Effects of pioglitazone on cardiovascular function in type I and type II diabetes mellitus

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1 University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1993 Effects of pioglitazone on cardiovascular function in type I and type II diabetes mellitus Mahanandeeshwar Gattu The University of Montana Let us know how access to this document benefits you. Follow this and additional works at: Recommended Citation Gattu, Mahanandeeshwar, "Effects of pioglitazone on cardiovascular function in type I and type II diabetes mellitus" (1993). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact scholarworks@mso.umt.edu.

2 Maureen and Mike MANSFIELD LIBRARY The University of Montana Permission is granted by the author to reproduce this material in its entirety, provided thatthis material is used fbrscholarly purposes andisproperly cited in published works and reports. * * Please check 'Yes ** or "No " and provide signature"^"^ Yes, I grant permission ^ No, I do not grant permission----- Author s Signature Date: rr

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4 EFFECTS OF PI06LITAZ0NE ON CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION IN TYPE I A N D TYPE II DIABETES MELLITUS. By M a h a n a n d e e s h w a r G a t t u B.A.M.S., O s m a n i a U n i v e r s i t y, In d i a, B.Sc., A.P. O p e n U n i v e r s i t y, India, P r e s e n t e d in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e D e g r e e o f M a s t e r o f S c i e n c e U n i v e r s i t y o f M o n t a n a 1993 A p p r o v e d by: C h a i r m a n, B o a r d o f E x a m i n e r s Dean, G r a d u a t e S c h o o l D a t e 3 0, /?<? $ :-----

5 UMI Number: EP36999 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMT O w M H rtttion ftib lia h in g UMI EP36999 Published by ProQuest LLC (2013). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml

6 M a h a n a n d e e s h w a r G a t t u, M. S., J u l y 1993 D e p t, o f P h a r m a c e u t i c a l S c i e n c e s E f f e c t s o f P i o g l i t a z o n e o n C a r d i o v a s c u l a r p e r f o r m a n c e i n b o t h T y p e I a n d T y p e II D i a b e t e s M e l l i t u s (65 p p ). D i r e c t o r : C h a r l e s L. Ey e r, Ph.D. E f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n c a r d i o v a s c u l a r f u n c t i o n w e r e e v a l u a t e d in b o t h T y p e I a n d T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l m o d e l s. S p r a g u e D a w l e y r a t s a n d Z u c k e r D i a b e t i c F a t t y r a t s w e r e u s e d i n T y p e I a n d T y p e II d i a b e t e s s t u d i e s r e s p e c t i v e l y. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t i n c r e a s e d t h e b o d y w e i g h t a n d d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s in T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, b u t d i d n o t a l t e r e i t h e r b o d y w e i g h t o r b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n b o t h c o n t r o l a n d T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e g l y c o s y l a t e d h e m o g l o b i n v a l u e s e i t h e r in c o n t r o l o r T y p e I d i a b e t i c r ats. M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o n o r e p i n e p h r i n e (NE) a n d p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e (KCl) w a s d e c r e a s e d b y p i o g l i t a z o n e in T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n d c o n t r o l a n i m a l s. I n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o K C l w a s d e c r e a s e d w i t h p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t, b u t v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o N E w a s u n a l t e r e d. C o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e o r i n s u l i n a l o n e d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t s o n v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o NE. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e c r e a s e d t h e e n d o t h e l i a l d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n i n c o n t r o l a n i m a l s, b u t e n d o t h e l i a l i n d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n w a s u n a l t e r e d i n b o t h c o n t r o l a n d d i a b e t i c rats. C o r o n a r y f l o w a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t w e r e d e c r e a s e d i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. P i o g l i t a z o n e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o d i a b e t i c r a t s (DP) s h o w e d t h e h i g h e s t m o r t a l i t y a n d t h e l o w e s t v a l u e s o f h e a r t rate, l e f t v e n t r i c u l a r d e v e l o p e d p r e s s u r e ( L V D P ), c o r o n a r y f l o w a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, a n d also, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e L V D P a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e v e r i t y o f m y o c a r d i a l i s c h e m i a a n d r e p e r f u s i o n (MI/R) i n j u r y is i d e n t i c a l in b o t h T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n d c o n t r o l a n i m a l s. N e i t h e r p i o g l i t a z o n e n o r i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t M I / R i n j u r y i n e i t h e r c o n t r o l o r d i a b e t i c r ats. XX

7 TABLE O P CONTENTS P a g e A B S T R A C T T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S... Ill L I S T O F T A B L E S...Iv L I S T O F I L L U S T R A T I O N S... V A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S... v l I N T R O D U C T I O N... 1 M A T E R I A L S A N D M E T H O D S R E S U L T S D I S C U S S I O N B I B L I O G R A P H Y IXX

8 LIST OF TABLES T a b l e P a g e 1. M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t l i e r e s p o n s e a n d E C 50 v a l u e s o f N E i n a o r t a s f r o m T y p e II d i a b e t i c r a t s M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e a n d E C 50 v a l u e s o f N E i n a o r t a s f r o m T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s P r e i s c h e m i c c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s P o s t - i s c h e m i c c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s XV

9 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS F i g u r e P a g e 1. E f f e c t o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n b o d y w e i g h t in T y p e II d i a b e t i c r a t s F i n a l w e e k b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s in T y p e II d i a b e t i c r a t s E f f e c t o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o N E i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c r a t a o r t i c s t r i p s M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e o f r a t a o r t i c s t r i p t o 40 m H a n d 10 0 m M K C l M e a n b o d y w e i g h t s in T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s M e a n b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s in T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s G l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s a f t e r 6 w e e k s in T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s E f f e c t o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o N E in T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t a o r t i c r i n g s M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i 1e r e s p o n s e o f T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t a o r t i c r i n g t o 4 0 m M K C l R e l a x a n t r e s p o n s e o f T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t a o r t i c r i n g t o c a r b a c h o l R e l a x a n t r e s p o n s e o f T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t a o r t i c r i n g t o s o d i u m n i t r o p r u s s i d e... 41

10 A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S 1 w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k t h e C h a i r m a n, f a c u l t y a n d s t a f f o f t h e D e p t, o f P h a r m a c e u t i c a l S c i e n c e f o r t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l a n d f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t t h a t e n a b l e d m e t o a t t a i n t h i s m i l e s t o n e i n m y life. I a m e s p e c i a l l y v e r y g r e a t f u l t o m y m a j o r a d v i s o r Dr. C h a r l e s L. E y e r a n d a l s o t o Dr. J e r r y R. S mi t h, f o r t h e i r p a t i e n c e, p r e c i o u s d i r e c t i o n s, f r i e n d l y g u i d a n c e a n d c o n t i n u e d e n c o u r a g e m e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h. I w o u l d a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m i t t e e. Dr. V e r n o n R. G r u n d a n d Dr. J a m e s A. W a l s h, f o r t h e i r i n v e s t m e n t o f t i m e a n d t h e i r s u g g e s t i o n s. A l s o, a s p e c i a l t h a n k s t o Dr. V e r n o n R. G r u n d a n d H e a t h e r B. F r a s e r f o r a l l o w i n g m e t o u s e b o d y w e i g h t s a n d b l o o d g l u c o s e d a t a f r o m T y p e IX d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. I w i s h t o t h a n k Dr. B r y a n D. T a r r f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e w i t h t h e P C N O N L I N c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m. J a m e s D. H u t c h i s o n a n d H e a t h e r B. F r a s e r a l s o d e s e r v e t h a n k s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s t h e y m a d e i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s. T h a n k s t o m y p a r e n t s f o r i n s t i l l i n g in m e t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f life. S p e c i a l t h a n k s t o m y w i f e, H i m a B i n d u G a t t u, f o r h e r p a t i e n c e a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t in m y fo u l m o o d s. F i n a l l y, I w i s h t o e x p r e s s m y g r e a t a p p r e c i a t i o n t o m y f a m i l y f o r t h e i r l o v e a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t. VI

11 INTRODUCTION Diabetea Mellitus: D i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d f r o m a n t i q u i t y. I n d i a n a n d C h i n e s e m e d i c a l w r i t i n g s m e n t i o n e d a s y n d r o m e of p o l y p h a g i a, p o l y d i p s i a, p o l y u r i a a n d g l y c o s u r i a. A s e a r l y a s 1869, L a n g e r h a n s, w h i l e s t i l l a m e d i c a l s t u d e n t, d e s c r i b e d t h e p a n c r e a t i c i s l e t c e l l s w h i c h n o w b e a r h i s n ame. D i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s is a d i s e a s e o f w o r l d w i d e d i s t r i b u t i o n. I t is m o r e f r e q u e n t i n s o m e c o u n t r i e s t h a n o t h e r s. I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 14 m i l l i o n p e o p l e w i t h d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s, c l o s e t o s e v e n p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n. A s e a r l y a s 1936, H i m s w o r t h s u g g e s t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a t l e a s t t w o f o r m s o f d i a b e t e s ( Hi m sw o r t h, ). H o w e v e r, t h e t w o t y p e s w e r e n o t c o n f i r m e d u n t i l t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a b i o a s s a y f o r p l a s m a i n s u l i n. It is w e l l k n o w n t h a t t h e d i s e a s e is d i v i d e d i n t o t w o m a j o r s u b t y p e s. T y p e I ( I n s u l i n - D e p e n d e n t D i a b e t e s M e l l i t u s ) a n d T y p e II ( N o n i n s u l i n - D e p e n d e n t D i a b e t e s M e l l i t u s ) ( W e i r e t a l ; L i p s o n, 1986). B o t h t y p e s o f d i a b e t e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y f a s t i n g h y p e r g l y c e m i a a n d g l u c o s e i n t o l e r a n c e t o a g l u c o s e c h a l l e n g e. H o w e v e r, t h e p a t h o l o g i e s o f t h e t w o a p p e a r t o b e d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t. T y p e I d i a b e t e s g e n e r a l l y o c c u r s in y o u n g e r p e r s o n s a n d is d u e t o t h e l o s s o f i n s u l i n p r o d u c t i o n b e c a u s e o f a u t o i m m u n e d e s t r u c t i o n d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o w a r d s t h e i n s u l i n

12 2 p r o d u c i n g i s l e t b e t a c e l l s. T h e b u l k o f e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a u t o r e a c t i v e T l y m p h o c y t e s i n i t i a t e a n d o v e r s e e t h i s b e t a c e l l s p e c i f i c i m m u n e d e s t r u c t i o n ( E i s e n b a r t h, 1986). I n c o n t r a s t. T y p e XI d i a b e t e s is s e e n m o s t f r e q u e n t l y in o l d e r a n d o v e r w e i g h t p e o p l e a n d is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e i t h e r d y s f u n c t i o n o f i n s u l i n s e c r e t i o n, p e r i p h e r a l i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n c e, o r b o t h (Van d ' H e i m e t a l. 1990). Diabetes and Vascular Sensitivitys D i a b e t i c s o f e i t h e r t y p e a r e k n o w n t o d e v e l o p v a s c u l a r c o m p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o r e t i n o p a t h y ( R o b i s o n e t âi» 1986), n e p h r o p a t h y, m y o p a t h y (Dvornik, 1987) a n d a c c e l e r a t e d a t h e r o s c l e r o s i s ( C h r i s t l i e b, 1973). H y p e r g l y c e m i a i s b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e m a j o r c a u s e o f d i a b e t i c v a s c u l a r c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g b o t h m a c r o a n d m i c r o v e s s e l s. I t is u n c l e a r h o w h y p e r g l y c e m i a a l t e r s t h e m e t a b o l i s m a n d f u n c t i o n s o f v a s c u l a r cells, a l t h o u g h c h a n g e s i n n o n e n z y m a t i c p r o t e i n g l y c o s y l a t i o n, a c c u m u l a t i o n o f i n t r a c e l l u l a r s o r b i t o l, a n d r e d u c t i o n o f m y o - i n o s i t o l l e v e l s m a y b e i n v o l v e d ( K e n n e d y a n d B a y n e s, 1984; G r e e n e e t a l. 1987). W e i d m a n n e t al (1979) s u g g e s t e d t h a t s o m e d i a b e t i c v a s c u l o p a t h i e s a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a l t e r e d s e n s i t i v i t y t o n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s a n d c i r c u l a t i n g n e u r o h o r m o n e s. I n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o a s s e s s t h e r e a c t i v i t y o f t h e c a r d i o v a s c u l a r s y s t e m i n v i v o in e x p e r i m e n t a l d i a b e t i c r a t s. C h r i s t l i e b (1974) o b s e r v e d a n i n c r e a s e d b l o o d p r e s s u r e r e s p o n s e t o i n f u s e d a n g i o t e n s i n II a n d

