Intrinsic Motivation for Learning of the Adult Graduate Student at Western Michigan University

Transcription

1 Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College Intrinsic Motivation for Learning of the Adult Graduate Student at Western Michigan University Phyllis Crandall Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Higher Education Commons Recommended Citation Crandall, Phyllis, "Intrinsic Motivation for Learning of the Adult Graduate Student at Western Michigan University" (1995). Dissertations This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact

2 INTRINSIC MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING OF THE ADULT GRADUATE STUDENT AT WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY by Phyllis Crandall A D issertation Subm itted to the F aculty o f T he G raduate C ollege in partial fulfillm ent o f the requirem ents for the D egree o f D o cto r o f Education D epartm ent of Educational Leadership W estern M ichigan U niversity K alam azoo, M ichigan D ecem ber 1995

3 INTRINSIC MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING OF THE ADULT GRADUATE STUDENT AT WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY Phyllis Crandall, Ed.D. W estern M ichigan U niversity, 1995 T h e perceptions o f adult graduate students concerning barriers to the educational process and their levels of m otivation fo r pursuing a graduate degree w ere investigated. T h e established m otivational theory First expressed b y A bram M aslow in 1954 was used in defining the first variable o f m otivation to learning w hen p ertaining to th e healthy self-actualized individual. T he second variable chosen w as a listing o f student perceived barriers to the educational process as defined by H. G. S chulze in It w as hypothesized that the higher the level o f the b arriers overcom e p er S ch u tz e's scale, the hig h er the level o f intrinsic m otivation in th e learner p er M aslow s scale. T h e purpose o f the study w as to find a correlation betw een level o f m otivation and level o f barriers to learning so that universities could better p ro v id e services to m ore individuals who are interested in a graduate program. It w as hypothesized th a t the reasons students pursued a graduate degree had no relationship to the perceived barriers w hich m ust be overcom e by the sam e group o f students. The study also looked a t relationships between the variables of individual

4 reasons to pursue and perceived b arriers to overcom e and the sam p le s dem ographic factors. T he results indicated that the general null hypothesis o f the study w as retained because only one correlation o f the variables out o f the 3 X 5 table showed a significant correlation. T he study outcom e o f the hypotheses based on dem ographic data show ed only tw elve significant correlations out o f a possible tw o h undred. T h e refo re, the ten secondary null hypotheses based on dem ographic data had to be retained. F u rth er study in the area o f intrinsic m otivation w ould include research w ith a larger and m ore diverse population from w hich to d raw the sam ple, a m ore defined research tool for a m ore defined outcom e, and a m ethod o f qualitative research based on follow -up interview s. T hese w ould add to the know ledge base fo r universities to use in th eir search for better w ays to assist g raduate students to reach their goal.

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8 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS T h is paper is dedicated to my fam ily, w ho allow ed m e to do this. A nd an acknowledged thank you to Brenda Holling, m y able typist. P hyllis C randall ii

9 TABLE OF CONTENTS A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S... L IS T O F T A B LE S... ii vii CH APTER I. IN T R O D U C T IO N A N D S T A T E M E N T O F T H E P R O B L E M... 1 Background o f th e Problem... 2 S tatem ent o f the P roblem... 4 P urpose for the Study... 6 R esearch O bjective... 7 L im itations o f the Study... 8 D efinition o f T e rm s... 8 Intrinsic M otivation... 8 A dult L earner... 9 B arriers O rganization o f th e Study II. R E V IE W O F S E L E C T E D LIT E R A T U R E M otivational T heories A dult L e a rn e rs R easons for P ursuing B arriers to O vercom e iii

10 Table of Contents -- Continued CH APTER D em ographic F acto rs Increasing the O u tlo o k S um m ary III. D E S IG N A N D M E T H O D O L O G Y Research Q uestion D escription o f Sam ple and S u b je c ts Selection P rocess P rocedures fo r D ata C ollected M easurem ents and In s tru m e n ts V ariables S cales In s tru m e n ta tio n C om parisons and E xclusions A nalysis o f D ata C hapter S u m m a ry IV. P R E S E N T A T IO N A N D A N A L Y S IS O F D A T A Introduction S um m ary o f the Study S tatistical T echniques iv Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.

11 Table of Contents -- Continued CH APTER R esearch R esults C hapter S u m m a ry V. S U M M A R Y A N D D ISC U S S IO N S um m ary C onclusions G eneral Study N ull H ypothesis Secondary H ypotheses for Reasons to P u r s u e Secondary H ypotheses for Barriers to O v e rc o m e Results o f S econdary S tu d y Lim itations R e c o m m e n d atio n s A P P E N D IC E S A. E xtraneous C om m ents F rom D ata S u rv e y B. G estalt Psychology D efined C. Q uestionnaire C o v er L etter D. Q uestionnaire E. E xercise D ata F. D ata Identifier Index G. A ssignm ent o f D esignated Q uestions to V a ria b le s v Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.

