in PSZ, 137, 138f, 140 SEM of, 137f 139f, 141f, 145, 147 slip and, 137f Precursory processes experimental results for, , 233f 236f experimental setup for, , 230f, 231t, 232f exponential increase of, , 237f fault strength and, , 240 stress in, 236f 239f,

8 288 INDEX Precursory slip, 236, 237f Principle slip surface (PSS) coseismic foliations and, 84f, 86, 87f, 88 89, 89f 90f, 92 93, 94f, 97, 98f, 99 in slip, , 119f 122f, 124f, 129 temperature and, , 124f Principle slip zones (PSZ) gouge layers in, , 142f powder rolling in, 137, 138f, 140 shear and, 143, 144f, 145 Pseudotachylytes composite cataclasite and, 24f computer models for, 28f energy and, epitode veins and, 24f field data for, 27 28, 27t flow banding in, 26f flow streaking in, 26f in host rock, 26f microcrystallites in, 29, 30f in strike slip experiments, 105 6, 129 in Taiwan, 24f tectonic significance and, 24f, 32 33, 32f 33f Pseudotachylyte veins slip sense in, 25f in Taiwan, 22, 24f 25f, 27, 29, 31 32, 31f PSS. See Principle slip surface PSZ. See Principle slip zones Pulse shapers, 58, 59f Pulverization in Arima Takatsuki Tectonic line, 49 computer models for, 52f, 56f, 59f 60f, 62f, 71f coseismic damage and, 47 53, 49f 52f, 59f 60f, 61, 62f, 63, 75, 76t of crystalline rocks, 69 71, 71f in damage zones, 51 53, 52f fault system scale and, 50f 52f, HEL in, 53 55, 54f incipient pulverization, 3 4, 14f, 15, 15f, 16t, 17, 17f lithology in, 49 50, 50f long distance pulverization, 69 71, 71f methodology for, 58 59, 60f, 61, 62f, 63 microstructures in, 48 51, 49f 51f off fault damage and, 59f 60f, 61, 62f, 63 petrophysical properties in, 74 pore fluids in, in San Andreas Fault, 48 51, 49f, 51f, 52f strike slip faults in, 75 sub Rayleigh wave speed ruptures in, 69 75, 71f 72f, 74f Pulverized dolostones, 49 51, 50f 51f Pulverized granite, 48 49, 49f Pulverized limestones, 49 51, 50f 51f Pulverized sandstone, 50 51, 51f Pulverized texture in fracturing, 3 4 Split Hopkinson Bar apparatus for, P wave speeds, 267f, 269 Quartz, 147 Quartz grains for seismic damage, 10, 11t, 12f, 13, 14f, 15, 16t, 17, 19 SEM of, 120, 122f Quartzitic faults, Radiant Red granite, 134, 135t, 136, 136f Radiated energy, , 168f Rayleigh wave speed, 264 Rayleigh wave velocity, 40 41, 43f Regimes, for constitutive model, Resolution test, 273, 275f Riedel shears, 89, 97, 98f Rock friction, 134 Rock House Canyon, 5f, 6, 7f ROGA. See Rotary shear apparatus Rolling rolling friction, 137f 139f, 142f, 143, 144f, sliding and, 143, 144f, 145 Rotary shear apparatus (ROGA) for dynamic fault weakening, 134, 135t, 147, 148f, 149 for granite, 147 for rock friction, 134 for slip, 105, 126 specifications of, 147, 148f, 149 Roughness. See Fault roughness Runge Kutta Fehlberg method, 263 Rupture maps Bolnay earthquake (1905), 219f 220f Denali earthquake (2002), 220f 221f Kunlun earthquake (2001), 222f 224f topography and, Rupture mechanics fault roughness and, , 211f geometrical asperities in, , 211f slip distribution in, , 211f stress in, 210 Rupture models. See Coseismic damage Rupture speeds, 244 Saitama earthquake, 154 Salinity, 39 41, 42f, 43 San Andreas Fault, 48 51, 49f, 51f, 52f San Jacinto Fault,xii, 225 analytical methodology for, 10 Bautista Formation in, 4, 5f, 6 brittle damage in, 16t, 17 19, 17f exhumation depth in, 3 4, 6 exposures in, 7 9, 8f 9f geologic setting of, 4, 5f, 6 incipient pulverization along, 3 4 lower transects in, 13, 14f, 15, 15f, 16t, 17, 17f sampling locations in, 7f 9f, 9 10 upper transects in, 10, 11t, 12f, 13 wall rock geology in, 6 7, 7f Sawcuts axial force in, 116f deformation textures in, 121f