13 3 n o r e p i n e p h r i n e i n a l l o x a n - d i a b e t i c r a ts. K a w a s h i m a e t a l (1978) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t S T Z - d i a b e t i c r a t s w e r e h y p e r t e n s i v e. H o w e v e r, J a c k s o n a n d C a r r i e r (1980) a n d K o h l e r e t a l (1980) h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t S T Z - d i a b e t i c r a t s a r e h y p o t e n s i v e 4-6 w e e k s a f t e r i n j e c t i o n o f t h e d i a b e t o g e n a n d t h e b l o o d p r e s s u r e r e s p o n s e s t o n o r e p i n e p h r i n e (NE) a n d a n g i o t e n s i n XI w e r e b l u n t e d. D i s c r e p a n c i e s o b s e r v e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e m a y b e r e l a t e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e s p e c i e s o f d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s s t u d i e d a n d t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e d i s e a s e p r o c e s s. A b n o r m a l v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o s e v e r a l v a s o a c t i v e a g e n t s h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d i n c h e m i c a l l y - i n d u c e d in v i t r o d i a b e t i c a n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t s. T h e r e s u l t s o f e x p e r i m e n t s i n w h i c h v a s c u l a r s m o o t h m u s c l e c o n t r a c t i l i t y t o N E h a s b e e n e x a m i n e d f a l l i n t o t w o c a t e g o r i e s. Fi r s t, i n a o r t i c p r e p a r a t i o n s f r o m d i a b e t i c r o d e n t s, d i a b e t e s w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d e c r e a s e d m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e a n d e i t h e r n o c h a n g e o r a d e c r e a s e d E C 50 v a l u e ( S u l l i v a n a n d S p a r k s, 1978; P f a f f m a n e t a l ; T u r l a p a t y e t a l ). I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e a b o v e o b s e r v a t i o n s, a n i n c r e a s e d m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o N E i n a o r t i c p r e p a r a t i o n s f r o m d i a b e t i c r a t s h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t w o o t h e r g r o u p s ( B r o d y a n d D i x o n, 1964; O w e n a n d C a r r i e r, ). E n h a n c e d r e s p o n s e s t o s e l e c t i v e a l p h a 1 a n d a l p h a 2 a d r e n e r g i c a g o n i s t s w e r e d e m o n s t r a t e d in a o r t a s i s o l a t e d f r o m S T Z - d i a b e t i c r a t s ( S c a r b o r o u g h a n d C a r r i e r, & ). M a c L e o d a n d M c N e i l l (1985) f o u n d n o c h a n g e in

14 4 v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o n o r e p i n e p h r i n e s e v e n d a y s a f t e r t h e o n s e t o f digkbetes. H o w e v e r, 100 d a y s a f t e r t h e o n s e t o f d i a b e t e s, t h e y f o u n d a n i n c r e a s e d m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o NE. A n i n c r e a s e d v a s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o t h e m e m b r a n e d e p o l a r i z a t i o n b y K C l h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d i n a o r t a s i s o l a t e d f r o m S T Z - i n d u c e d d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s ( Ow e n a n d C a r r i e r, & ). I n c o n t r a s t, o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e r e p o r t e d e i t h e r d e c r e a s e d o r u n a l t e r e d v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o K C l i n a o r t a s i s o l a t e d f r o m S T Z d i a b e t i c rats. N o d a t a o n v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o N E a n d K C l i n n o n - i n s u l i n d e p e n d e n t d i a b e t i c ( Ty p e XI) h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d. M a n y f a c t o r s p l a y a r o l e in t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f v a s c u l a r m u s c l e r e a c t i v i t y a n d tone. C a l c i u m is c r i t i c a l f o r t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f c o n t r a c t i o n in v a s c u l a r s m o o t h m u s c l e (Bohr, 1964). T h e c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E h a s b e e n r e s o l v e d i n t o t w o c o m p o n e n t s. T h e f i r s t c o m p o n e n t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e l e a s e o f i n t r a c e l l u l a r c a l c i u m f r o m t h e s a r c o p l a s m i c r e t i c u l u m a n d t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n f l u x o f e x t r a c e l l u l a r c a l c i u m (K araki a n d W e i s s, ). E n h a n c e d v a s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i o n i n d i a b e t e s a p p a r e n t l y r e s u l t s f r o m a n i n c r e a s e d r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o e x t r a c e l l u l a r c a l c i u m ( W h i t e a n d C a r r i e r, & ; S a k a i a n d H o n d a, 1987). I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t i n c r e a s e d r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o n o r e p i n e p h r i n e i n d i a b e t e s m i g h t b e c a u s e d, a t l e a s t i n p a r t, b y d e n e r v a t i o n s u p e r s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e v a s c u l a t u r e.

15 5 D e n e r v a t i o n s u p e r s e n s i t i v i t y h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d a f t e r s u r g i c a l o r c h e m i c a l s y m p a t h e c t o m y ( W i n g u i s t a n d B e v a n, ). A l t h o u g h c h a n g e s i n r e c e p t o r s m a y b e i n v o l v e d ( D a v i e s e t a l ), t h e d e c r e a s e i n n e u r o n a l u p t a k e i n t h e d e n e r v a t e d t i s s u e m a y l e a d t o a n i n c r e a s e d l o c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e a d r e n e r g i c t r a n s m i t t e r s a t t h e s m o o t h m u s c l e a l p h a - a d r e n o c e p t o r, g i v i n g r i s e t o a n a u g m e n t e d c o n t r a c t i o n ( A p r i g l i a n o a n d H e r m s m e y e r, 1976). S c a r b o r o u g h a n d C a r r i e r (1984) r e p o r t e d t h a t e n h a n c e d n o r e p i n e p h r i n e r e s p o n s e s o f a o r t a s f r o m d i a b e t i c r a t s m a y b e r e l a t e d p r i m a r i l y t o c h a n g e s i n a l p h a-2 r e c e p t o r f u n c t i o n. T h e y f o u n d n o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e r e s p o n s e s t o s e l e c t i v e a l p h a - 1 a g o n i s t s i n a o r t a s o f S T Z - d i a b e t i c rats. A f u n c t i o n a l e n d o t h e l i a l c e l l l a y e r is r e q u i r e d f o r t h e v a s o d i l a t o r y e f f e c t s o f s e v e r a l p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l a g e n t s. R e m o v a l o f t h e e n d o t h e l i u m g r e a t l y r e d u c e s o r ed)olishes v a s c u l a r s m o o t h m u s c l e r e l a x a t i o n i n d u c e d b y t h e s e a g e n t s. T h e v a s c u l a r e n d o t h e l i u m h a d b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e i m p o r t a n t s i t e w h i c h m o d u l a t e s t h e v a s c u l a r s m o o t h m u s c l e t o n e ( F u r c h g o t t a n d Z a n a d s k i, ). E n d o t h e l i a l d e r i v e d r e l a x i n g f a c t o r ( E D R F ), o n e o f t h e e n d o t h e l i u m d e r i v e d s u b s t a n c e s, h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a s a n i m p o r t a n t m o d u l a t o r o f v a s c u l a r tone. R e c e n t l y, e n d o t h e l i n - 1 h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s a 21- r e s i d u e p e p t i d e a n d s h o w n t o b e a v e r y p o t e n t v a s o c o n s t r i c t o r ( Y a n a g i s a w a e t a l. 1988). D i n g e t a l (1991) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e l a x a t i o n r e s p o n s e t o a n e n d o t h e l i u m

16 d e p e n d e n t v a s o d i l a t o r, l i k e c a r b a c h o l, w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p p r e s s e d in d i a b e t i c a o r t a p r e p a r a t i o n s w h e r e a s t h e r e l a x a n t e f f e c t o f s o d i u m n i t r o p r u s s i d e, w h i c h d o e s n o t r e q u i r e a f u n c t i o n a l e n d o t h e l i u m, w a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c h a n g e d. T h i s m a y s u g g e s t e i t h e r d i s t u r b a n c e s in t h e s y n t h e s i s o r a n a c c e l e r a t e d d e s t r u c t i o n o f E D R F i n t h e d i a b e t i c state. Diabetes Mellitus and Myocardial Functions B o t h t y p e o f d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s a r e o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c a r d i o v a s c u l a r c o m p l i c a t i o n s s u c h a s c o r o n a r y a r t e r y l e s i o n s a n d d i a b e t i c c a r d i o m y o p a t h y, r e s u l t i n g in a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f m y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n a n d c o n g e s t i v e h e a r t f a i l u r e (Jaffe, 1989). L e f t v e n t r i c u l a r s y s t o l i c d u r a t i o n is a b n o r m a l in m a n y d i a b e t i c s s h o w i n g n o o v e r t e v i d e n c e o f c o r o n a r y h e a r t d i s e a s e o r h y p e r t e n s i o n ( U u s i t u p a e t a l ). I n a d d i t i o n t o s y s t o l i c d y s f u n c t i o n, r e d u c e d d i a s t o l i c f i l l i n g r a t e a n d a p r o l o n g e d i s o v o l u m i c r e l a x a t i o n a r e a l s o f r e q u e n t l y o b s e r v e d i n d i a b e t e s ( P o z z o l i e t a l. 1984). D i a b e t i c c a r d i a c d y s f u n c t i o n m a y b e d u e t o d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e m i c r o c i r c u l a t i o n c a u s e d b y a b n o r m a l i t i e s in v a s c u l a r s e n s i t i v i t y a n d r e a c t i v i t y t o n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s (F r i e d m a n, ). A n o t h e r t h e o r y t o e x p l a i n c a r d i a c d y s f u n c t i o n s u g g e s t e d b y G a r b e r a n d N e e l y (1983) i s t h a t a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n c o n d u c t i o n s y s t e m s a l t e r c a r d i a c p e r f o r m a n c e. A t h i r d e x p l a n a t i o n f o r c a r d i a c d y s f u n c t i o n is d u e t o a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n t h e m y o c a r d i u m s u c h