12 Table of Contents Continued A P P E N D IC E S H. A pproved P roposal I. H SIR B A pproval L etters B IB L IO G R A P H Y vi

13 LIST OF TABLES 1. S um m ary o f G raduate D egrees G raduate E n ro llm e n t R easons fo r P articipation R easons fo r L earning A ctivities T otal G raduate F all E nrollm ent T otal G raduate F all E nrollm ent: G rad u ate P rogram s M ean S cores o f M arked R e s p o n s e s M ean S cores fo r O pportunities to D e s ig n a te A nalysis o f D em ographic D ata From S tudent Q u estio n n a ires C orrelation o f R eason V ariable and B arriers V ariable C hi-square Test o f Independence Between M aslow s Reasons to P u rsu e and P rogram o f Study Chi-square Test o f Independence Between M aslow s Reasons to P u rsu e and S tage o f C om pletion Chi-square Test o f Independence Between M aslow s Reasons to P u rsu e and A g e o f S tu d e n t Chi-square Test o f Independence Between M aslow s Reasons to P u rsu e and G ender o f S tu d e n t Chi-square Test o f Independence Between M aslow s Reasons to P u rsu e and N ationality o f Student vii Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.

14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission. L ist o f T ables C ontinued 17. C hi-square T est o f Independence Between Schutze s Barriers to O vercom e and P rogram o f S tu d y C hi-square Test o f Independence Between Schutze s Barriers to O vercom e and S tage o f C o m p le tio n C hi-square Test o f Independence Between Schutze s Barriers to O vercom e and A ge o f S tu d e n t Chi-square Test o f Independence Between Schutze s Barriers to O v erco m e and G ender o f S tu d e n t C hi-square Test o f Independence Between Schutze s Barriers to O vercom e and N ationality o f S tu d e n t viii

15 C H A P T E R I IN T R O D U C T IO N A N D S T A T E M E N T O F T H E PR O B L E M A m erican s have alw ays looked to education as th e m eans fo r preserving w h at w as valuable in life and for transform ing w hat needed to be im p ro v ed. F rom protecting religion in N ew E ngland tow ns to enhancing civ ic v irtu e in colonial and early national cities; from individual fulfillm ent to societal redirection education has seem ed th e m eans by w hich all w as possible (Rohfeld, 1990 p. 1). T o d a y, as w e com e n eare r to the tw enty-first centu ry, this is an even stronger tru ism than w hen it w as originally w ritten. E ducation is the key w hich unlocks the future. T his nation w ill continue to lead if the institution o f education continues to recognize that individual m otivation can w ork to increase capacity. T he possibilities fo r increasing th e v alue o f life a re endless, as w e h av e seen w ith our space p ro g ram and in the w orld m arket. A s w e look forw ard, th e institution o f education m ust also look at the m eans to im prove itse lf and to rem em b er that "the future o f the U nited S tates and its ability to com p ete are tied to elim ination o f the rem aining barriers to full participation..(in education)" (Rohfeld, 1990, p. 187). T h e real, perceived, o r extani b arriers to education change o v e r tim e, and o ur efforts to overcom e m ust continually be re-ev alu ated. T h is p ro cess o f self- exam ination can and w ill instigate renew al and grow th. A look at the perceived 1 Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.

16 barriers to education in the light o f adult intrinsic m otivation to continue is th e 2 subject o f this paper. Background o f the Problem A bram M aslow (1954) states that all members o f the human species are m otivated by the follow ing things: B y species-w ide needs fo r food, etc; by needs fo r safety, p rotection, and ca re ; by needs for gregariousness and for affection-and-love relations; by needs fo r respect, standing, and status, w ith consequent self-respect; and by a need fo r self-actualization or self-fulfillm ent o f the idiosyncratic and species-w ide potentialities o f the individual person, (p. 2) T hese human needs are the best known and most studied by psychologists. But along side these needs and intertw ined within the person "are the cognitive needs for sheer know ledge and for (explained) understanding" (p. 2). M aslow continues to observe that even if all o f the physiological or basic needs o f man are satisfied, w e still often observe a discontented and restless individual. "A musician m ust make m usic, an artist must paint, a poet must w rite, if he is to be ultimately at peace with him self. W hat a man can be, he must be" (M aslow, 1954, p. 94). This is m an s desire for self-fulfillm ent and his need to becom e m ore and m ore of w hat he is. W e can state that acquiring know ledge and system atizing the universe are techniques for the achievem ent of basic safety in the w orld, but this does "not constitute a definitive answ er to the questions as to the m otivational role o f curiosity, learning, philosophizing, experim enting, etc. They are at best no m ore than partial answers" (M aslow,

