ISOTOPE TRACERS IN CATCHMENT HYDROLOGY

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1 ISOTOPE TRACERS IN CATCHMENT HYDROLOGY Edited by CAROL KENDALL U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Road, MS 434, Menlo Park, CA 94025, U.S.A. JEFFREY J. MCDONNELL SUNY-College of Environmental Science and Forestry 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY 13210, U.S.A ELSEVIER Amsterdam - Lausanne - New York - oxford - Shannon - Singapore - Tokyo

2 XI TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I. BASIC PRINCIPLES CHAPTER 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SMALL CATCHMENT HYDROLOGY 1 J.M. Buttle 1.1 Introduction to Small Catchments The Catchment Water Balance General components of the water balance Precipitation, interception, net precipitation Snowmelt Infiltration and soil water storage Evaporation and evapotranspiration Storage in lakes, wetlands and stream channels Runoff outputs via streamflow Mechanisms of stormflow generation Groundwater flow Questions of Spatial and Temporal Scale in Catchment Hydrology Use of Isotopes in Catchment Research Evaporation, evapotranspiration, interception Pore-water mixing (the mobile-immobile water issue) Soil and groundwater recharge rates Soil water, groundwater and surface water residence times Storm runoff components > Water sources versus water flowpaths Sources of solutes New Research Directions Summary 43 CHAPTER 2: FUNDAMENTALS OF ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY 51 C. Kendall and E.A. Caldwell 2.1 Introduction Fundamentals of Isotope Geochemistry Definitions Terminology Standards Stable Isotope Fractionation Properties of isotopic molecules Fractionation accompanying chemical reactions and phase changes.. 57

3 Xll The Rayleigh equations Isotopic fractionation in open and closed systems Biological fractionations Sample Collection, Analysis, and Quality Assurance Sampling guidelines Analytical methods and instrumentation Quality assurance of contract laboratories Applications of Isotope Tracers in Catchment Hydrology Water isotope hydrology Solute isotope biogeochemistry Mixing Isotopically labeled materials Stable isotopes in geochemical modeling Use of a multi-isotope approach for the determination of flowpaths Summary 84 PART II. PROCESSES AFFECTING ISOTOPIC COMPOSITIONS CHAPTER 3: ISOTOPIC VARIATIONS IN PRECIPITATION 87 N.L. Ingraham 3.1 Introduction Global hydrologic cycle Natural Fractionation of Isotopes in Precipitation Co-variance of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in precipitation Systematics of Isotope Variations in Precipitation System fractionation ^2 Unique types of precipitation Observed effects Temporal variation in precipitation Geographic variation in precipitation in convective systems Continental effect in precipitation Dependence of rain on ambient temperature Exchange with atmospheric vapor Evaporation on the canopy Mesoscale Circulation and Storm Trajectories Tritium Origin Recent elevated levels and decline Ill Observed terrestrial and marine distributions Uses of tritium in catchment basin research Implications for Catchment Basin Research Scale issues Sample collection Summary 115

4 Xlll CHAPTER 4: ISOTOPIC FRACTIONATION IN SNOW COVER 119 L.W. Cooper 4.1 Introduction Isotopic Changes to a Snowpack Changes during snow accumulation Changes during snowmelt Isotopic water balance and evaporation Catchment scale and runoff considerations Future Directions for Research 131 CHAPTER 5: ISOTOPIC EXCHANGE IN SOIL WATER 137 C.J. Barnes and JM. Turner 5.1 Introduction General discussion of isotopes Analytical considerations Soil-water extraction techniques Processes Leading to Soil Water Concentration Variations: Meteorological Inputs Processes Leading to Soil Water Concentration Variations: Evaporation Introduction Saturated soils Unsaturated soils Unsteady evaporation Temperature effects Oxygen- 18/deuterium relationship Further modifications due to salinity and transpiration New Research Directions Summary. 162 CHAPTER 6: PLANTS, ISOTOPES AND WATER USE: A CATCHMENT-SCALE PERSPECTIVE 165 T.E. Daw son andj.r. Ehleringer 6.1 Introduction Plants and catchment-level processes Working premise concerning plants, isotopes and water use Water Uptake and Water Transport in Plants Background Measurements of water uptake and transport by plants Stomatal Regulation of Water Movement in the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum Water movement and the regulatory role of plants: the leaf-level Water movement and the regulatory role of plants: the stand-level. 175