17 7 a s d e p r e s s e d m y o c a r d i a l m e t a b o l i s m ( F e v u r y e t a l ), i m p a i r e d t i s s u e a n t i o x i d a n t s t a t u s ( W o h a i e b a n d G o d i n, 1987) a n d d e c r e a s e d s a r c o l e m m a l e n z y m e a c t i v i t y ( P i e r c e e t a l, ). T h e p r e c i s e s u b c e l l u l a r m e c h a n i s m s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i a b e t i c c a r d i o m y o p a t h y a r e u n k n o w n. H o w e v e r, it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t e l e v a t e d m y o c a r d i a l c a l c i u m c o n t e n t i s d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d i n c o n t r a c t i l e d y s f u n c t i o n a n d c e l l u l a r n e c r o s i s (Pierce, 1988). T h e m e c h a n i s m o f t i s s u e c a l c i u m o v e r l o a d is a c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n o n, u s u a l l y i n v o l v i n g i m p a i r m e n t in t h e m o v e m e n t o f c a l c i u m b y o n e o r m o r e c a l c i u m t r a n s p o r t e r s (Weir, 1990). I n t h e n o r m a l l y f u n c t i o n i n g m y o c a r d i u m, t h e s a r c o p l a s m i c r e t i c u l a r c a l c i u m p u m p s e r v e s a s t h e p r i m a r y m e c h a n i s m f o r r e m o v a l o f c a l c i u m f r o m t h e c y t o p l a s m. S a r c o p l a s m i c r e t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n a p p e a r s t o b e d e f e c t i v e in d i a b e t i c m y o c a r d i u m w i t h d e p r e s s e d A T P - d e p e n d e n t c a l c i u m t r a n s p o r t a n d c a l c i u m s t i m u l a t e d A T P a s e a c t i v i t y ( G a n g u l y e t a l ). I n a d d i t i o n, t h e d i a b e t i c m y o c a r d i u m e x h i b i t s a v a r i e t y o f a b n o r m a l i t i e s in s a r c o l e m m a l i o n t r a n s p o r t, i n c l u d i n g d e p r e s s i o n o f Na^-H'*' ( P i e r c e e t a l ; L a g d i c - G a s s m a n n e t a l, 1988) a n d N a + - Ca^"*" ( M a k i n o e t a l. 1987) e x c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s a n d i n h i b i t i o n o f C a A T P a s e ( H e y l i g e r e t a l. 1987) a n d N a - K A T P a s e a c t i v i t i e s ( P i e r c e e t a l ). D i a b e t e s r e s u l t s i n s e v e r a l c h a n g e s i n c a r d i a c m e t a b o l i s m. T h e m o s t n o t a b l e c h a n g e is d e c r e a s e d g l u c o s e

18 8 t r a n s p o r t i n t o m u s c l e c e l l s b y f a c u l t a t i v e g l u c o s e t r a n s p o r t e r p r o t e i n s ( G I U T 4 ). A d e c r e a s e d m y o c a r d i a l g l y c o l y t i c f l u x i s a l s o o b s e r v e d i n diaübetics d u e t o i n h i b i t i o n o f t h e g l y c o l y t i c e n z y m e p h o s p h o f r u c t o k i n a s e. T h e a c t i v i t y o f t h i s k e y e n z y m e is n o t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d b y d i a b e t e s ; r a t h e r r e d u c e d f l u x t h r o u g h t h e e n z y m e o c c u r s s e c o n d a r y t o t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c i t r a t e, a p o t e n t i n h i b i t o r o f p h o s p h o f r u c t o k i n a s e ( R a n d l e e t a l. 1966). T h e r o l e o f r e a c t i v e o x y g e n r a d i c a l s i n d e t e r m i n i n g m y o c a r d i a l i s c h e m i a a n d r e p e r f u s i o n i n j u r y (MI/R) n o w s e e m s f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d ( McCord, 1985; V a n d e r V u s s e, 1985). I n a d d i t i o n t o i s c h e m i c h e a r t d i s e a s e, o t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f d i a b e t e s s u g g e s t e d b y e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s t o i n v o l v e o x y g e n r a d i c a l d a m a g e i n c l u d e a t h e r o s c l e r o s i s ( F o g e l m a n e t a l. 1980), r e t i n a l d a m a g e ( C r o u c h e t a l. 1978) a n d r e n a l i n j u r y ( P a l i e r e t a l. 1984). D i a b e t e s is k n o w n t o h a v e s e v e r a l e f f e c t s o n a n t i o x i d a n t s t a t u s ( W o h a i e b a n d G odin, 1987). T h e l e v e l s o f f r e e r a d i c a l s s u c h a s s u p e r o x i d e a n d h y d r o x y l r a d i c a l s a r e c o n t r o l l e d b y v a r i o u s c e l l u l a r m e c h a n i s m s c o n s i s t i n g o f a n t i o x i d a n t e n z y m e s [ s u p e r o x i d e d i s m u t a s e ( S O D ), c a t a l a s e (CAT) a n d g l u t a t h i o n e p e r o x i d a s e ( GS H - P X ) / o x i d i z e d g l u t a t h i o n e r e d u c t a s e ( G S S G - R D ) s y s t e m s ] a n d n o n e n z y m a t i c s c a v e n g e r c o m p o n e n t s ( g l u t a t h i o n e, v i t a m i n C a n d v i t a m i n E) ( S i m m o n s, 1 984). D i a b e t e s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d a c t i v i t i e s o f C A T, G S S G - R D a n d S O D in t h e p a n c r e a s a n d o f C A T a n d G S S G - R D i n t h e h e a r t. O n

19 9 t h e o t h e r h a nd, t h e l i v e r o f d i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w e d a g e n e r a l i z e d d e c r e a s e i n C AT, G S H - P X a n d S O D a s w e l l a s in t h e l e v e l s o f r e d u c e d g l u t a t h i o n e ( G S H ). D i a b e t i c k i d n e y a l s o s h o w e d d e c r e a s e s i n C A T a n d S O D, b u t t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f G S H - P X w e r e i n c r e a s e d. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t r e v e r s e d a l l o f t h e a l t e r a t i o n s i n t i s s u e a n t i o x i d a n t s t a t u s in T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s ( W o h a i e b a n d G o d i n, 1 987). R e p e r f u s i o n o f t h e m y o c a r d i u m a f t e r a n i s c h e m i c p e r i o d c a n p r o d u c e M I / R in ju r y. R e p e r f u s i o n d a m a g e is e v i d e n c e d b y a s u d d e n a n d m a r k e d i n c r e a s e in u l t r a s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s, e n z y m e r e l e a s e a n d c a l c i u m i n f l u x ( B o u r d i l l o n e t a l. 1981). V a r i o u s m e c h a n i s m s h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d a s t r i g g e r s f o r r e p e r f u s i o n d a m a g e i n c l u d i n g 1) d e p l e t i o n o f h i g h e n e r g y p h o s p h a t e s ( J e n n i n g s e t a l. 1978) a n d c a t e c h o l a m i n e s (G a u d e l e t a l ), 2) a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a l c i u m ( N ay 1er, 1981) a n d l y s o p h o s p h o g l y c e r i d e s (Katz e t a l. 1983) a n d 3) a c t i v a t i o n o f p h o s p h o l i p a s e s ( C h e i n e t a l ). W h e t h e r a l t e r a t i o n s i n m y o c a r d i a l m e t a b o l i s m i n d i a b e t i c s h a v e a n y d i r e c t e f f e c t s o n M I / R is n o t c l e a r. S e v e r a l i s o l a t e d h e a r t s t u d i e s r e p o r t t h a t d i a b e t i c h e a r t s a r e m o r e s e n s i t i v e t h a n n o r m a l h e a r t s t o i s c h e m i c i n j u r y ( H a i d e r e t a l. 1977; P a l i k e t a l. 1982), b u t t h i s d i s p a r i t y i n s e n s i t i v i t y w a s m i n i m i z e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e g l u c o s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e p e r f u s a t e ( I n g e br e ts e n, 1980). V o g e l a n d A p s t e i n (1988) s u g g e s t e d t h a t d i a b e t i c h e a r t s a r e c o m p a r a b l e to n o r m a l h e a r t s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e s e v e r i t y o f M I / R injury. H i g u c h i

20 10 e t a l (1990) h a v e s h o w n t h a t d i a b e t i c h e a r t s w e r e m o r e v u l n e r a b l e t o h y p o p e r f u s i o n d a m a g e w h i l e n o r m a l h e a r t s w e r e m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o r e p e r f u s i o n i n j u r y. O t h e r r e p o r t s in t h e l i t e r a t u r e h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t d i a b e t i c h e a r t s a r e m o r e r e s i s t a n t t o i s c h e m i c i n j u r y t h a n n o r m a l h e a r t s (Tani a n d N e e l y, 1988; P i e p e r, 1990). V a r i o u s m e c h a n i s m s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d t o e x p l a i n t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f d i a b e t i c h e a r t s t o i s c h e m i c i n j u r y. S h e n a n d J e n n i n g s ( a & 1972b) h a v e s h o w n t h a t m a s s i v e a m o u n t s o f C a 2 + a c c u m u l a t e i n i s c h e m i c r e p e r f u s e d m y o c a r d i u m. They, a s w e l l a s o t h e r s, h a v e s u g g e s t e d a n a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n Ca^"*" a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d i r r e v e r s i b l e c e l l d a m a g e. T a n i a n d N e e l y (1988) s u g g e s t e d t h a t u p o n r e p e r f u s i o n C a ^ + u p t a k e w a s l e s s i n d i a b e t i c s t h a n i n c o n t r o l a n d t h i s l o w a c c u m u l a t i o n o f C a ^ ^ m a y a c c o u n t f o r t h e g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e o f d i a b e t i c h e a r t s t o i s c h e m i a. P l a s m a l e v e l s o f a r a c h i d o n i c a c i d a n d p r o s t a c y c l i n h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d t o b e d e c r e a s e d i n d i a b e t i c p a t i e n t s ( S i l b e r b a u r e r e t a l. 1979) a s w e l l a s i n d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s ( H o l m a n e t a l ; H a r r i s o n e t a l ). P r o s t a c y c l i n is s y n t h e s i z e d in r e s p o n s e t o M I / R i n j u r y a n d P i e p e r e t al (1989, 1990) h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t i n h i b i t i o n o f p r o s t a c y c l i n s y n t h e s i s i n d i a b e t i c s i n c r e a s e s p o s t - i s c h e m i c c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n.