17 1954, p. 94). 3 "W hen w e ask w hat m an w ants o f life, w e deal w ith his very essence" (M aslow, 1954, p. 106). A study concerned w ith intrinsic m otivation for le arning is n o t the answ er to the essence o f life, b ut the reasons for p ursuing education and the overcom ing o f barriers in the p ro cess m ay lead us to discover w ays o f increasing the satisfaction o f that essence. W hen conducting research to uncover the reasons fo r this essence o f m an, th e scientist only uncovers m ore questions. In behavioral studies, such as those described b y B urrhus F red eric S kinner, m otivation is m easured by th e subjects response to certain stim uli. H arlow (1953) discusses that w hile the behaviorist can dem onstrate a positive relationship betw een a learned response and a stim uli such as a p erio d o f food deprivation, he cannot explain th e insatiable curiosityinvestigatory m otivation o f a child as a response conditioned by h unger. H e em phasizes this by saying that h e is "convinced that the k ey to hum an learning is n o t the conditioned response, b u t rather, (internal) m otivation aroused by external stim uli" (p ). B efore com ing to this conclusion, H arlow (1950) conducted investigations concerning the m anipulative d riv e w hich m ig h t be operative in the rhesus m onkey and the possibility that this driv e m ight provide adequate m otivation for learning. This thesis w as tested w ithout the input o r restrain t o f food rew ards. H e observed that w hen given th e opportunity to investigate and m anipulate a mechanical puzzle, the subjects continued beyond

18 initial contact and investigation (p ). 4 An exploratory driv e m ight have o perated, in the present experim en t, to initiate b ehavior tow ards th e puzzle b u t som e m otivation in addition to the exploratory drive m ust be adduced to account fo r the persiste n ce o f the puzzle solving b ehavior through the co u rse o f the experim ent w ithout suggestion o f extinction (H arlow, 1950, p. 131). M aslow (1968) later defined this study into a philosophy o f m an as a theory o f striving toward self-actualization. W ith this prem ise, he has joined the theory o f behaviorism with the classical, Freudian psychoanalysis to reveal his own Psychology o f Being. The m ajor proponent of his prem ise is that "W e have, each one o f us, an essential inner nature which is instinctoid, intrinsic, given, natural, i.e., w ith an appreciable hereditary determ inant, and which tends strongly to persist (p. 190). In further describing this inner nature he states that this inner core, o r self, grow s into adulthood only partly by (objective or subjective) discovery, uncovering and acceptance of w hat is there beforehand. Partly it is also a creation o f the person him self' (p. 193). Statem ent o f the Problem S chutze (1987) states that the participation o f adult students in higher education is an issue o f grow ing im portance in m any developed co u n tries. R elatively little is know n about this expanding clientele in term s o f dem and for educational needs, how they learn, and the m ain barriers they face. A lthough the d em and for education and training fo r adults is grow ing, m any establishm ents o f higher education are little prepared to adapt to adult dem and by m aking adequate

19 provision that responds to the educational needs and specific circum stances o f 5 adults. S chutze has categorized these barriers to adult educational opportu n ities as (a) "dispositional" o r low level (relating to attitude and self-perception o f the adult learner, especially those o f only lim ited educational background); (b) "institutional" o r m iddle (referrin g, fo r exam ple, to lack o f suitable courses, inconvenient schedules o r location, o r high fees); and (c) "situ atio n al o r high (referrin g to lack o f tim e fo r study due to w ork, fam ily o r oth er social responsibilities, lack o f financial support, m eans o f transportation, child care facilities, etc.) (S chutze, 19S7). T hese b arriers, along w ith M aslow s theory concerning the in n e r n atu re o f m an as being m otivated to self-actualization, is the p roblem review ed in this p ap e r. W hile speculation is that an im portant elem ent for learning is represented b y th e grow ing num bers o f adult students as being based on outside o r societal influences, the larg er quality-of-life issues (labeled as self-actualization for the p urposes o f this study) should also be studied. E ducation can, and often tim es is, the m eans to an end w hich delineates the process o f self-actualization in learning for the highly m otivated individual. A tkinson (1955) says that there is an im portant obstacle in th e path o f any significant study into the innate being o f m an w hen trying to d isco v e r w hat encourages o r discourages his inm ost desires. T he o b stacle is that n o adequate m easure has yet been defined, no therm om eter so to speak, can m easure the strength o f a m otive to achieve.

20 So the cu rrent problem is one o f definition and m easurem ent w hen seeking 6 to investig ate a relationship betw een m otivation and goal accom plishm ent. T he q uestion is asked as to a relationship betw een the highly m otivated individual and th e b a rrie rs that he w ill overcom e to m eet his goal o f learning. T his paper a ttem p ts to p u t a m easure to that relationship by using the five levels o f M aslo w s h ierarch y o f needs in h is Psychology o f Being along w ith S ch u tze s three types o r le v els o f b arriers to o v ercom e in the process o f education. T his relationship w ill b e m easured by fu rther analysis o f the variables by dividing the data into dem ographic segments. A relationship w hich m ight b e defined and m easured could then be a basis for further investigation into increasing the m otivation to learn in the future. P urpose for the Study F o r m any generations, society has looked to o ur schools and universities to push and pro d students to learn so that they m ay have a better life and a better p lace in society. T oday w e observe a different kind o f environm ent. U niversity g rad u ate students are usually old er than a generation ago, have an established jo b and fam ily, and are learning fo r m any com plex reasons as show n in the d em o g rap h ic factors in C h ap ter II. T hese reasons som etim es include the acquisition o f know ledge for know ledge sake alone. W hile it is understood that a college education is im portant in to d a y s society, it is also im portant to know how to m otivate students tow ard knowledge.