5 XIV 6.4 Water Sources and Water Use by Plants: Case Studies Using Stable Isotopes Riparian forest communities Arid and semi-arid plant communities Temperate forest communities Coastal plant communities Current Issues Involving Plants and Catchment-Scale Hydrologic Processes Invasive plants and site water balance Stream diversions and riparian manipulations Deforestation, reforestation and desertification Long-term Record of Water Use by Plants Merging the Study of Stable Isotopes in Water with Studies of Water Uptake and Water Use in Plants and the Hydrology of Catchments 194 CHAPTER 7: ISOTOPES IN GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY 203 R. Gonfiantini, K. Frohlich, L. Araguas-Araguds and K. Rozanski 7.1 Introduction Isotopic Variations in Waters Recharging the Aquifers The isotopic composition of precipitation The isotopic composition of surface waters Isotopic Effects in the Unsaturated Zone Mechanisms of infiltration Water movement in the unsaturated zone Dissolution processes Shallow Aquifers Recharge by precipitation Recharge from surface waters Hydrodynamical models of shallow groundwater systems based on isotopic data Deep Groundwater Groundwater movement in confined aquifers Groundwater age Interconnections between aquifers Geothermal groundwaters Groundwater Studies in Catchments Present situation and case study examples Research trends and needs 238 CHAPTER 8: LITHOGENIC AND COSMOGENIC TRACERS IN CATCHMENT HYDROLOGY 247 G.J. Nimz 8.1 Introduction Processes that Affect Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Isotopic Compositions in Hydrologic Systems 248

6 XV Lithogenic and cosmogenic solutes used in hydrologic analysis Origin of lithogenic nuclides in natural waters: mineral reactions Origin of lithogenic nuclides in natural waters: trace element exchange Origin of isotopic variations: radiogenic nuclides Origin of isotopic variations: the mineral weathering sequence Origin of isotopic variations: uranium isotopes and alpha recoil Origin of isotopic variations: cosmogenic nuclides Origin of isotopic variations: fission products Hydrologic application of cosmogenic nuclides The Application of Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Nuclides to Catchment Hydrology Input: precipitation, dry deposition, and throughfall The shallow system: hydrograph separation, weathering, and arid-region infiltration Evaporation / transpiration The deep system: groundwater flow System (basin) closure: mixing of water masses Streamflow: mass balance within the catchment Lithogenic and cosmogenic nuclides: summary New Directions in Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Nuclides The other geologic giant: neodymium Lithogenic elements with fractionating isotopes New directions in catchment hydrology for cosmogenic nuclides Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Tracers in Catchment Hydrology: Concluding Remarks 281 CHAPTER 9: DISSOLVED GASES IN SUBSURFACE HYDROLOGY 291 D.K. Solomon, P.G. Cook and W.E. Sanford 9.1 Introduction Occurrence and Transport of Dissolved Gases Shallow Groundwater Dating H/ 3 He Chlorofluorocarbons Kr Radiogenic 4 He Field examples of groundwater dating Groundwater Surface-Water Interactions He Rn Injected Dissolved Gas Tracers Field example: noble gas tracer experiment Future Directions 313