21 11 P i o g l i t m m o m * : T h i a z o l i d i n e d i o n e s r e p r e s e n t a n e w s t r u c t u r a l c l a s s o f a n t i - d i a b e t i c c o m p o u n d s t h a t w e r e d i s c o v e r e d e m p i r i c a l l y b y o b s e r v i n g t h e i r h y p o g l y c e m i c e f f e c t s in a n i m a l m o d e l s o f T y p e II d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( C o l c a a n d M o r t o n, ). P i o g l i t a z o n e, a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f s u c h a g e n t s, a p p e a r s t o l o w e r b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n d i a b e t i c r o d e n t m o d e l s t h r o u g h a m e c h a n i s m t h a t i n v o l v e s i n c r e a s e d i n s u l i n s e n s i t i v i t y i n t a r g e t t i s s u e s ( C o l c a a n d M o r t o n, 1990). I t i n c r e a s e s i n s u l i n s e n s i t i v i t y b y p h o s p h o r y l a t i o n o f t h e t y r o s i n e k i n a s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e b e t a c h a i n o f t h e i n s u l i n r e c e p t o r ( K o b a y a s h i e t a l. 1992). NH HCI P I O G L I T A Z O N E H Y D R O C H L O R I D E A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p i o g l i t a z o n e t o i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n t f a t t y r a t s r e s u l t s i n a d o s e - d e p e n d e n t d e c r e a s e i n b l o o d l e v e l s o f g l u c o s e, t r i g l y c e r i d e s a n d i n s u l i n ( I k e d a e t a l. 1990). P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t c o r r e c t s t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s i n G L U T 4 g l u c o s e t r a n s p o r t e r e x p r e s s i o n in i n s u l i n - r e s i s t a n t

22 12 o b e s e K K A ^ m i c e ( H o f m a n n e t a l. 1991). T h i s i n c r e a s e d g l u c o s e t r a n s p o r t e r e x p r e s s i o n r e s u l t e d d e s p i t e a n a c c o m p a n y i n g r e d u c t i o n o f c i r c u l a t i n g i n s u l i n le ve l s. G l u c o s e t r a n s p o r t i n m a m m a l i a n t i s s u e s i s m e d i a t e d b y a f a m i l y o f s t r u c t u r a l l y r e l a t e d, b u t g e n e t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t, g l u c o s e - t r a n s p o r t e r p r o t e i n s. T h e f a c u l t a t i v e g l u c o s e - t r a n s p o r t e r i s o f o r m s h a v e d i s t i n c t t i s s u e d i s t r i b u t i o n a s f o l l o w s : G I U T I in e r y t h r o c y t e, G L U T 2 i n liver, 6 L U T 3 i n b r a i n, G L U T 4 i n m u s c l e & f a t a n d G L U T S i n s m a l l i n t e s t i n e. H o f m a n n e t a l. (1992) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e t w o - f o l d e l e v a t i o n i n t h e g l u c o n e o g e n i c e n z y m e, p h o s p h o e n o l p y r u v a t e c a r b o x y k i n a s e (PEPCK) a n d i t s m R N A a b u n d a n c e w a s n o r m a l i z e d a f t e r t r e a t m e n t w i t h p i o g l i t a z o n e. S u g i y a m a e t al ( 1990 & 1991) r e p o r t e d t h a t p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t r e v e r s e s a l l e f f e c t s i n n o n i n s u l i n d e p e n d e n t d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( T y pe I I ), b u t h a s n o e f f e c t o n i n s u l i n d e p e n d e n t d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( Ty p e I) w h e n a d m i n i s t e r e d a l o n e. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p i o g l i t a z o n e a n d i n s u l i n d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e a n d t r i g l y c e r i d e l e v e l s i n S T Z - d i a b e t i c rats (Hofmann, 1 991). P i o g l i t a z o n e l o w e r e d c h o l e s t e r o l l e v e l s in T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s f e d a h i g h c h o l e s t e r o l d i e t a n d p r o d u c e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n c h o l e s t e r o l a b s o r p t i o n. D r u g t r e a t m e n t w a s i n e f f e c t i v e i n r a t s t h a t w e r e n o t g i v e n d i e t a r y c h o l e s t e r o l. T h e m e c h a n i s m o f t h e e f f e c t o n c h o l e s t e r o l a b s o r p t i o n i s u n k n o w n. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t

23 13 a l o n e d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e c h o l e s t e r o l a b s o r p t i o n i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s f e d a n o r m a l d i e t ; h o w e v e r, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e s y n e r g i z e d t o l o w e r a b s o r p t i o n o f c h o l e s t e r o l a n d c i r c u l a t i n g c h o l e s t e r o l l e v e l s ( C o l c a e t a l ). T h e e f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y o r o n v a s c u l a r c h a n g e s p r o d u c e d b y e i t h e r T y p e I o r T y p e II d i a b e t e s a r e u n k n o w n. A l s o t h e r e a r e n o r e p o r t s o n e f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n o r M I / R i n j u r y i n e i t h e r h e a l t h y o r d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. W e h a v e i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e c a r d i o v a s c u l a r e f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e i n t w o m o d e l s o f d i a b e t e s w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g o b j e c t i v e s : 1. T o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y i n T y p e II d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s. 2. T o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y i n T y p e I d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s. 3. T o e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n a n d M I / R i n j u r y i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. 4. T o c o m p a r e t h e e f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y i n b o t h T y p e I a n d T y p e II m o d e l s o f d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s.

24 MXTBRZAL8 f t MBTHOD8 Bmimalm & Housings M a l e Z u c k e r d i a b e t i c f a t t y r a t s (Drt-fa) w e i g h i n g g a n d m a l e Z u c k e r l e a n r a t s ( n o n d i a b e t i c s ) w e i g h i n g g a n d o b t a i n e d f r o m G e n e t i c M o d e l s, Inc., I n d i a n a p o l i s, IN, m e l l i t u s s t u d y. w e r e u s e d i n t h e T y p e II d i a b e t e s Z u c k e r d i a b e t i c f a t t y r a t s w e r e h o u s e d in i n d i v i d u a l w i r e - m e s h c a g e s o v e r w o o d c h i p b e d d i n g. T w o Z u c k e r l e a n r a t s w e r e h o u s e d t o g e t h e r i n w i r e m e s h c a g e s. M a l e S p r a g u e D a w l e y r a t s, w e i g h i n g g a n d o b t a i n e d f r o m B a n t in & K i n g m a n Co. F r e m o n t, C A., w e r e u s e d i n t h e T y p e I d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s s tudy. R a t s w e r e h o u s e d in i n d i v i d u a l w i r e m e s h h a n g i n g c a g e s. P u r i n a l a b c h o w a n d w a t e r we r e availetble a d l i b d u r i n g 12 h o u r l i g h t - d a r k c yc l e s. A l l a n i m a l s w e r e a l l o w e d a m i n i m u m o f 3 t o 5 d a y s a c c l i m a t i z a t i o n b e f o r e s t a r t i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s. R e a g e n t s & D ru g s: R e a g e n t s a n d d r u g s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e i n d i c a t e d s o u r c e s : S t r e p t o z o t o c i n, n o r e p i n e p h r i n e, c a r b a m y I c h o l i n e c h l o r i d e, s o d i u m n i t r o p r u s s i d e, s o d i u m p y r u v a t e a n d s o d i u m p e n t o b a r b i t a l f r o m S i g m a C h e m i c a l Co. S t L o u i s, M O ; s o d i u m c i t r a t e ( N a ^ C g H g O y 2H 2O ), s o d i u m c h l o r i d e ( N a C l ), m a g n e s i u m s u l f a t e (MgSO^ * 7H 2O ), s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e (NaHCO^)r p o t a s s i u m p h o s p h a t e m o n o b a s i c (KH2P O 4) e t h e r f r o m F i s h e r S c i e n t i f i c Co. F a i r L awn, N J ; a n d e t h y l h e p a r i n 14

25 15 f r o m E l k i n s - S in n, Inc., C h e r r y H i l l, N J ; c a l c i u m c h l o r i d e ( C a C l2 * 2H 2O) f r o m E H S c i e n c e, C h e r r y H i l l, NJ; p o t a s s i u m c h l o r i d e (KCl) a n d g l u c o s e f r o m J. T. B a k e r C h e m i c a l Co., P h i l l i p s b u r g, N J ; p i o g l i t a z o n e f r o m U p j o h n Co., K a l a m a z o, T74 M I ; L i n p l a n t s u s t a i n e d r e l e a s e i n s u l i n i m p l a n t f r o m L i n s h i n C a n a d a, O n t a r i o, C a n a d a ; O n e T o u c h ^ II G l u c o s e a n a l y z e r k i t f r o m L i f e S c a n Co., M i l p i t a s, CA. E X P E R I M E N T A L P R O T O C O L S I. T y p e X I D i a b e t e s M e l l i t u s S t u d y s T h e s t u d y f o c u s e d o n v a s o r e a c t i v i t y i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. D i a b e t i c a n d n o n - d i a b e t i c r a t s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g g r o u p s. 1. C o n t r o l (C) : N o n - d i a b e t i c c o n t r o l. 2. C o n t r o l P i o g l i t a z o n e (CP): N o n - d i a b e t i c p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t e d. 3. D i a b e t i c ( D ) : D i a b e t i c c o n t r o l o r u n t r e a t e d. 4. D i a b e t i c P i o g l i t a z o n e (DP): D i a b e t i c p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t e d. A t o t a l o f n i n e t o e l e v e n r a t s w e r e u s e d in e a c h t r e a t m e n t g r o u p. T r e a t m e n t b e g a n a t s e v e n w e e k s o f a g e a n d c o n t i n u e d f o r s i x w e e k s w i t h d a i l y d o s i n g (10 m g / k g / d a y ) o f p i o g l i t a z o n e. P i o g l i t a z o n e h y d r o c h l o r i d e w a s s u s p e n d e d a t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 10 m g / m l i n 0. 5 M c i t r a t e b u f f e r (ph 4.5) a n d w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d b y o r a l g a v a g e t o C P a n d D P g r o u p r a t s. C i t r a t e b u f f e r w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d t o c o n t r o l a n d d i a b e t i c g r o u p r a t s b y t h e s a m e m e c h a n i s m. A l l a n i m a l s w e r e

26 16 w e i g h e d d a i l y. O n c e a w e e k t h e r a t s w e r e f a s t e d f o r f i v e h o u r s a n d b l o o d s a m p l e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h e d i s t a l p a r t o f t h e t a i l. T h e b l o o d g l u c o s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n w a s d e t e r m i n e d w i t h a O n e T o u c h ^ II g l u c o s e a n a l y z e r. A t t h e e n d o f t h e t r e a t m e n t p e r i o d, r a t s w e r e a n e s t h e t i z e d w i t h s o d i u m p e n t o b a r b i t a l (100 m g / k g i. p. ). T h e t h o r a c i c a o r t a s w e r e r e m o v e d r a p i d l y a n d d i s s e c t e d f r e e o f e x c e s s f a t a n d c o n n e c t i v e t i s s u e i n K r e b s - H e n s e l e i t s o l u t i o n c o n t a i n i n g ( m M ) : N a C l 118; K C l 4.7; C a C l 2 2.5; K H 2P O 4 1.2; H g S04 1.2; N a H C O g 25; G l u c o s e 11. A p a r t o f t h o r a c i c a o r t a w a s c u t i n t o t r a n s v e r s e r i n g o f 4 m m in l e n g t h a n d o p e n e d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y t o p r e p a r e 8 X 4 m m strip. T h e a o r t i c s t r i p w a s a t t a c h e d t o a n F M y o g r a p h ( N a r c o B i o s y s t e m s ) t o r e c o r d i s o m e t r i c c o n t r a c t i o n o n a p o l y g r a p h ( N a r c o B i o s y s t e m s ). T h e t i s s u e w a s p l a c e d i n 37^C K H s o l u t i o n a n d a e r a t e d w i t h 9 5 % 0 2 a n d 5% C 0 2 a n d m a i n t a i n e d a t 37^C. T h e b a t h v o l u m e w a s 25 ml. T h e p r e p a r a t i o n w a s a l l o w e d t o e q u i l i b r a t e f o r 30 m i n u t e s u n d e r a n o p t i m a l r e s t i n g t e n s i o n o f 1 g. D u r i n g e q u i l i b r a t i o n t h e a o r t i c s t r i p w a s w a s h e d w i t h f r e s h s o l u t i o n e v e r y 10 m i n u t e s. A f t e r e q u i l i b r a t i o n f o r 30 m i n u t e s, c o n t r a c t i l e f u n c t i o n o f t h e a o r t i c t i s s u e w a s e x a m i n e d b y r e p l a c i n g t h e K - H s o l u t i o n w i t h a s i m i l a r s o l u t i o n c o n t a i n i n g 4 0 m M KCl. A f t e r K C l - i n d u c e d c o n t r a c t i o n, t h e a o r t i c s t r i p w a s w a s h e d w i t h K - H s o l u t i o n. W a s h i n g s w e r e r e p e a t e d e v e r y f i v e m i n u t e s u n t i l b a s e l i n e w a s a c h i e v e d. A l p h a a d r e n o r e c e p t o r -