21 T h is study is an attem pt to find a relationship betw een the reasons for students to 7 seek that know ledge and the barriers which they perceive to be in the w ay. I f research in the educational field could put a th erm om eter m easure on the self-actualizing needs o f ad u lt students, it should then b e able to postu late a model w hich w ould b e able to increase intrinsic m otivation tow ard those needs and desires. R esearch O bjective T he m ajo r objective o f this study is to determ ine a relationship betw een the reasons w h y adults p ursue learning and the perceived barriers w hich m ust be o v ercom e d uring the process. T his relationship is operationalized by questioning a random sam ple o f adult students concerning th eir reasons fo r learning sorted on the five level h ierarchy introduced by A bram M aslow. T hese reasons fo r pursuing a re then correlated w ith the student s perceived barriers to education sorted by the three definitions of im pedim ents outlined by H ans Schutze. T his objective w ill also be determ ined b y identifying the relationships o f reasons w hy adults p u rsu e learning and th eir perceived barriers based o n certain dem ographic factors. If a relationship o r correlation is found, then fu rther study m ight indicate that universities could assist individual students in reaching their goal by identifying th eir level o f m otivation and by helping to rem ove specific nam ed barriers in the way o f their learning process.

22 Lim itations o f the Study The study is lim ited by the following factors: 1. T he proposition tested in the study m ight have failed to inclu d e all relevant o r m ajor variables fo r both the reasons fo r pursuing g raduate study and the p erceived barriers to o v ercom e fo r a full explanation o f th e influencing forces o n th e subjects. F o r this reason, the study questionnaire included an opportunity fo r th e subject to include h is/h e r ow n variables to b e considered. T h e se com m ents are included as extraneous com m ents in Appendix A. 2. T h e m ethod o f random sam pling and return m ail is pro b lem atic in that th e aspect o f volunteerism is evident. T h e results m ay be contam inated because o f an over abundance o f positive m otivational perceptions by the observed sample. A response rate o f 80% returned questionnaires from the sam ple surveyed precludes the impedim ent o f volunteerism as being m aterially im portant. 3. T h e definition o f the population studied m ay be m isunderstood by the read ers o f this paper. T h e term "adult student is norm ally used in connection with a much broader base o f identifiers. Definition o f Term s Intrinsic M otivation W ebster s D ictionary defines intrinsic as belonging to the true o r fundam ental nature o f a thing. F or this study, the definition is accurate. T he R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.

23 fundam ental nature o f a thing. F o r this study, the definition is accurate. T he 9 term intrinsic is then taken and put w ith M aslow s theory fo r the self-actualized individual as fu rther discussed in C hapter II. M aslow s healthy individual has w ithin him self a desire for self-fulfillm ent and a need to becom e m o re and m ore o f w hat h e is. T his definition o f the healthy individual w ill b e used in this paper to refer to the intrinsically m otivated person under study. A dult Learner T his study defines the adult student as individuals 18 years o f age and old er, enrolled in an institution o f higher learning such as a college o r university, and pursuing a graduate degree program. W agner (1987) referred to the sam e definition in his 1983 study on adults in higher education. A t that tim e, he reported that about seven m illion adults in the U nited States received instruction through form al pro g ram s o ffered at institutions o f hig h er education. W hile the com m on definition o f adult learner includes oth er p rogram s such as corporate training classes, G E D classes, vocational schools, im m igrant language classes, and em ployee training classes, this study does not include such subjects. T h e distinction o f the term adult student m ust be m ade clear so that the study and the population investigated m ay be generalized back to a sim ilar graduate student population at a sim ilar university and not to the aforem entioned larger and m ore varied group.

24 10 gaiw s A b a rrie r for this stu d y is defined as any adult student p erceived im pedim ent w hich stands in the way o f progress toward degree m atriculation. T h is defin itio n o f a b a rrie r is again a varian t from the trad itio n al form in u sag e today. T h is study w ill only look at barriers as they pertain to adult education. W agner (1987) states that the norm al listing o f initiatives undertaken b y hig h er education to p ro m o te adults has been the institution s perception o f needs. T hese have included five categories: (a) F inancing, (b) A dm issions and C red itin g, (c) N o n -T raditional A ttendance O ptions, (d) N ew In stitutions and Providers, and (e) Student Support Services (p. 76). W hile it m ay be p ossible to force the barriers found in this stu d y into these sam e five categories, the difference lies in the foundation for the p erceived variables. T h is study em phasizes the ad u lt student s p erception o f b arriers as view ed from th e ir ow n d ifficulty in overcom ing them and not from the academ ia p o in t o f view. O rganization o f the Study C h ap ter I contains an introduction and background w hich includes the statem ent o f th e problem, purpose for the study, research questions, and the lim itations o f th e study. D efinition o f significant term s such as intrinsic m otivation and adult learners are outlined.