7 XVI PART III. CASE STUDIES IN ISOTOPE HYDROLOGY CHAPTER 10: OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN ISOTOPES IN RAINFALL-RUNOFF STUDIES 319 D.P. Genereux and R.P. Hooper 10.1 Introduction Hydrograph Separation Terminology Requirements and assumptions in hydrograph separation Findings and examples Scale dependence of / pe values Intra-component variability in tracer concentrations Recommendations for field studies New Directions Subsurface mixing and residence time Use of isotopes in model calibration Conclusions 343 CHAPTER 11: HIGH RAINFALL, RESPONSE-DOMINATED CATCHMENTS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EXPERIMENTS IN TROPICAL NORTHEAST QUEENSLAND WITH TEMPERATE NEW ZEALAND 347 M. Bonell, C.J. Barnes, C.R. Grant, A. Howard and J. Burns 11.1 Introduction Previous Studies in High Rainfall, Response - Dominated Catchments The Maimai catchments :, Linkages between the Maimai and Babinda studies Physical Background Experimental Methods Precipitation Streamflow Hillslope instrumentation Results: Event of February 16, Antecedent catchment storage and rainfall-runoff of sample storm Matric and hydraulic potential changes on sample slope transects Hydrograph analysis Stream Hydrograph Analysis and Isotopic Response Event analysis - general considerations Soil and groundwater isotopic changes How High Rainfall Catchments Work The Babinda model The secondary store issue New water dominance at Babinda vs old water dominance at Maimai Future Research Directions 385

8 xvu CHAPTER 12: SNOWMELT-DOMINATED SYSTEMS 391 A. Rodhe 12.1 Introduction Basic hydrological processes Global geographical distribution Isotopic characteristics of snowmelt Hydrograph Separation Studies Historical studies Recent studies with more complete characterization Vertical Unsaturated Flow Estimates of groundwater recharge and particle velocity Piston flow versus macropore flow Transit times and flow pattern from lysimeter studies Flow pattern in two and three dimensions Implications for catchment flow studies Conclusions and Future Research Directions 429 CHAPTER 13: ARID CATCHMENTS 435 N.L. Ingraham, E.A. Caldwell and B.Th. Verhagen 13.1 Introduction The Use of Isotopes in Arid Catchment Studies Precipitation Lakes Rivers Rivers displaying isotopic enrichment Rivers without isotopic enrichment Soil water Infiltration and recharge in arid regions Groundwater The 'd' value in arid groundwater Sampling Precipitation Surface water Soil water Non-Traditional Techniques Strontium He/Tritium Chlorine Noble Gases Chlorofluorocarbons Future Directions 460

9 xvm CHAPTER 14: GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE-WATER INTERACTIONS IN RIPARIAN AND LAKE-DOMINATED SYSTEMS 467 J.F. Walker and D.P. Krabbenhoft 14.1 Introduction Importance of lake-dominated systems Dominant hydrological processes Previous Studies in Lake Systems Estimating Groundwater Exchange with Lakes Stable-isotope mass-balance method Index-lake method Wisconsin WEBB Case Study Study area Study design Isotopic flow-system progression Isotopic complexity Concluding Remarks 486 PART IV. CASE STUDIES IN ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY CHAPTER 15: USE OF STABLE ISOTOPES IN EVALUATING SULFUR BLOGEOCHEMISTRY OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS 489 M.J. Mitchell, H.R. Krouse, B. Mayer, A.C. Stam and Y. Zhang 15.1 Introduction: Forest Ecosystem Sulfur Dynamics Controls on Sulfur Isotope Composition Isotope fractionation Atmospheric sources of sulfur Geological sources of sulfur... > Sulfur isotopes in the hydrosphere Sulfur isotopes in soil and terrestrial vegetation Natural Abundance Studies Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire Bear Brook Watershed, Maine Experimental Lakes Area, Ontario, Canada Rocky Mountains, Colorado and Wyoming Black Forest, Germany Applied Tracer Studies Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire Bear Brook Watershed, Maine West Whitecourt, Alberta, Canada Bavaria, Germany Hoglwald, Germany Black Forest, Germany Skjervatjern Catchment, Norway Lake Gardsjon Catchment, Sweden New Research Directions Summary 515