9 INDEX 289 SEM of, , 120f 122f, 126 for strike slip experiments, 108 Scale independent laboratory properties, 153f, 154 Scaling of aseismic spatial slip distribution, 205, 206f of coseismic spatial slip distribution, 206f for damage zones, 247f, for fault roughness, 199, 200f, 201, 202f 206f, 203 5, 213f Fourier transform method for, 200f, 201, 202f 206f, Hurst exponents in, 202f, 203 4, 206f Nyquist spatial frequency for, 201, 203 self affinity for, 199, 200f, 201, 202f for slip roughness, 204 5, 205f 206f Scaling relationships, 161, 162f 163f, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) EDS maps compared to, in field data, 29, 30f of glass textures, 122f, 126 for gouges, 87f of granite, 119f, for microstructure analysis, , 137f 139f, 140 for microstructures, 88f 91f, 93f of powder rolling, 137f 139f, 141f, 145, 147 of quartz grains, 120, 122f of sawcuts, , 120f 122f, 126 for smooth surfaces, for strike slip experiments, Schematic synthesis, 98f Sediments, 7 9, 8f 9f Seismic damage. See Quartz grains Seismic displacement, Seismic moment magnitude, 32, 32f Seismic risk mitigation, xi Seismic rupture parameters analytical methodology for, 22, 23f 26f, 27, 27t coseismic melt overpressure in, 31, 31f field data for, 23f 25f, 27 28, 27t, 28f petrographic data for, 23f, 26f, 28 29, 30f, 31 seismic displacement in, seismic moment magnitude in, 32, 32f seismic slip in, 24f, 32 33, 33f in Taiwan, 21 22, 23f 26f, 27 29, 27t, 28f, Seismic ruptures, xii Seismic slip, 24f, 32 33, 33f Seismic source theory, , 168f Seismogenic depth damage zone thickness and, , , 249f, models for, 245f plastic strain in, 247f Seismogenic environments dynamic fault weakening in, , 181f 187f earthquake propagation and, 172, , 190f effective stress profiles for, thermal pressurization and, thermal profiles for, Seismogenic zone bases, , 190f Seismograms, 272f Self affinity for scaling, 199, 200f, 201, 202f strength and, 210 SEM. See Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM mosaics. See Scanning Electron Microscopy Shear. See also Peak shear stress coseismic shear, 81, 98f, critical stress and, 190f, 239f of domains, 81, 86 89, 87f 89f, in dynamic fault weakening, PSZ and, 143, 144f, 145 in stick slip events, Shear loading stiffness, 157, 158t, 159f Shear melting, 105 6, 121f 122f, , 124f, 127f 128f. See also Stick slip events Shear strain in deformed gouge microstructures, 84f, 87f, 91f 92f, 92 93, 94f stress and, Shear strain analysis, 94f Sheath folds, 26f SHIVA. See Slow to High Velocity rotary shear friction Analysis SHPB. See Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar apparatus Single material damage, 263t, , 265f Slider block model for instrumented laboratory stick slip, 161 for stiffness, 161, 162f 163f, 164 Sliding, 143, 144f, 145 Slip axial force in, 116f and critical weakening strain, 184f cumulative slip, 265f 266f, , 269f, 271f direction in, 205f, 213f dynamic fault slip, 106 dynamic fault weakening and, fault parallel slip, 118f in fault properties, 118f fault roughness and, 209 in gouge layers, 111, 119, 121, 121f, , 130 horizontal slip rate, 245f Hurst exponents and, 205, , 211f maps of, 198 powder rolling and, 137f precursory slip, 236, 237f PSS in, , 119f 122f, 124f, 129 ROGA for, 105, 126 slip rates, 222, 246f, 265f 266f, , 271f stress and, 111f in stress drop, , 117f in strike slip experiments, 117, 118f total slip, , 115f 117f Slip distribution, , 211f Slip duration laser vibrometers for, 108, 123 stiffness and, 151 temperature and, 106, , 124f, 127, 129 velocity and, 117, 118f, 164