25 A review o f relevant literature is presented in C hapter II and b eg in s w ith 11 early m otivational theories and a description o f adult learners. T he m ain focus o f this research is analyzed b y review ing the reasons for p ursuing a grad u ate degree and th e barriers to overcom e in the process. S tatistics on d em ographic facto rs o f the p opulation a re presented along w ith related studies fo r increasing adult participation in the learning process. T he m ethodology used in this study is outlined in C h ap ter III. T h e research question is fu rth er defined b y the presentation o f a detailed d escription o f th e sam ple, the selection process, the procedures for data collection and the instrum ents used. T he results o f the research and specific inform ation concerning the findings o f the study are presented in Chapter IV. T he final chapter sum m arizes the research findings and includes recom m endations for further study.

26 CH APTER II REV IEW OF SELECTED LITERA TU RE M otivational Theories M alcolm K now les (1984) stated the fact that "w e know m ore ab o u t how anim als learn than about how children learn; and w e know m uch m o re a b o u t how children learn than about how adults le a rn. H e reasoned that this is because o f the controlled environm ent used fo r study in the first tw o areas and th e fact that adults learn for very different reasons. H e explained th e differences by dividing historical studies on le arn in g and m otivation into theories based on the m echanistic m odel such as the stu d ies of T horndike, P avlov, and S kinner and theories based on the organism ic m odel such as the studies o f W illiam Jam es, M ax W ertheiner, and A bram M aslow. Knowles (1984) defined these two models as: T he m echanistic m odel represents the universe as a m achine com posed o f discrete pieces operating in a statio-tem poral field. T h e se pieces -- elem entary particles in m otion -- and their relations form the b asic reality to w hich all o th e r m ore com plex phenom ena are ultim ately red u cib le. T he organism ic m odel represents the universe as a unitary, interactic, developing organism. T he essence o f substance it perceives to b e activity, rath er than the static elem entary particle proposed by the m echanistic m odel, (p. 16) T his division w as also described by N e ff (1972) using a m ore com m on 12 Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.

27 term inology used in the literature on adults and their learning patterns S tim ulus-response (S-R) associationism theories em phasize the concept o f m an a s a hum an m echanism w ho reacts m echanistically to any stim ulus situation. A ccording to this study, the resulting reaction is th e only one that could have occurred. N o purposing on the part o f the individual is necessary. 2. G estalt-field theories hold that m an is an active and purposive creature and they consider the w hole g reater than the sum o f its parts. E nvironm ent is w hat the individual perceives around him ; it is psychological and unique to him. P ersons in close proxim ity to environm ental stim uli m ay so stru ctu re their perceptions that each individual has a different environm ent. T hus, m an is changed by his environm ent and his environm ent is changed by him. (p. 131) T ennan t (1991) used a slight variation o f this division b y separating m otivation theories into three categories. O ne perspective is headed by S kinner and regard s learners as passive receivers o f behavior and that th eir values are shaped b y rew ards and punishm ents. T he second perspective is headed b y P iaget and attributes a m ore active role to learners w ho are trying to m ake sense o f their experiences. A nd the third perspective is headed by M aslow and reaffirm s the hum an qualities o f a p erso n, such as personal freedom, choice, and the validity o f subjective experience. It is this field o f hum anistic clinical psychology that equates m an w ith choice that is exam ined in this research on adult motivation. T o review this field o f psychology, W illiams Jam es m ust be recognized as

28 contributing th e first im portant pioneering effo rt into the idea that the philosophy 14 o f hum an n atu re encom passed the w hole being o f m an. H is P rin cip les of P sy chology, w ritten in 1890, brought together a variety o f dom ains e.g. m otivation, em otions, habit, the self, the stream s o f consciousness, im agination, m em ory, reasoning, hypnotism, physiology, and w ill into a scientific psychology that becam e com pletely integrated in h is m ind and in la ter literature. Jam es believed that th is w hole p erso n had the capacity to use h is w ill along w ith his habit to re-en erg ize h im se lf into believing that life w as w orth living. H is philosophy w a s that to b e actively and enthusiastically engaged in the pursu it o f life itself w as the best that one could attain in his own lifetim e. (H ow ard 1993) S igm und F reu d (1955) later studied the neurotic perso n ality rath er than the healthy individual and in 1904 he w ro te about a principle concerning unconscious o r intrinsic m otivation. H e found d u ring his observations that "certain inadequacies o f o ur psychic functions... and certain perform ances w hich are apparently u nintentional, are determ ined through th e consciousness o f unknow n m otives" (p. 12). In m o re m odem tim e, A bram M aslow has been called th e F irst T h eorist on H um an M otivation. H e w as one o f the first to put into w ritin g h is theory o f hum an m otivation in M otivation and P ersonality (1970) th e ideas o f th e hum an struggle to rise above the pitfalls o f everyday life. T hro ugh th e striv in g fo r survival and the pulling up o f him self, man becam e more w orthy o f success. M aslow began to develop his theory o f m otivation around 1935 when he was a