27 17 m e d i a t e d c o n t r a c t i l i t y w a s d e t e r m i n e d b y a c u m u l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n n o r e p i n e p h r i n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( l O ^ M t o l O ^ M) i n t h e b a t h s o l u t i o n. T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e a g o n i s t i n t h e b a t h w a s i n c r e a s e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e - f o l d e v e r y t h r e e m i n u t e s. T h e a o r t i c s t r i p w a s w a s h e d s e v e r a l t i m e s w i t h f r e s h K - H s o l u t i o n. A p e r i o d o f m i n u t e s w a s a l l o w e d f o r r e - e q u i l i b r a t i o n. V o l t a g e d e p e n d e n t c o n t r a c t i l i t y w a s t h e n d e t e r m i n e d b y e x p o s u r e t o i s o t o n i c K - H s o l u t i o n c o n t a i n i n g 4 0 m M a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y m M KCl. T h e c o n t r a c t i l e f o r c e w a s e x p r e s s e d in g r a m s. II. Type I D i a b e t e s M e l l i t u a S t u d y s T h i s s t u d y f o c u s e d o n m y o c a r d i a l a n d s m o o t h m u s c l e f u n c t i o n i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c rats. D i a b e t e s w a s i n d u c e d u n d e r l i g h t e t h e r a n e s t h e s i a b y a s i n g l e 5 5 m g / k g b o d y w e i g h t i.v. i n j e c t i o n o f s t r e p t o z o t o c i n (STZ) i n t o t h e j u g u l a r v e i n o f 9 w e e k o l d m a l e S p r a g u e - D a w l e y rats. S t r e p t o z o t o c i n w a s d i s s o l v e d a t a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 55 m g / m l in 0. 5 M c i t r a t e b u f f e r (ph 4.5). A g e - m a t c h e d m a l e r a t s u s e d a s c o n t r o l w e r e i n j e c t e d w i t h c i t r a t e b u f f e r ( p H 4.5). F o r t y - e i g h t r a t s w e i g h i n g g w e r e u s e d f o r t h e st u dy. T h e r a t s w e r e d i v i d e d i n t o s i x g r o u p s o f e i g h t r a t s p e r g r o u p a s i n d i c a t e d b e l o w. 1. C o n t r o l ( C ) : N o n - d i a b e t i c c o n t r o l. 2. C o n t r o l P i o g l i t a z o n e ( C P ) : N o n - d i a b e t i c p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t ed. 3. D i a b e t i c ( D ) : D i a b e t i c c o n t r o l.

28 18 4. D i a b e t i c P i o g l i t a z o n e (DP): D i a b e t i c P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t e d. 5. D i a b e t i c I n s u l i n ( D I ) : D i a b e t i c i n s u l i n t r e a t e d. 6. D i a b e t i c I n s u l i n P i o g l i t a z o n e (DIP): D i a b e t i c i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t e d. T r e a t m e n t b e g a n s e v e n d a y s a f t e r i n j e c t i o n o f S T Z o r c i t r a t e b u f f e r a n d c o n t i n u e d w i t h d a i l y d o s i n g of p i o g l i t a z o n e (10 m g / k g / d a y ) f o r s i x w e e k s. P i o g l i t a z o n e h y d r o c h l o r i d e w a s s u s p e n d e d a t a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 10 m g / m l i n 0. 5 M c i t r a t e b u f f e r (ph 4.5) a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d b y o r a l g a v a g e t o CP, D P a n d D I P g r o u p r a t s. C i t r a t e b u f f e r w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d t o c o n t r o l a n d d i a b e t i c g r o u p r a t s b y t h e s a m e m e c h a n i s m. S u s t a i n e d r e l e a s e i n s u l i n p e l l e t s, r e l e a s i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 U n i t s o f i n s u l i n / d a y, w e r e i m p l a n t e d s u b c u t a n e o u s l y i n t h e b a c k o f t h e n e c k in t h e DI a n d D I P g r o u p s. A l l a n i m a l s w e r e w e i g h e d d a i l y a n d b l o o d g l u c o s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d a s d e s c r i b e d in t h e T y p e II s t u d y. W h e n e v e r t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s f e l l b e l o w 30 m g / d l, t e n p e r c e n t g l u c o s e w a s a d d e d t o d r i n k i n g w a t e r a n d p r o v i d e d a d l i b i n r e p l a c e m e n t o f r e g u l a r d r i n k i n g w a t e r. T h e a n i m a l s w h i c h s u r v i v e d t h e e n t i r e t r e a t m e n t p e r i o d w e r e u s e d i n t h e M I / R a n d v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y e x p e r i m e n t s. A t t h e e n d o f t h e t r e a t m e n t p e r i o d, r a t s w e r e a n e s t h e t i z e d w i t h s o d i u m p e n t o b a r b i t a l (100 m g / k g i.p). T h e y w e r e i n t u b a t e d, m e c h a n i c a l l y v e n t i l a t e d a n d a n t i c o a g u l a t e d w i t h l U h e p a r i n I.V. H e a r t s w e r e p e r f u s e d b y t h e a o r t i c

29 19 r o o t i n s i t u a t 3 7 o o w i t h m o d i f i e d K r e b s - H e n s e l e i t (K-H) s o l u t i o n (112 m M N a C l, 25 m M N a H C O ^ # 5 m M K C l, 12 m M M g S O ^, 1 m M K H 2P O4, m M C a C l2# m M d e x t r o s e, 2 m M s o d i u m p y r u v a t e ). T h e p e r f u s a t e w a s a e r a t e d c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h 95% 0 2 a n d 5% C O 2. H e a r t s w e r e q u i c k l y e x c i s e d a n d p l a c e d in a n o n - r e c i r c u l a t i n g L a n g e n d o r f f a p p a r a t u s. C o r o n a r y p e r f u s i o n w a s m a i n t a i n e d a t a c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e o f 8 0 m m Hg. A w a t e r f i l l e d l a t e x b a l l o o n a t t a c h e d t o a m e t a l i n t u b a t i o n t u b e w a s i n s e r t e d t h r o u g h t h e l e f t a t r i u m i n t o t h e l e f t v e n t r i c l e a n d c o n n e c t e d t o a p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r (P b N a r c o B io s y s t e m ) t o r e c o r d t h e l e f t v e n t r i c u l a r d e v e l o p e d p r e s s u r e a n d h e a r t r a t e o n a p o l y g r a p h ( M K - I I I - S, N a r c o B i o s y s t e m ). H e a r t s w e r e a l l o w e d t o e q u i l i b r a t e f o r 15 m i n u t e s, a f t e r w h i c h e n d d i a s t o l i c p r e s s u r e w a s a d j u s t e d t o 5 m m H g b y i n f l a t i n g t h e b a l l o o n. V a l u e s f o r h e a r t r a t e ( H R ), l e f t v e n t r i c u l a r d e v e l o p e d p r e s s u r e ( L V D P ), c o r o n a r y f l o w (CF) a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t w e r e d e t e r m i n e d 20 m i n u t e s a f t e r i n f l a t i o n o f t h e b a l l o o n. H e a r t r a t e a n d l e f t v e n t r i c u l a r d e v e l o p e d p r e s s u r e w e r e r e c o r d e d f r o m t h e p o l y g r a p h. C o r o n a r y f l o w v a l u e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d b y c o l l e c t i n g t h e c o r o n a r y p e r f u s a t e f o r o n e m i n u t e. C a r d i a c f u n c t i o n, e s t i m a t e d a s d o u b l e p r o d u c t, w a s c a l c u l a t e d a s (HR x L V D P ) / T h e h e a r t s w e r e t h e n r e n d e r e d g l o b a l l y i s c h e m i c b y s h u t t i n g o f f t h e f l o w o f m o d i f i e d K - H s o l u t i o n f o r 20 m i n u t e s. S u b s e q u e n t l y, r e p e r f u s i o n w i t h m o d i f i e d K - H s o l u t i o n w a s i n i t i a t e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d f o r 30 m i n u t e s. F i n a l

30 20 v a l u e s for HR, LVDP, CF a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t w e r e t h e n o bt a i n e d. R a t s w h i c h d i d n o t r e c o v e r t h e i r c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n a f t e r 20 m i n u t e s isc h em i a f o l l o w e d b y 30 m i n u t e s o f reperfusion, we re n ot included in t h e statistical analysis. P r e p a r a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n o f t h o r a c i c a o r t a s w e r e as d e s c r i b e d in t h e T y p e II s t u d y w i t h t w o e x c ep t io n s. I n T y p e I s t u d i e s a o r t i c r i ng s w e r e u s e d i n s t e a d of a o r t i c s t r i p s a nd t w o g r a m s of r e s t i n g t e n s i o n w a s u s e d i n s t e a d o f o n e gram. In addition, e n d o t h e l i a l d e p e n d e n t a nd i n d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n w a s m e a s u r e d u s i n g c a r b a c h o l a n d s o d i u m nitropru s si d e. T he r e l a x a t i o n c a u s e d b y c a r b a c h o l in b l o o d v e s s e l s r e q u i r e s a f u n c t i o n a l e n d o t h e l i a l lining, w h e r e a s the r e l a x a t i o n p r o d u c e d b y s o d i u m n i t r o p r u s s i d e is in d e p e n d e n t o f t he e n d o t h el i um. S i n c e e n d o t h e l i a l d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n is k n o w n t o b e i m p a i r e d in T y p e I d iabetes, t h i s e x p e r i m e n t w a s d e s i g n e d t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t o f p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t o n e n d o t h el i al d e p e n d e n t a n d i n d e p e n d e n t relaxation. R e l a x a t i o n w a s a s s e s s e d b y i n d u c i n g p r i o r c o n t r a c t i o n w i t h n o r e p i n e p h r i n e (10 M ). R e l a x a t i o n v a l u e s w e r e c a l c u l a t e d b y u s i n g t h e b e l o w formula. P e r c e n t r e l a x a t i o n = f M.C. - C.R.R.) M.C. * ^00 M.C. = Maximal contraction in g r a m s C. R. R = C o n t r a c t i o n in g r a m s a f t e r r e l a x a t i o n wi t h e i t h e r c a r b a c h o l o r s o d i u m n i t r o p r u s s i d e.

31 2 1 Statistiom: T h e m e a n a n d 9 5 % c o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l s o f t h e E C 50 a n d m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o N E w e r e c a l c u l a t e d b y u s i n g t h e c u r v e f i t t i n g c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m P C N O N L I N. T h e E C 50 v a l u e w a s d e f i n e d a s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a g o n i s t w h i c h p r o d u c e d 5 0 % o f t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e. T h e r e s t o f t h e d a t a w a s a n a l y z e d u s i n g A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e ( A N O V A ). T u k e y ' s p r o t e c t e d t t e s t w a s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s (P < 0.05).