10 XIX CHAPTER 16: TRACING NITROGEN SOURCES AND CYCLES IN CATCHMENTS 519 C. Kendall 16.1 Introduction Fundamentals of nitrogen isotopes Methods The Nitrogen Cycle Isotopic fractionations Processes affecting N isotopic compositions N Values of Nitrogen Sources and Reservoirs Atmospheric sources Fertilizers Animal waste Plants Soils Groundwaters I8 O Values of Nitrate Sources and Reservoirs Atmospheric nitrate Synthetic fertilizers and reagents Microbial nitrate Other processes affecting nitrate 8 18 O values Tracing Sources and Cycling of Nitrate Mixing Denitrification Application Studies Agricultural and urban sources of nitrate Sources of N in acid-rain affected forested catchments Nitrogen-limited systems " Labeled-tracer studies Food web studies New Frontiers Applications of the dual isotope method Tracing sources and sinks for DOM Applications of compound-specific isotope ratio mass spectrometry Use of isotopic techniques to assess impacts of changes in land-management practices and landuse on water quality Use of a multi-isotope or multi-tracer approach Development of linked hydrologic/geochemical models Summary 569

11 XX CHAPTER 17: CARBON CYCLING IN TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENTS 577 Y. Wang, T.G. Huntington, L.J. Osher, L.I. Wassenaar, S.E. Trumbore, R.G. Amundson, J.W. Harden, DM. McKnight, S.L. Schiff, G.R. Aiken, W.B. Lyons, R.O. Aravena andj.s. Baron 17.1 Introduction Carbon Isotopes and Terminology Carbon Dynamics in Soils C age of soil organic matter Use of I4 C to study C turnover in soils The use of 13 C to study C turnover in soils Use of carbon isotopes in understanding carbon dynamics in peatlands Isotope Studies of Dissolved Organic Matter in Groundwater Stable carbon isotopes Nitrogen, sulfur and hydrogen isotopes Radiocarbon in DOC Isotope Study of DOC in Lacustrine Environments Isotope Studies and the Carbon Budget 602 CHAPTER 18: TRACING OF WEATHERING REACTIONS AND WATER FLOWPATHS: A MULTI-ISOTOPE APPROACH 611 T.D. Bullen and C. Kendall 18.1 Introduction Rationale for using water and solute isotopes as tracers in catchments Theoretical bases of the strontium, lead and carbon isotope systems Geological/environmental factors leading to successful tracing with solute isotopes Influences on Isotopic Composition of Sr, Pb and C in Catchment Waters Lithologic controls on the isotopic composition of strontium and lead Atmospheric/anthropogenic inputs of Sr, Pb, and C Effects of organic and inorganic cycling on isotopic composition of carbon Multi-Isotope Studies at Selected Watersheds The combined use of O, H and Sr isotopes to understand differences in chemical evolution along different flowpaths in a sandy aquifer in northern Wisconsin Sr, Pb and C isotopes as surrogate tracers of water movement at a catchment nested in calc-silicate rocks, Sleepers River, Vermont C and Sr isotopes as tracers of sources of carbonate alkalinity at Catoctin Mountain, Maryland Synthesis: an isotopic view of a catchment Additional Solute Isotope Tracers: Li, B, Fe Summary 643