29 student o f G estalt psychology a t the N ew S chool fo r Social R esearch in N ew Y ork 15 C ity (see A ppendix B for a definition o f G estalt P sychology). H is id e a o f the hum an needs hierarchy began as a m eans to functionalize h is observational experiences. H e called this new positive thinking o f m otivation a holistic-dynam ic theory (p. 80). M aslo w s five-step attem pt to define this b ehavior included h is delineation o f the follow ing hierarchical steps; the physiological o r basic needs, th e safety n eeds, the belongingness and love needs, th e esteem needs, and the need for selfactualization. T he basis fo r his theory rests on the fact that m an can only introduce a higher level need w hen satisfaction o f the current level o f need has been obtained. D u rin g his research, M aslow (1954) w rote o f a "holistic an aly sis w hich included the most im portant and useful w hole characteristics o f the self-actualized person" (p. 203). T his analysis has been used for fu rth e r clinical experim ental study and continues to be useful in today s environm ent. D aniels (1984) brought together the thoughts o f several researchers in the field o f m oral developm ent w hen he looked at the theory o f self-actualization developm ent along-side the idea o f m oral developm ent. H e recognized that the characteristics associated w ith principled m oral reasoning w ere consistent with M aslo w s descriptors e.g. adjustm ent, lack o f anxiety, autonom y, need for independence, intellectual and aesthetic interests, im agination and unconventional thought processes, creativity, tolerance for am biguity, altruism, interpersonal R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.

30 16 responsiveness, candidness, rejection o f traditional value, lack o f d ogm atism, and lack o f psychological conservatism. W ith his study, D aniels then concluded that self-actualization is prim arily a m oral concept, and therefore it m ay need to b e incorporated into the studies w ithin th e area of developm ental psychology rath er than rem aining in the present humanistic (o r clinical) area as prom oted by current M aslow followers. A dult Learners N eff (1972) described the adult learner as "every adult who is m otivated to participate in an adult education experience (p. 129). H e also observed that the adult learning experience needs to be structured differently than for children so that the adult opportunity is clearly defined and based on experience and logic rather than rote processes. Learning is considered an individual process, even though it takes p la ce in a gro u p situation. T h e individual w ho adapts to the group has learned a m ode o f beh avio r as w ell as factual content. L earners learn from each other. T he adult learner m ust be w illing to accept the learning situation and the people about him in order to learn, (p. 133) Tennant (1991) stated that intellectual and cognitive growth occurs in the adult years and that this growth is due to experience. Children do not have this experience and therefore grow at a different rate and in a different way. The relevant history o f adult education, in this country, began about 1919 and is divided into three periods according to K nowles and K levins (1972). T he first period o f time was 1919 to 1929 when the American Association o f Adult

31 E ducation w as established. T his w as proceeded by th e foundation o f th e free 17 lib rary system dependent on public funding. T h e second period, , was a tim e during w hich the definition o f adult education and the subject m atter w as changed and m odified to include the v ario u s needs o f adults in this changing A m erica. T h e third period began around 1947 w hen adult education m oved tow ard professionalism and institutionalization. It w as d u rin g this tim e th a t m any graduate program s o f study began to flourish. T h e inform ation in T able 1 show s th is significant trend in ad u lt education by show ing the increase in g raduate degrees presented from 1869 though 1991 com piled by the N ational C enter for Educational Statistics (Snyder 1993). W hen looking at g raduate student enrollm ent rath er than d eg rees conferred, w e o bserve a steady num b er at about 1.3 m illion in th e la te 1970 s and early 1980 s, b u t that num ber ro se to about 14% in th e five years betw een 1986 and T his rise in enrollm ent is also reflected b y the num ber o f d eg rees earned d u rin g the period o f tim e from 1980 through 1991 by adult students w ith at least four years o f college. T he proportion o f educational attainm ent fo r the entire U nited States population increased from 17% to 21%. T h e num ber o f g raduate d eg rees conferred during th e school y ea r included 3 6 4,0 0 0 m a ster s degrees and 41,200 doctor s degrees. (Snyder 1993) T his increase in enrollm ent show n in T able 2 to continue w ell into the next century based on adults need to im prove their learning capacity. (G erald 1992)

32 Table 1 18 Sum m ary o f G rad u ate D egrees to S chool Y ear N u m b er o f G rad u ate D egrees , , , , , , , , , , , , ,410 Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.

33 Table 2 19 G raduate Enrollm ent (in thousands) A ctual P rojected , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,877 R easons fo r P ursuing W hen discussing a p erso n s evaluation o f self, D iggory (1966) states that "we value ourselves because of the part w e play in accom plishing our goals," and