32 RESULTS T y p # II Model: T h e b o d y w e i g h t s o f Z D F r a t s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h e n o n - d i a b e t i c s. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e b o d y w e i g h t s o f c o n t r o l ra t s, b u t d i d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e b o d y w e i g h t o f d i a b e t i c r a t s (Fig- 1). B l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s in t h e d i a b e t i c r a t s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y e l e v a t e d. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n d i a b e t i c r ats, b u t b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s w e r e u n a l t e r e d in c o n t r o l r a t s (Fig. 2). M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E i n a o r t a s f r o m d i a b e t i c r a t s w a s n o t a l t e r e d. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o N E i n b o t h d i a b e t i c a n d c o n t r o l a n i m a l s (Fig. 3). T h e m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i o n a n d E C 50 v a l u e s f o r N E a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 1. E C 5 0 v a l u e s f r o m d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s w e r e a l s o n o t a l t e r e d, b u t E C 5 0 v a l u e s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r i n t h e c o n t r o l t h a n t h e d i a b e t i c p i o g l i t a z o n e a n i m a l s. N o d i f f e r e n c e w a s o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n c o n t r o l a n d d i a b e t i c a o r t i c m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o 4 0 m M KCl. D i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t h a n t h e c o n t r o l p i o g l i t a z o n e (CP) g r o u p rats. F u r t h e r d e p o l a r i z a t i o n w i t h 100 m M K C l d i d n o t p r o d u c e 22

33 23 g r e a t e r c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e, b u t a s i m i l a r c o n t r a c t i l e p a t t e r n t o t h a t s e e n a t 4 0 m M w a s o b s e r v e d (Fig. 4). T y p e X M o d e l s D u r i n g t h e t r e a t m e n t p e r i o d D, DP, a n d D I P g r o u p s h a d a m o r t a l i t y r a t e o f %, 5 0 % a n d 2 5 % r e s p e c t i v e l y. B e c a u s e o f t h e h i g h m o r t a l i t y r a t e i n D P a n d D I P g r o u p s, t h e e x p e r i m e n t w a s s h o r t e n e d t o 40 d a y s i n s t e a d o f 42 d a y s. T h e b o d y w e i g h t s o f d i a b e t i c r a t s s e v e n w e e k s a f t e r t h e S T Z - t r e a t m e n t w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d. D i a b e t i c r a t s l o s t w e i g h t i n i t i a l l y a n d n e v e r r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r i n i t i a l w e i g h t s. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e b o d y w e i g h t c h a n g e in e i t h e r c o n t r o l o r diaüaetic rats. I n s u l i n t r e a t e d d i a b e t i c r a t s g a i n e d w e i g h t a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e r a t e a s c o n t r o l a n i m a l s, b u t d u e t o i n i t i a l w e i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s t h e y r e m a i n e d l i g h t e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r e a t m e n t p e r i o d (Fig. 5). B l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n t h e d i a b e t i c r a t s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y e l e v a t e d. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n e i t h e r c o n t r o l o r d i a b e t i c rats. I n s u l i n n o r m a l i z e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. W h e n p i o g l i t a z o n e w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d a l o n g w i t h i n s u l in, t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n t h e d i a b e t i c i n s u l i n t r e a t e d g r o u p a t t h e s e c o n d a n d s i x t h w e e k s o f t h e s t u d y (DI ± 18 a n d D I P = 29 ± 1 m g / d l a t w e e k t w o ; D I 83 ± 15 a n d D I P = ± 10 m g / d l a t w e e k t e n ). D u r i n g t h e f i n a l w e e k o f t h e

34 24 S t u d y ( w e e k 6) g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n b o t h d i a b e t i c g r o u p s t r e a t e d w i t h i n s u l i n (DI a n d DIP) i n c r e a s e d s l i g h t l y (Fig. 6). Diaüsetic r a t s s h o w e d e l e v a t e d g l y c o s y l a t e d h e m o g l o b i n (Hb) v a l u e s. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a f f e c t g l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s e i t h e r in c o n t r o l o r d i a b e t i c rats. I n s u l i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d t h e g l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s i n d i a b e t i c r at s. T h e c o m b i n e d t r e a t m e n t o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e d i d n o t d e c r e a s e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f g l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s i n d i a b e t i c r a t s (Fig. 7). T h e m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i 1 e r e s p o n s e t o N E i n a o r t a s f r o m d i a b e t i c s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o H E e i t h e r i n c o n t r o l o r d i a b e t i c rats. A l t h o u g h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s n o t o b s e r v e d, p i o g l i t a z o n e a p p e a r s t o d e c r e a s e t h e m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E i n C P a n d D I P g r o u p s. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t o n d i a b e t e s - i n d u c e d m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i o n. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e c r e a s e d t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o N E i n d i a b e t i c rats, b u t s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s n o t o b s e r v e d ( T a b l e 2; Fig. 8). E C 5 0 v a l u e s i n d i c a t e t h a t c o n t r o l r a t s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e s e n s i t i v e t o N E t h a n t h e d i a b e t i c rats. N e i t h e r p i o g l i t a z o n e n o r i n s u l i n s h o w e d a n y a f f e c t o n E C 50. T h e c o m b i n e d t r e a t m e n t o f p i o g l i t a z o n e a n d i n s u l i n d e c r e a s e d t h e E C 5 0 v a l u e i n d i a b e t i c r a t s ( T a b l e 2).

35 25 M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o K C l i n a o r t a s f r o m dieü>etic r a t s w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d. A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f e i t h e r i n s u l i n o r p i o g l i t a z o n e t o d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s p r e v e n t e d t h i s d e c r e a s e. H o w e v e r, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e (DIP) p r o d u c e d a d e c r e a s e d m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e s i m i l a r t o t h a t s e e n in t h e d i a b e t i c g r o u p (Fig. 9). A l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n r e s p o n s e c u r v e s f o r t h e c a r b a c h o l - i n d u c e d r e l a x a t i o n o f r a t a o r t a s w e r e s h i f t e d t o t h e r i g h t o f t h e c o n t r o l. T h e r e w e r e, h o w e v e r, n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s o b s e r v e d i n t h e m a x i m a l r e l a x a t i o n b e t w e e n c o n t r o l a n d t h e D a n d D I g r o u p s. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d t h e m a x i m a l r e l a x a t i o n i n t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p. A l t h o u g h s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e n o t o b s e r v e d, p i o g l i t a z o n e a p p e a r e d t o d e c r e a s e m a x i m a l r e l a x a t i o n i n t h e D P a n d D I P g r o u p s (Fig. 10). N o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e o b s e r v e d in t h e m a x i m a l e n d o t h e l i a l - i n d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n o f a o r t i c t i s s u e t o s o d i u m n i t r o p r u s s i d e (Fig. 11). Pre-ischemic cardiac Functions A l t h o u g h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s n o t o b s e r v e d, h e a r t r a t e t e n d e d t o b e r e d u c e d in d i a b e t i c rats. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d t h e h e a r t r a t e i n d i a b e t i c r a t s. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e h e a r t r a t e i n d i a b e t i c r a t s. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e m o n s t r a t e d h i g h e r h e a r t r a t e s t h a n

36 26 p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t a l o n e, b u t n o t a s h i g h a s i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t ( Ta b le 3). D i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w e d n o c h a n g e i n l e f t v e n t r i c u l a r d e v e l o p e d p r e s s u r e. H o w e v e r, d i a b e t i c g r o u p s w i t h o u t i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t s h o w e d a t e n d e n c y f o r l o w e r e d LVDP. N e i t h e r p i o g l i t a z o n e n o r i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e LVDP, b u t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e L V D P in d i a b e t i c r a t s ( T a b l e 3). P r e - i s c h e m i c d o u b l e p r o d u c t w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r in D a n d D P g r o u p s c o m p a r e d t o a l l o t h e r g r o u p s. P i o g l i t a z o n e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e d o u b l e p r o d u c t in t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t a n d t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e d o u b l e p r o d u c t i n d i a b e t i c r a t s ( T a b l e 3). D i a b e t i c r a t s h a d s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d c o r o n a r y flow. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e c o r o n a r y f l o w in e i t h e r c o n t r o l o r d i a b e t i c r a t s. A l t h o u g h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e wa s n o t o b s e r v e d, i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t a n d t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t a p p e a r e d t o n o r m a l i z e t h e c o r o n a r y f l o w i n d i a b e t i c r a t s ( T a b l e 3). M I / R I n j u r y : A f t e r 20 m i n u t e s o f i s c h e m i a f o l l o w e d b y 30 m i n u t e s o f r e p e r f u s i o n, a l l h e a r t s s h o w e d m e a s u r a b l e c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n i n D, D P a n d DI g r o u p s. C, C P a n d D I P g r o u p h e a r t s s h o w e d m e a s u r a b l e c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n i n o n l y s e v e n o u t of e i g h t, f i v e

37 27 o u t o f e i g h t a n d f o u r o u t o f six, r e s p e c t i v e l y ( T a b l e 4). O n l y h e a r t s t h a t r e c o v e r e d t o s o m e d e g r e e w e r e u s e d i n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s. P o s t - i s c h e m i c h e a r t r a t e w a s n o t d i f f e r e n t f r o m p r e - i s c h e m i c h e a r t r a t e in a l l g r o u p s. D i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w e d n o c h a n g e i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f h e a r t r a t e. N e i t h e r p i o g l i t a z o n e n o r i n s u l i n s h o w e d a n y e f f e c t o n p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f h e a r t r a t e. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t (DIP) s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d t h e p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f h e a r t r a t e in d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s ( T a b l e 4). P o s t - i s c h e m i c l e f t v e n t r i c u l a r d e v e l o p e d p r e s s u r e w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d i n a l l g r o u p s e x c e p t, DP. D i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w e d n o c h a n g e i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f LVDP. N e i t h e r p i o g l i t a z o n e n o r i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t s h o w e d a n y e f f e c t o n p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f L V D P. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t (DIP) s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i m i n i s h e d p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e D P g r o u p ( T a b l e 4). P o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f d o u b l e p r o d u c t w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d i n a l l g r o u p s e x c e p t DP. T h e r e is n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n d i a b e t i c a n d c o n t r o l rats. N e i t h e r p i o g l i t a z o n e n o r i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t s h o w e d a n y e f f e c t o n p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f d o u b l e p r o d u c t. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t (DIP) a l s o d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t o n d o u b l e p r o d u c t (Table 4).

38 28 P o s t - i s c h e m i c c o r o n a r y f l o w w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d i n a l l g r o u p s e x c e p t D P a n d DI. D i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w e d n o c h a n g e i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f t h e c o r o n a r y f l o w. N e i t h e r p i o g l i t a z o n e n o r i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t s h o w e d a n y e f f e c t o n p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f c o r o n a r y flow. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t (DIP) s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i m i n i s h e d p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e D I g r o u p (Table 4).

39 ^ -O + 29 C P D DP » UJ ^ ^ Û O O D U R A T I O N O F T R E A T M E N T ( W E E K S ) Fig. 1. Effect of pioglitazone on body weight in Type II diabetic rats. C Control: CP - Control pioglitazone treated; D Diabetic; DP Diabetic pioglitazone treated. CP and DP group rats received pioglitazone (10 mg/kg/day) by oral gavage from 0-6 weeks. Each point represents means of 9-11 rats. * Significantly different from all other groups at week 6.

40 30 C P D EHii D P 400 =D I : 8o CO " Fig. 2. Final week blood glucose levels in Type II diabetic rats All values are expressed as Mean ± SE. * Significantly different from all other groups. See Fig. 1 for description of treatment groups.

41 h C A C P O O DP ^ + + # / N O R E P I N E P H R I N E (M) Fig. 3. Effect of pioglitazone on vascular reactivity to norepinephrine in Type II diabetic rat aortic strips. Each point represents mean of 9 - II experiments. # Significantly different from respective control group. See Fig. 1 for description of treatment groups. N - 9, 10, 10, 11 for groups C, CF, D, DP respectively.