12 XXI CHAPTER 19: EROSION, WEATHERING, AND SEDIMENTATION 647 P.R. Bierman, A. Albrecht, MM. Bothner, E.T. Brown, T.D. Bullen, L.B. Gray and L. Turpin 19.1 Introduction In Situ Produced Cosmogenic Nuclides Cosmogenic nuclides in exposed outcrops Cosmogenic nuclides in sediments Case studies Atmospheric Nuclides: 210 Pb Methods Interpretation Applications Combined Approaches To Catchment Landscape Analysis: 137 Cs and 210 Pb Lake sediments Soils Water samples Case studies Tracing of Sediment Sources and Identification of Erosion Processes Using Natural and Anthropogenic Radionuclides Nuclides of importance Case studies Sr and Weathering Weathering and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr Typical 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios Sr isotopes as tracers of solute sources 672 CHAPTER 20: APPLICATIONS OF URANIUM- AND THORIUM-SERIES RADIONUCLIDES IN CATCHMENT HYDROLOGY STUDIES 679 T.F. Kraemer and D.P. Genereux 20.1 Introduction Review of Fundamental Concepts : Decay chains and radioactive equilibrium Physical and chemical processes that redistribute U and Th series radionuclides Radon Techniques in Catchment Hydrology General considerations, mixing models Mixing model without correction for volatilization Mixing model with degassing correction through stagnant film model Mixing model with degassing correction through an injected tracer Mixing model, with partitioning of water inflow into different sources Radium Isotopic Techniques in Catchment Hydrology General considerations Radium as a tracer for groundwater input to an estuary system

13 Use of 228 Ra and 226 Ra in quantifying groundwater input to a stream: conservative mixing Use of 228 Ra and 226 Ra in quantifying groundwater input to a stream: non-conservative mixing Use of 228 Ra and 226 Ra in quantifying three end-member conservative mixing Using 224 Ra and 228 Ra to determine residence time of water in short-residence time reservoirs Using radium isotopes to identify the source of water issuing from springs New Research Directions '. 719 PART V. SYNTHESIS CHAPTER 21: MODELING OF ISOTOPES AND HYDROGEOCHEMICAL RESPONSES IN CATCHMENT HYDROLOGY 723 J.V. Turner and C.J. Barnes 21.1 Introduction Some definitions and terms Limitations of the Mass Balance Hydrograph Separation Approach Mass balance hydrograph separation models Estimation of Transit Times - System Response Functions of Catchments System response functions System response functions based on the IUH Application of system response functions based on the Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph Identifying "old" and "new" water in terms of system response functions Time series approaches to system response functions Kalman filtering and residence times Comparisons of Models of Isotopic and Chemical Hydrograph Separation New Research Directions 757 CHAPTER 22: ISOTOPES AS INDICATORS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 761 J.B. Shanley, E. Pendall, C. Kendall, L.R. Stevens, R.L. Michel, P.J. Phillips, R.M. Forester, D.L. Naftz, B. Liu, L. Stern, B.B. Wolfe, C.P. Chamberlain, S.W. Leavitt, T.H.E. Heaton, B. Mayer, L.D. Cecil, W.B. Lyons, B.G. Katz, J.L. Betancourt, DM. McKnight, J.D. Blum, T.W.D. Edwards, H.R. House, E. ho, R.O. Aravena andj.f. Whelan 22.1 Introduction Direct and proxy records of environmental change Recent Environmental Change Indicators Groundwater dating 763

14 Direct use of water isotopes to infer recent global change Changes in land use deduced from tracer studies Isotope tracers for tracking migratory patterns of birds Changes in atmospheric deposition Paleo-Climatic Indicators Groundwater as an archive of paleo-climatic information Continental glaciers Clay minerals, oxides, and hydroxides Pedogenic carbonates Paleoenvironmental reconstruction from stable isotopes in tree rings and plant fossils Lacustrine environments: organics Lacustrine environments: authigenic carbonates Lacustrine environments: ostracodes New Research Directions Summary 803 A web page for this book is located at URL This page includes copies of the table of contents and the index, colored versions of selected non-copyrighted figures that can be downloaded for teaching purposes, a list of errata, selected portions of the non-copyrighted chapters and other useful isotope-related information. These listings will be searchable on-line.

Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. land. Clark and Peter Fritz

Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology land. Clark and Peter Fritz www. science.uottawa. ca/~eih LEWIS PUBLISHERS Boca Raton New York CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: THE ENVIRONMENTAL ISOTOPES 1 Environmental Isotopes