34 that if we v alu e o u r abilities, then our achievem ents and accom plishm ents b ea r 20 w itness to that value (p.94). A dults learn in different ways and fo r different reasons. T ennan t (1991) says that the history o f adult education literature is based on meeting needs. T h e re are d iffe re n t categories, different types, and different levels o f n eed, b u t all m otivation to learning is needs based. K now les (1984) lists these needs as external m otivators such as a b etter jo b o r a p rom otion and internal pressures such as self-esteem o r a hig h er quality o f life. If w e acknowledge this fact, that motivation is needs based, then we also have to acknowledge that a theory of learning should be based on the fact o f trying to m eet that need. K nowles (1984) tells us in the follow ing passage to m atch the need theory with program design in order for learning to take place. You can conclude th a t S kinner s operant conditioning theory m akes the m ost sense to you, provides the clearest guidelines fo r p ro g ram design and operation, and assures the m ost predictable results. O r you can conclude that th e third force psychologists (M aslow, R ogers, et al) are m o re in touch w ith hum an nature as it really is, and m ake decisions that a re congru en t w ith such concepts as self-directed inquiry, positive self-im age, and selfactualization. (p. 107) B arton (1982) declared that "the largest single reason adults p articip ate in education a n d training is to advance in the w orkw orld." (p. 41) H istorically society believed that education w as a prelude to life rather than a p art o f it and old er w o rk ers w ere often denied access to learning opportunities, but today learning is based on the needs o f the adult w orker so that he can cope with a R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.

35 21 changing society and th e w orkplace. L a ter in his book. B arton (1982) stated that colleges and universities arc in the process o f transform ing to the approach that in o rd er to m eet the adult objectives, they m ust p rovide program s w hich allow easy access and lifelong learning. (Chapter 8) In the search to m eeting the needs o f adults, Jourard (1971) spoke o f special schools w hich cultivates this evaluation and discovery o f self. H e calls for an em phasis upon the person, the discovery o f o n e s lim its to experiencing action, hum an dialogue, and the discovery o f those m eans by w hich the lim its can be transcended, (p. 115) A dult L earning: R esearch and P ractice by H uey Long (1983) reported and discussed the current research that could contribute to the understanding o f adult learning. T h e research literature concerning participation clearly reveals that adults p articipate in educational activities fo r a variety o f reasons. S om e o f the reasons have been described in self-report studies, and others have been characterized in analytical psychological investigations. R easons range from specifics such as to im prove m y occupational p erfo rm a n ce to m ore psychologically defined reasons such as growth m otivation, (p. 99) An im portant self-report study conducted by the Illinois Board o f H igher Education, and reported by Long (1983), revealed the transitional reasons for participation in adult learning activities listed in Table 3.

36 T able 3 22 Reasons for Participation Reason Percent C areer 5695 Fam ily 16% L eisure 13% A rt 5% H ealth 5% R eligion 4% C itizenship 1% A nother study reported by L ong w as conducted by the N ational O pinion R esearch C enter in the early 1960 s and revealed the reasons fo r engaging in learning activities by telling how the courses could be helpful that are listed in Table 4. B arriers to O vercom e B arton (1982) strongly believed that "T he largest im pedim ent to equal service in higher education for adult w orkers is plain prejudice -- preju d ice against the adult learner." (p. 140) H e listed the following factors to consider: R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.

37 Table 4 23 Reasons for Learning Activities Events P ercen t Becom e a better inform ed person 37% Prepare for a new jo b or occupation 36% On the jo b I held at that time 32% Spend m y spare tim e m ore enjoyably 20% M eet new and interesting people 15% In carrying out everyday tasks and duties around home 13% G et aw ay from the daily routine 10% In carrying out everyday tasks and duties away from home 10% N one o f these, o r I d o n t know 7% O ther w ork or jo b related reasons 3% Im prove skills o r increase know ledge 3% Increase incom e 1% H o m e o r fam ily life role 1% Personality o r interpersonal relations 1% O ther personal developm ent 1% All others 2% M ore than 100% because m ore than one answ er could be chosen.

38 24 M ost institutions identify education with the young b y providing free public education fo r the first years o f life. S tudent financial aid program s are only fo r undergraduates and then prohibits aw ards for less than half-tim e enrollment. U nequal student school charges w hich req u ire independent students to pay m ore for classes than parent-supported students. Institution im posed tim e lim its for earning a deg ree w hich do n o t consider the needs o f adult workers. L ong (1983) reported that generally the barriers to p articipation in learning by adults have been exam ined through the census-type survey, and those results are not consistent. T his is because o f different approaches to the question o f barriers in curren t m ajor studies as discussed earlier. H ow ever, a general them e appears. L ong (1983) states that the "five barriers to educational activities identified through an anthropological approach a re fam ily responsibilities, lack o f access to educational facilities, m oney, tim e, and m otivation." (p. Ill) D em ographic Factors "T he single m ost im portant statistic found w hen looking at dem ographic factors on adult education is that since 1984 the num ber o f w om en in g raduate schools have exceeded the num ber o f m en (S nyder, 1993, p. 165). B etw een 1961 and 1991, the num ber o f m ale full-tim e g raduate student increased by 23% com pared w ith 45% for full-tim e women (see Table 5). A m ong part-tim e R eproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.