42 32 T a b l e 1. M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e a n d E C 50 v a l u e s o f N E i n a o r t a s f r o m T y p e I I d i a b e t i c rats. 1 G r o u p M a x i m a l R e s p o n s e ( g ) ( 9 5 % C. I.) E C 50 (nm) (95% C. I. ) 1 ^ 1 (N = 9) C P (N = 10) ± 0. 4 ( ) ± 0. 4 ^ ( ) ± 1.7 ( ) ± ( ) 1 D (N = 10) ± ( ) ± ( ) D P (N = 11) ± ^ ( ) ± 0. 6 ^ ( ) D a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d a s M e a n ± S E w i t h 95% c o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l s in t h e p a r e n t h e s e s. M a x i m a l r e s p o n s e i s e x p r e s s e d i n g r a m s o f t e n s i o n. E C 50 v a l u e s a r e e x p r e s s e d a s b a t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n (nm) w h i c h p r o d u c e d 5 0 % m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e. C = C o n t r o l ; C P = C o n t r o l P i o g l i t a z o n e ; D - D i a b e t i c ; D P = D i a b e t i c P i o g l i t a z o n e. 1 s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n r e s p e c t i v e u n t r e a t e d g r o u p. 2 S i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n c o n t r o l ( C ).

43 33 C P D E ü l D P O) o co y 1 - UJ 4 0 m M m M Fie. 4. Maximal contractile response of rat aortic strip to 40 mm and 100 mm KCl. All values are expressed as Mean ± SE. * Significantly different from CP group. See Table 1 for description of treatment groups and N values.

44 + C A - CP O O + DP A Dl DIP # --A e ï I D U R A T I O N O F T R E A T M E N T ( W E E K S ) Fig, 5. Mean body weights in Type I diabetic rats. C Control; CP Control pioglitazone treated ; D Diabetic; DP Diabetic pioglitazone treated; DI - Diabetic insulin treated; DIP Both insulin and pioglitazone treated diabetic group. N values: C - 8; CP - 8; D - 7; DP - 4; DI - 8; DIP - 6. Streptozotocin <55 mg/kg) given intravenously to D, DP, DI and DIP groups at week 0. Pioglitazone (10 mg/kg/day) given by oral gavage to CP, DP and DIP groups from week one to seven. Sustained release insulin pellets, releasing approximately 2 U/day for 40 days, were implanted s.c. at week one to DI and DIP groups. * C & CP are significantly different from all other groups at week 7. # DI & DIP are significantly different from all other groups at week 7. $ D & DP are significantly different from all other groups at week 7.

45 + A " C C P O O + OP -A DI DIP / + o» O W E E K S Fig. 6. Mean blood glucose levels in Type I diabetic rats. See Fig. 5 for description of treatment groups and N values. $ DI is significantly different from all groups at week 2. * D and DP are significantly different from all other groups at week 6. # DI is significantly different from D, CP, DP and DIP groups at week 6.

46 36 C P DP DI DIP» C =l 25 Z m 20 - o 1 I S 15 sid Fig. 7. Glycosylated hemoglobin values after 6 weeks in Tvoe I diabetic rats. All values expressed as Mean ± SE. * Significantly different from C, CP and DI groups. See Fig. 5 for description of treatment groups and N values

47 37 T a b l e 2. M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e a n d E C 50 v a l u e s o f N E i n a o r t a s f r o m T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s. G r o u p C (N = 7) C P (N = 7) D (N = 6) D P (N = 4) DI (N = 8) D I P --- (N = 5) M a x i m a l R e s p o n s e (g) ( 9 5 % C.I.) ± 0.07 ( ) ± 0.08 ( ) ± 0.06 ^ ( ) ± ^ ( ) 1.53 ± 0.13 ^ ( ) ± 0.06 ( ) E C 50 (nm) 1 (95% C.I.) 1 * ± ( ) ± ( ) ± ^ ( ) ± 1.58 ( ) ± 3.73 ( ) 1.42 ± 0.5 ( ) D a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d a s M e a n ± S E w i t h 9 5 % c o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l s i n t h e p a r e n t h e s e s. M a x i m a l r e s p o n s e i s e x p r e s s e d in g r a m s o f t e n s i o n. E C 5 0 v a l u e s a r e e x p r e s s e d a s b a t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n (nm) w h i c h p r o d u c e d 5 0 % m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e. * 9 5 % c o n f i d e n c e i n t e r v a l s o v e r l a p zero. S e e Fig. 5 f o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s. 1 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C a n d C P g r o u p s. 2 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C P g r o u p. 3 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C a n d DIP.

48 38 C P o DP DI DIP A *- «* ,50 Q Z UJ I / / " 10 * 1 0 " ^ 1 0 ' * 1 0 ~ 1 0 ^ N O R E P I N E P H R I N E (M) Fig. 8. Effect of pioglitazone on vascular reactivity to norepinephrine in Type I diabetic rat aortic rings. See Fig. 5 for explanation of treatment groups. N Values and significant differences are shown in Table 2.

49 39 CP DP DI DIP C Z J O) W 0 1.oo - 1 I Fig. 9. Maximal contractile response of Type I diabetic rat aortic ring to 40 mm KCl. All values are expressed as Mean ± SE. See Fig. 5 for description of treatment groups. N values are shown in Table 2. * Significantly different from C, DP and DI groups. # Significantly different from DI group.

50 C P o D P Ot DIP 40 + «k «* 4M» ^2) * ' + A O I < X < /// C A R B A C H O L (M) Fig. 10. Relaxant response of Type 1 diabetic rat aortic ring to carbachol. * Significantly different from C, D amd DI at maximal dose. N values are shown in Table 2. See Fig. 5 for description of treatment groups. Percent relaxation = ( M.C. - C.R.R.) v nnn M.C. M. C. = Maximal contraction in grams. C.R.R.= Contraction in grams after relaxation with either carbachol or sodium nitroprusside.

51 41 C C P D - y - ^ Q D P Dt DIP A # ICO O I- < / V S O D I U M N I T R O P R U S S I D E (M) Fig. 11, Relaxant, response of Type I diabetic rat aortic ring to sodium nitroprusside. Terms and abbreviations are same as Fig. 10.

52 42 T a b l e 3. P r e - i s c h e m i c c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n in T y p e I d i a b e t i c rats. H R L V D P D o u b l e C F (beats/min) ( m m Hg) P r o d u c t (ml/min) c (N=8) ± 10 ± 4 ± 0.8 ± 0. 5 C P ^ 17 (N=8) ± 9 ± 10 ± 2. 6 ± 0. 5 D 210 ^ * (N=7) ± 10 ± 8 ± 1.4 ± D P ^ (N=4) ± 34 ± 12 ± 1.2 ± 2.4 DI ^ (N=7) ± 7 ± 5 ± 1.7 ± 0. 5 D I P (N=6) ± 8 ± 10 ± 1.6 ± 0.8 D a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d a s M e a n ± SE. H R = H e a r t Rate, L V D P = L e f t V e n t r i c u l a r D e v e l o p e d P r e s s u r e, C F = C o r o n a r y Flow, D o u b l e P r o d u c t = (HR X L V D P ) / S e e Fig. 5 for d e s c r i p t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s. 1 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m DI a n d C P gr o up s. 2 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a l l o t h e r gro u ps. 3 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C a n d C P g r ou p s. 4 s = S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C, C P a n d D I P g roups. 5 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C P g r o u p. 6 = S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C P a n d D I P gr oups. 7 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C o n t r o l. 8 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m C, CP, DI a n d D I P g r o u p s.

53 43 T a b l e 4. P o s t - i s c h e m i c c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c r ats. F R H R L V D P D o u b l e P r o d u c t C 7 / ^ 4 9 ^ 68 ^ (N-7) ± 4 ± 8 ± 6 ± 3 C P 5/ ^ 7 6 ^ (N=5) ± 3 ± ± 5 D 7 / ^ 56 ^ 8 1 " (N-7> ± 2 ± 6 ± 7 ± 6 D P 4/ ^ 64 ^ 79 (N=4) + 5 ± 10 ± 12 ± 2 DI 7/ ^ 4 0 ^ 92 (N=7) ± 4 ± 3 ± 4 ± 18 D I P 4 / 6 86 ^ 48 ^ (N=4) ± 3 ± 8 ± 8 ± 5 C F A l l v a l u e s a r e e x p r e s s e d a s p e r c e n t o f m e a n ± SE o f p r e - i s c h e m i c v a l u e s e x c e p t FR. F R = F r a c t i o n o f h e a r t s d e m o n s t r a t i n g m e a s u r a b l e p o s t i s c h e m i c c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n ; H R = H e a r t R a t e ; C F = C o r o n a r y F l o w ; L V D P = L e f t V e n t r i c u l a r D e v e l o p e d P r e s s u r e ; S e e Fig. 5 f o r d e s c r i p t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s. 1 = S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m r e s p e c t i v e p r e - i s c h e m i c v a l u e 2 = S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m D i a b e t i c (D) group. 3 * S i g n i f i c a n t l y di f f e r e n t f r o m DI a n d D I P groups. 4 S i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m DI

54 Discnssioif Type IX diabetea mellitua: P i o g l l t a z o n e i n c r e a s e d t h e b o d y w e i g h t i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, b u t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e b o d y w e i g h t i n n o n d i a b e t i c c o n t r o l s (F i g 1). H o f m a n n e t a l. (1991) p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e t h a t a f t e r f o u r d a y s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t, b o d y w e i g h t s w e r e i n c r e a s e d, a l t h o u g h i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y, in a d o s e d e p e n d e n t m a n n e r i n d i a b e t i c K K A m i c e. I n a s i m i l a r s t u d y w i t h W i s t a r d i a b e t i c f a t t y rats, a f t e r s e v e n d a y s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t, t h e b o d y w e i g h t w a s i n c r e a s e d c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h a n i n c r e a s e in f o o d i n t a k e ( S u g i y a m a e t a l ). T h e s e e f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e w e r e v e r y p r o m i n e n t in h y p e r i n s u l i n é m i e ( T y p e II) a n i m a l s, b u t n o t o b s e r v e d in e i t h e r n o r m o i n s u l i n e m i c (control) o r h y p o i n s u l i n e m i c (Type I) a n i m a l s (Ikeda, ; H o f m a n n e t a l ). T h i s p h e n o m e n o n s e e m s t o b e c a u s e d b y a n i n s u l i n p o t e n t i a t i n g e f f e c t o f p i o g l i t a z o n e. P e t e r s o n e t a l (1990) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e a v e r a g e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s o f Z D F r a t s w e r e a b o v e m g % b y 12 w e e k s o f a g e a n d r e m a i n e d h i g h. A l t h o u g h o u r e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h Z D F r a t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d f o r 14 we e k s, t h e a v e r a g e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s w e r e m u c h l o w e r (268 ± 31 m g % ). I t is u n c l e a r w h y t h e r e w a s a d i f f e r e n c e. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n t T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, b u t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n c o n t r o l r a t s (Fig. 2). T h i s w o r k is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e 44