10 290 INDEX Slip rates, 246f, 271f in earthquake rupture dynamics, 265f 266f, in Kunlun earthquake (2001), 222 Slip roughness, 204 5, 205f 206f Slip sense, 25f Slip surface, 203f Slip weakening friction, 259f Slip weakening friction law, Slow to High Velocity rotary shear friction Analysis (SHIVA), Smooth surfaces in microstructures, 135t, , 137f SEM for, Spalling, 92, 93f Spalling test, 63 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus. See also Coseismic damage; Pulverization for dynamic loading, 47 48, 55, 60f for Incident stress waves, 58 59, 59f 60f, 61, 62f, 63 methodology for, 55, 56f, 57 for pulverized texture, wave speeds and, 55, 56f, 57 Spring slider models, 128f, 129 Starting materials calcite for, for gouges, 84 86, 85f for microstructures, 84 86, 85f Static shear stress drop, 116f Static strength, 126 Stick slip events, , 153f, 154t. See also Instrumented laboratory stick slip acoustic energy in, 238f computer models for, 111f 112f, 115f 118f, 123f 124f, 127f 128f, 162f 163f, 166f DDS test apparatus for, 163f, dynamic friction in, 128f earthquake source properties and, 161, 162f 163f, energy in, 118f experiments for, 231t frictional heating in, , 127f 128f granite in, 158t instability in, 236f loading in, 157, 158t, 159f peak shear stress in, 231t, 239f radiated energy in, , 168f shear in, spring slider models for, 128f, 129 stress drop in, 111, 112f, 125, 166 temperature in, 111, 112f, 123f Stiffness, 108, , 114t, 116f DDS test apparatus for, 154t shear loading stiffness, 157, 158t, 159f slider block model for, 161, 162f 163f, 164 slip duration and, 151 unloading stiffness, 160f Strain gauges, 231 Strain rates in dynamic brittle damage, 64 67, 65f 66f failure strength for, 53 55, 54f grain size and, 64 67, 65f 66f strength and, 67 69, 68f Strain rate sensitivity, 53 55, 54f Strain stress curves, 67 69, 68f Strength. See also Fault strength Byerlee strength, 187, 187f, 198, 211 failure strength, 53 55, 54f self affinity and, 210 static strength, 126 strain rates and, 67 69, 68f Stress. See also Peak shear stress background stress, 245f creep and, dynamic stress, 230f dynamic stress drop, , 236f in earthquake mechanics, 210 fracturing and, in loading, in precursory processes, 236f 239f, in rupture mechanics, 210 shear strain and, slip and, 111f stress intensity factors, in strike slip experiments, 108, 109t 110t, 111, 111f 112f, 113 Stress drop apparent stress and, DDS test apparatus for, 154 slip in, , 117f in stick slip events, 111, 112f, 125, 166 in strike slip experiments, , 115f 117f, 251 in surface melting, 129 Stress intensity factors, Stress waves, 69 incident stress waves, 58 59, 59f 60f, 61, 62f, 63 Striation, 207, 208f, 209 Strike slip earthquakes. See also Denali earthquake (2002) Bolnay earthquake (1905) as, , 219f 220f case studies of, , 219f 224f fault branching for, , Tsetserleg earthquake (1905) as, 219 Strike slip experiments confining pressure in, 105 6, 108, 111, 112f, 114, 114t, 115f 116f, 117, 118f, 119, 120f 122f, , 128f dynamic friction in, 246 elastic unloading in, , 114t energy in, 117, 118f frictional heating in, 105, , 121f 124f gouges for, 111 granite in, 106, 108 laser vibrometers in, 111, 112f, 123 pseudotachylytes in, 105 6, 129 sawcuts for, 108 SEM for, 130 slip in, 117, 118f