39 g raduate students, m en increased by only 6% com pared w ith 25% fo r w om en. 25 (S nyder 1993) T he 878,0 0 0 w om en listed on the follow ing table enrolled in g raduate program s in 1991 represent 54% o f the total for that year. M en enrollees represented 46%. C om paring this inform ation w ith T able 10 in C hapter IV o f this paper, a ratio o f 61% w om en to 39% men w ere found in the sam ple used for this research project. T his indicates that the population defined as W estern M ichigan U niversity graduate students and the random sam ple selected from th e population are closely representative o f the national data. A lisd n g o f enrollm ent fo r 1991 by ag e designation is in T a b le 6. (S nyder 1993) T h e age category o f -18 through age 29 has a total o f 698,875 students and represents 43% o f th e total enrollm ent o f 1,639,135. T he ag e categ o ry 30 through age 39 represents 30% o f the total and the age category' 40 th ro u g h 65 + represents 21%. T he unknown age num ber totals the rem ainder for 100%. R eferring to T able 10 in C hapter IV o f this paper, a pro p o rtio n o f 44.30% fo r the ages and % for the ages and 24.05% fo r th e ages o f w ere found in the respondent sam ple used fo r this research p ro je ct. T his indicates that th e population defined as W estern M ichigan U niversity g raduate students and th e random sam ple selected from the population are closely representative o f the national data. T o further define the population used for this study, a report o f the Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.

40 26 E H e E H CJN Table 5 E H C E O H tu j d ej E e3 =s s 7 * o E i3 U 8- o S >-

41 Table 6 27 Total G raduate Fall Enrollm ent: 1991 A ge T otal M en W om en A ll 1,639, , , ,843 7,048 7, , , , , , , , , , , , ,294 94, , ,144 21,209 42, ,051 2,293 2,7 5 8 A ge? 110,719 48,563 62,156 statistics com piled by the U.S. D epartm ent o f E ducation (S n y d er 1993) in relation to W estern M ichigan U niversity reported a total enrollm ent o f 27,901 students for F all T h is total consisted o f 12,809 men and 15,092 w om en w ith 17,499 full-tim e students and 10,402 part-tim e students. O f that total enrollm ent, 25% or

42 6.973 w ere enrolled in post baccalaureate program s. 28 D uring this sam e year, W estern M ichigan U niversity conferred 1,262 postgraduate degrees. C aution must b e exercised w ith this p ie ce o f data so that an assum ption is not made that 1,262 graduate degrees w ere earned by the group of grad u ate enrollees. T he o nly assum ption that can b e draw n from this final statistic is that a lo w er num ber o f earned degrees w ere conferred in relation to a larger num ber of enrollees during the same period o f time. Increasing the O utlook Braw er (1973) discussed the integration o f several motivational theories along w ith the rethinking o f college educators in the process o f m eeting the needs o f college students. She brought out the idea that colleges w ere not considering all o f the research that has taken place with respect to the stabilization o f enrollm ents along with continuance in the process of certification. It is acknow ledged that: A cadem ic institutions m ust integrate into their curriculum s the considerable know ledge now available about the div erse w ays in w hich p eo p le function. T h ey m ust replace com prehensiveness in w orks and intent by ap p ro p riate pro g ram s fo r aiding the person in his developm ent. O nly then w ill each individual becom e the w ell-individuated, w ell-integrated person h e has the potential to be (p. 189). T h e challenge given to colleges and universities is to increase th e pro p o rtio n o f graduate degrees conferred on adult students in relation to the num ber enrolled in these program s.

43 29 T he U nited States D epartm ent o f E ducation com piles statistics o n graduate enrollm ent and degrees received, b ut does n ot relate specific individuals to the num bers in order to show actual drop-out rates. T able 7 show s g raduate enrollm ent in proportion to degrees co n ferred from 1969 through (S nyder 1993) T able 7 G raduate Program s Year Enrollment D egrees , , ,309, , ,472, , ,522, , ,586, ,4 1 0 Because g raduate students are on the rise in the U nited States, future research into the area o f g raduate "needs and w ants should com plete a list o f im provem ents for program development. K now les (1984) h as told us that the ed u cato r o f adults has to integrate several know n theories in o rd er to establish a clim ate w hich is conduciv e to learning. In order to do this, educators have to look at the following theories.

44 30 Ecological psychologists have obtained v aluable inform ation about the effects o f the physical properties o f environm ent on learning. Social psychologists h av e taught us the effects o f the hum an environm ent especially the quality o f interpersonal relations. Industrial psychologists have found useful insights into the effec ts o f the organizational environm ent the stru ctu re, policies, p rocedures, a n d sp irit o f the institution. C o gnitive th eories h av e stressed th e im portance o f a psychological clim ate o f orderliness, clearly defined goals, careful explanation o f expectation and opportunities, openness o f the system to inspection and questioning, and honest and objective feedback. P ersonality theorists h av e em phasized the im portance o f a c lim a te in w hich individual and cultural differences a re respected, in w hich anxiety levels are appropriately co ntrolled, in w hich achievem ent m otivations a re encouraged for those w ho respond to them and affiliation m otivations are encouraged fo r those w ho respond to them, and in w hich feelings are considered to be a s relevant to learning as ideas and skills. H um anistic psychologists have suggested that w e crea te psychological clim ates experienced by the individuals in them as safe, carin g, accepting, trusting, respectful, and understanding, (pp ) Barton (1982) reported on several w ays that schools and universities are w orking on attrition and participation. Adm inistrators are recognizing the high