Fundamentals of THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. David Briggs, Peter Smithson, Kenneth Addison and Ken Atkinson

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1 Fundamentals of THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Second Edition David Briggs, Peter Smithson, Kenneth Addison and Ken Atkinson LONDON AND NEW YORK

2 Contents L,ISI Of colour piates List of black and white plates List of figures List of tables List of boxes Preface to the second edition Acknowledgements X xi XV xxvii xxix XXX xxxi 1 The physical environment: a starting point Process in Grindsbrook valley A systems approach System change and system stability ^ v Energy and Earth The nature of inputs and outputs of energy Concepts of energy Transfers of energy Energy transformations General patterns and principles of electromagnetic radiation Solar radiation input Endogenetic energy Energy outputs of the globe Thermodynamics Global energy transfers Local and regional energy transfers 3 Earth's geological structure and processes Origin and dynamics Earth structure and internal energy Crustal evolution: plate tectonics The geological evolution of Britain Conclusion 4 The global ocean Evolution of Earth's ocean basins Ocean basin geometry and sea levels Composition and structure of ocean waters Ocean circulation Tides and waves Conclusion

3 vi CONTENTS 5 Heat and energy in the atmosphere 63 The atmospheric energy system 63 Spatial variability of radiation exchanges 68 Latitudinal radiation balance 69 The heat balance 69 Energy transfers and the global circulation 73 Effects upon temperature 74 6 Moisture in the atmosphere 78 The effects of heating and cooling in the atmosphere 78 Condensation 80 Precipitation 86 Conclusion 92 7 Precipitation and evapotranspiration 94 Precipitation 94 Evapotranspiration 107 Conclusion The atmosphere in motion 119 Atmospheric circulation and winds 119 Forces acting upon the air 120 The global pattern of circulation 123 Energy transfer in the atmosphere 125 Wind patterns 127 Jet streams 134 El Nino-Southern Oscillation 135 Conclusion Weather-forming systems 138 Air masses 138 Weather-forming systems of temperate latitudes 141 Weather-forming systems of the tropics 147 Weather prediction 150 Weather prediction and hazards Micro and local climates 153 The climate near the ground 153 Microclimate over bare soil 153 Microclimate above a vegetated surface 155 The microclimate of woodland 158 Urban climates 161 The microclimate of slopes 166 Valley breeze systems 168 Sea breezes Climate change 172 Evidence for climatic change 172 Causes of climatic change 176 Conclusion Rock formation and deformation 187 Rock-forming minerals and processes 188 The rock cycle 191

4 CONTENTS vii The oceanic rock cycle 204 Rock deformation: folding and faulting 208 Conclusion Denudation, weathering and mass wasting 211 Denudation 211 Force and resistance 214 Weathering 216 Mass wasting 221 Conclusion Flowing water in the landscape 234 Generation of channel flow 234 Stream flow in channels 243 Channel erosion and sediment transfer 251 Fluvial landsystems 253 Conclusion Ice in the landscape 263 Form, mass and energy balance of ice 263 Ice flow and glacier geomorphic processes 272 Glacier erosional landsystems 280 Glacier depositional landsystems 281 Permafrost processes and landsystems 285 Conclusion The work of the wind 292 Aeolian processes 292 Aeolian landsystems 294 Conclusion The work of the sea 302 Wave, current and tidal action 303 Coastal geomorphic processes 306 Coastal landsystems 310 The global coastline 314 Conclusion Soil properties 322 Physical properties 322 Colloidal properties 327 ph or soil reaction 334 Soil fertility 335 Conclusion Soil formation 338 Soil development, soil profiles and soil horizons 338 The soil-forming environment 339 Leaching, decalcification, calcification 342 Podzolization 345 Clay formation and translocation 347 Gleying 349 Salinization, alkalization, solodization 350 Laterization 354

5 viii CONTENTS The soil catena: the topographical factor in soil formation 355 The age factor in soil formation 356 Conclusion Vegetation systems 360 Units and scale of study 360 The concept of the ecosystem 361 Environmental factors 361 Limiting factors and range of tolerance 362 The concept of the ecological niche 364 Vegetation zones of Earth 364 Conclusion Vegetation development and succession 370 Succession and climax 370 Classification of successions 372 Lithoseres 374 Psammoseres 375 Hydroseres 376 Haloseres 379 Ecosystem changes through succession 380 Theories of climax vegetation 381 Conclusion Energy flows and nutrient cycles in ecosystems 384 General principles of energy flow 384 Biomass and productivity 386 Energy flows in deciduous woodland 387 Energy flows in prairie grassland 389 Ecosystem production 390 Global carbon budgets 391 Plant nutrients 392 The nitrogen cycle 393 The phosphorus cycle 395 Biogeochemical cycling of base cations 397 Nutrient cycling in tropical rain forests 398 Conclusion Diversity and stability in ecosystems 404 Definitions of diversity 405 Factors influencing diversity 406 Definitions of stability 411 British birds: a stability example 412 Relationship between diversity and stability 414 Threats to global biodiversity 416 Conclusion Polar environments 421 Distribution of polar landscapes 421 Vegetation and soils in high latitudes 424 Plant adaptations in polar regions 426 Energy and ecological productivity 428 Construction problems 431 Impacts of oil and gas fields 432

6 CONTENTS ix Arctic pollution 435 Environmental impacts of polar tourism 437 Conclusion Mountain environments 440 Physical geology of the principal mountain systems 440 Mountain meteorology and climate 447 Mountain ecosystems 452 Alpine landsystem 455 Conclusion Mediterranean environments 462 Climate, present and past 462 Soil formation and distribution 465 Development and adaptation of vegetation 467 Distribution of the plant communities 472 Fire in the landscape 475 Desertification and soil erosion 477 Water supply problems: quantity and quality 480 Conclusion Dryland environments 485 Climate 485 Desert 487 Savanna 489 Environmental problems of dry land 492 Conclusion Humid tropical environments 504 Climate 504 Geomorphology 506 Soils 507 Tropical forests 507 Environmental change 510 Human impact on the forest 510 Conclusion 518 Appendix Soil classification according to the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World 519 Bibliography 521 Glossary 525 Index 549

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