11 INDEX 291 stress drop in, , 115f 117f, 251 stress in, 108, 109t 110t, 111, 111f 112f, 113 surface melting in, 105, , 119f 120f total slip in, , 115f 117f triaxial apparatus in, 106, 107f, 108 velocity in, 114, 117, 118f, 157, 158t, 159f, 160, 160f Strike slip faults. See also Bolnay earthquake (1905); Caleta Coloso fault; Kunlun earthquake (2001); San Jacinto Fault; Seismogenic environments; Taiwan dynamic rupture in, 244 event parameters for, 109t 110t mature models for, in pulverization, 75 Striking foliations, 86, 87f, 97, 99 Subduction zones. See Seismogenic environments Sub Rayleigh wave speed ruptures geometries for, 72f in loading, 72 73, 72f in pulverization, 69 75, 71f 72f, 74f Subshear velocity, 268 Subvertical high angle fluid inclusion planes, 42f Supershear wave speed, 72f, 73 Surface melting fault properties and, , 119f 120f stress drop in, 129 in strike slip experiments, 105, , 119f 120f Surface ruptures, Susitna glacier fault, 220f, 221 S wave Mach cones, 74, 74f S wave speeds, 267f, 269 Symbols, for calculations, 76t Synthetic seismograms, 272f Taiwan geologic setting in, 22, 23f pseudotachylytes in, 24f pseudotachylytes veins in, 22, 24f 25f, 27, 29, 31 32, 31f seismic rupture parameters in, 21 22, 23f 26f, 27 29, 27t, 28f, tectonostratigraphic units of, 23f Tananao metamorphic complex, 21 22, 29, Tectonic loading, 197 Tectonic significance, 24f, 32 33, 32f 33f Tectonostratigraphic units, 23f Temperature. See also Frictional heating energy and, 127 flash heating and, 173, fracture energy and, PSS and, , 124f slip duration and, 106, 125, 124f, 127, 129 in stick slip events, 111, 112f, 123f velocity and, 188 Temporal evolution, 266f, 270f Tensile cracking, 258 Tensile stress fields, 43 Teretiyn fault, , 219f 220f Theoretical estimates, Thermal hydrology mechanics chemical coupling, xii Thermal mechanisms in dynamic fault weakening, flash heating as, Thermal pressurization in earthquake faulting, , 182f 184f in faulting, 183f fracture energy from, , 185f 186f in geodynamic settings, hydraulic properties in, seismogenic environments and, thermal pressurization factors, 183f Thermal profiles in geodynamic settings, for seismogenic environments, Thermo chemical pressurization, 189 3D dynamic rupture simulations, , , Three point bending technique, 63 Tibet. See Manyi earthquake (1999) Tohoku earthquake (2011), 240 Tonalite in Bautista Formation, 6 7, 7f in upper transects, 10, 11t, 12f, 13 Topography. See also Scaling of faults, 199, 199t, 200f, 212, 224 rupture maps and, Total slip, , 115f 117f Totschunda fault, 220f 221f, Tottori earthquake, 154 Triaxial apparatus DDS test apparatus compared to, 165 in strike slip experiments, 106, 107f, 108 Triaxial loading cells, 230 Triaxial loading frame, 107f Tsetserleg earthquake (1905), 219 Turkey. See Erzincan earthquake (1939); North Anatolian fault 2D fractal dimensions, 97f Ultracataclasites, 21 22, 23f, 25, Unloading stiffness, 160f Upheaval Dome Impact structures, Upper transects in exposures, 7 8, 8f incipient fracturing in, 11t, 12f, 13 petrographic analysis of, 10, 11t, 12f in San Jacinto Fault, 10, 11t, 12f, 13 tonalite in, 10, 11t, 12f, 13 Velocity critical weakening velocity, 181f energy and, 161, 162f fault parallel velocity, 272f fault roughness and, 198 flash heating and, slip duration and, 117, 118f, 164 in strike slip experiments, 114, 117, 118f, 157, 158t, 159f, 160, 160f

12 292 INDEX Velocity (cont d) subshear velocity, 268 temperature and, 188 Vuache Sillingy fault, 204, 204f, 208f Wall rock geology, 6 7, 7f Wasaka earthquake, 154 Wavelet transform, 202f Wave speeds. See also Sub Rayleigh wave speed ruptures in coseismic damage, 72 73, 72f dynamic changes of, 259f, 265f 267f, P wave speeds, 267f, 269 SHPB and, 55, 56f, 57 S wave speeds, 267f, 269 Weakening. See Dynamic fault weakening Weakening times, , 181f Wear, in fault roughness, 207, 208f, 209 Westerly granite. See Granite Xidatan segment. See Kunlun earthquake (2001) Yield strength, of flash heating,