55 45 p r e v i o u s r e p o r t i n w h i c h p i o g l i t a z o n e d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, b u t h a d n o e f f e c t in c o n t r o l a n i m a l s ( C o l c a a n d N o r t o n 1990) T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E a n d K C l in a o r t a s f r o m T y p e II d i a b e t i c r a t s w a s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m n o n d i a b e t i c s (Fig. 3 & 4; T a b l e 1). A l t h o u g h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s n o t o b s e r v e d, m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E a n d K C l a p p e a r e d t o b e s o m e w h a t h i g h e r in d i a b e t i c s ( D ). O u r d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s h a d b l o o d g l u c o s e v a l u e s i n t h e m o d e r a t e l y d i a b e t i c r a n g e (268 ± 31 m g % ), r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g h i g h l y d i a b e t i c r a n g e (500 m g % ). T h i s r e d u c e d d i a b e t i c s t a t e, w i t h r e s p e c t t o b l o o d g l u c o s e, c o u l d e x p l a i n w h y n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e w a s o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n c o n t r o l a n d d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. N o r e p o r t s h a v e b e e n f o u n d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E a n d K C l i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o N E in b o t h c o n t r o l a n d T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t p i o g l i t a z o n e d e c r e a s e d t h e m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E i n d e p e n d e n t o f d i a b e t i c s t a t e. Type I Diabetes Mellitus: W h e n p i o g l i t a z o n e, a t a d o s e o f 10 m g / k g / d a y, w a s g i v e n o r a l l y t o T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s (DP) f o r 40 days, a n o v e r a l l r a t e o f 5 0 % m o r t a l i t y w a s o b s e r v e d i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t. T h e r e m a i n i n g r a t s w e r e a l s o l e t h a r g i c a n d

56 46 d e v e l o p e d s e v e r e d i a r r h e a. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a l t e r e i t h e r b o d y w e i g h t o r b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. D P g r o u p g l y c o s y l a t e d h e m o g l o b i n v a l u e s a l s o s h o w e d n o c h a n g e w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h d i a b e t i c (D) g r ou p. P i o g l i t a z o n e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o d i a b e t i c r a t s (DP) s h o w e d t h e h i g h e s t moirtality a n d t h e l o w e s t v a l u e s o f h e a r t r ate, LVDP, c o r o n a r y f l o w a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t. I n a d d i t i o n, D P g r o u p s h o w e d t h e h i g h e s t m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E a m o n g t h e t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s. T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t s t h a t l o n g t e r m t r e a t m e n t o f p i o g l i t a z o n e m a y b e h i g h l y d e l e t e r i o u s t o h y p o i n s u l i n e m i c (Type I) d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. B o t h u n t r e a t e d a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t e d c o n t r o l a n i m a l s i n c r e a s e d b o d y w e i g h t s i g n i f i c a n t l y o v e r t h e s i x w e e k s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t (Fig. 5). T h e i n d u c t i o n o f d i a b e t e s w i t h ST Z a p p e a r e d t o i n h i b i t t h e n o r m a l i n c r e a s e i n b o d y w e i g h t o b s e r v e d i n c o n t r o l a n i m a l s. T h o s e d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s t r e a t e d w i t h e i t h e r i n s u l i n o r p i o g l i t a z o n e a n d i n s u l i n a l s o i n c r e a s e d b o d y w e i g h t. T h e s e D I a n d D I P g r o u p rats, h o w e v e r, h a d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r b o d y w e i g h t t h a n e i t h e r o f t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p s. T h e D a n d D P g r o u p s s h o w e d n o i n c r e a s e i n b o d y w e i g h t t h r o u g h o u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p e r i o d. O u r o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r t o p r e v i o u s w o r k w i t h S T Z - i n d u c e d d i a b e t i c r a t s ( H o f m a n n e t a l ). In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y, c o r o n a r y f l o w a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t w e r e d e p r e s s e d in h e a r t s o f T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h e p o s s i b i l i t y m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e m a y h a v e r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e

57 47 s m a l l e r b o d y w e i g h t o f d i a b e t i c rats. P e n p a r g k u l e t al (1980) c o n d u c t e d a n e x p e r i m e n t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f b o d y w e i g h t a n d h e a r t s i z e o n c a r d i a c p e r f o r m a n c e. T h i s e x p e r i m e n t i n v o l v e d t w o s e t s o f s m a l l h e a r t s d e s i g n e d t o b e s i m i l a r i n w e i g h t t o h e a r t s o f d i a b e t i c rats, f o o d r e s t r i c t e d r a t s a n d y o u n g e r rats. U n l i k e h e a r t s o f d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, t h e s e t w o s e t s o f h e a r t s f r o m n o n d i a b e t i c r a t s d i d n o t e x h i b i t d e p r e s s e d c a r d i a c p e r f o r m a n c e. A l t h o u g h w e d i d n o t m e a s u r e d t h e h e a r t w e i g h t s, t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e a b o v e r e s u l t s, i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l l y s m a l l e r s i z e o f h e a r t s i n S T Z - t r e a t e d a n i m a l s c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e d e p r e s s e d c a r d i a c p e r f o r m a n c e. P i o g l i t a z o n e d i d n o t d e c r e a s e t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s in T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. W h e n p i o g l i t a z o n e w a s a d m i n i s t e r e d a l o n g w i t h t h e i n s ul i n, b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n i n s u l i n t r e a t e d d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s o n l y a t t h e s e c o n d a n d s i x t h w e e k s o f t h e s t u d y (Fig. 6). A t t h e s e c o n d w e e k, i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t a l o n e d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s t o ± 18 m g % w h e r e a s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s t o 29 ± 1 m g % in T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h e s e r e s u l t s c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o l g i t a z o n e in T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. B e c a u s e o f h y p o g l y c e m i a i n D I P g r o u p, starting f r o m the second w e e k t o fifth week, ten percent g l u c o s e w a t e r w a s s u p p l e m e n t e d a d l i b i n s t e a d of n o r m a l

58 48 d r i n k i n g w a t e r. D u e t o g l u c o s e s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n t o D I P g r o u p a n i m a l s, s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e w a s n o t o b s e r v e d f r o m t h i r d t o f i f t h week. A f t e r t h e f i f t h w e e k, t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n s u l i n p e l l e t s a p p e a r s t o b e d e c r e a s e d. B l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s w e r e i n c r e a s e d i n t w o g r o u p s t h a t r e c e i v e d i n s u l in. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n a g a i n s h o w e d t h e a d d i t i v e e f f e c t o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e b y s h o w i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n DI a n d D I P g r o u p s. T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h o s e o f H o f m a n n e t a l (1991), w h o d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h e s e f i n d i n g s a g a i n i n d i c a t e d t h a t p i o g l i t a z o n e h a s a n t i d i a b e t i c e f f e c t s, b u t o n l y w h e n a d m i n i s t e r e d a l o n g w i t h i n s u l i n. T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w e d e l e v a t e d g l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e g l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s in d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e g l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s e i t h e r in c o n t r o l o r d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. C o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e a l s o d i d n o t d e c r e a s e t h e g l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s i n t h e D I P g r o u p (Fig.7). I f t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e is c h r o n i c a l l y e l e v a t e d (>115 mg%), a v a r i e t y o f b o d y p r o t e i n s, i n c l u d i n g H ba, c a n b e n o n e n z y m a t i c a l l y g l y c o s y l a t e d b y m e a n s o f g l u c o s e i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h a f r e e a m i n e i n a p r o t e i n r e s u l t i n g i n a S c h i f f - B a s e a l d i m i n e w i t h s u b s e q u e n t f o r m a t i o n o f a s t a b l e p r o d u c t in a n A m a d o r i r e a r r a n g e m e n t. A p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e e l e v a t e d g l y c o s y l a t e d H b l e v e l s s e e n in t h e D I P

59 49 g r o u p c o u l d b e t h a t t h e s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e m i g h t n o t r e v e r s e t h e A m a d o r i r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f g l y c o s y l a t e d p r o t e i n s. R e p o r t s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e d e s c r i b e i n c r e a s e d (W hite a l 1990) a n d d e c r e a s e d ( F u l t o n e t a l ? R a m a n a d h a n e t a l 1984) v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o N E i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l m o d e l s. O u r r e s u l t s a r e i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h o s e o f W h i t 6 al (1990), w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e d i n c r e a s e d v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o N E i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s ( T a b l e 2? Fig. 8). P i o g l i t a z o n e d i d n o t a l t e r t h e m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E e i t h e r in c o n t r o l o r d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p i o g l i t a z o n e a n d i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t a p p e a r s t o d e c r e a s e t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o N E i n T y p e 1 d i a b e t i c rats, b u t s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s n o t a c h i e v e d. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t o n T y p e I d i a b e t e s - i n d u c e d i n c r e a s e d m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i o n. I n c o n t r a s t, P f a f f m a n et al (1981), r e p o r t e d t h a t i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t c o m p l e t e l y r e v e r s e d t h e d i a b e t i c - i n d u c e d d e c r e a s e i n v a s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i l i t y t o NE. T h e K C l - i n d u c e d m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e w a s d e c r e a s e d i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h a p r e v i o u s r e p o r t i n w h i c h K C l - i n d u c e d m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e w a s d e c r e a s e d i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s ( F u l t o n e t a l ). I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o K C l i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. O u r r e s u l t s a r e i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h P f a f f m a n e t al

60 , w h o d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t d i a b e t e s - i n d u c e d d e c r e a s e o f K C l c o n t r a c t i o n is c o m p l e t e l y r e v e r s i b l e b y i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t a l s o n o r m a l i z e d t h e v a s c u l a r r e a c t i v i t y t o K C l i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h i s e f f e c t h o w e v e r w a s n o t o b s e r v e d w h e n i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e w e r e u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n (Fig. 9). D i n g e t a l (1991) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e e n d o t h e l i a l d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n p r o d u c e d b y c a r b a c h o l i n a o r t i c r i n g s p r e - c o n t r a c t e d w i t h N E w a s r e d u c e d i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c rats. A l t h o u g h s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w a s n o t o b s e r v e d, o u r r e s u l t s s h o w d e c r e a s e d m a x i m a l r e l a x a t i o n t o c a r b a c h o l in T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s (Fig. 10). T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e e n d o t h e l i u m m i g h t e x i s t in d i a b e t i c rats. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e c r e a s e d t h e m a x i m a l r e l a x a t i o n t o c a r b a c h o l i n a l l p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t g r o u p s, b u t o n l y t h e C P g r o u p w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n t h e C, D a n d D I g r o u p s. T h e s e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t p i o g l i t a z o n e m a y a l t e r t h e e n d o t h e l i a l f u n c t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f d i a b e t e s o r i n s u li n. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d, e n d o t h e l i a l i n d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n w a s n o t a l t e r e d e i t h e r w i t h t h e diskbetic s t a t e o r w i t h p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t. E n d o t h e l i a l i n d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n r e s u l t s a r e i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h D i n g e t a l (1991), w h o d e m o n s t r a t e d n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s d u e t o d i a b e t e s (Fig. 11). N o p r e v i o u s r e p o r t s a r e a v a i l a b l e o n t h e e f f e c t o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n e n d o t h e l i a l i n d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n.

61 51 T y p e I d i a b e t i c h e a r t s s h o w e d n o c h a n g e i n h e a r t r a t e ( T a b l e 3). T h i s r e s u l t is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r e v i o u s r e p o r t s in w h i c h h e a r t r a t e w a s u n a f f e c t e d in d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s ( P i e p e r ; V o g e l a n d A p s t e i n 1988). L V D P a l s o w a s n o t a l t e r e d i n d i a b e t i c h e a r t s, b u t t h e r e w a s a t e n d e n c y f o r r e d u c e d L V D P i n d i a b e t i c h e a r t s (Ta&ble 3). V o g e l a n d A p s t e i n (1988) a n d T a n i a n d N e e l y (1988) f o u n d n o c h a n g e in L V D P ; w h e r e a s, I n g e b r e t s e n e t a l (1980) f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d L V D P i n T y p e 1 d i a b e t i c h e a r t s. A l t h o u g h d i a b e t i c h e a r t r a t e a n d L V D P w e r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h c o n t r o l, d o u b l e p r o d u c t w h i c h is t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e o f c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n, s h o w e d a s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e. I n a g r e e m e n t w i t h o u r r e s u l t s, T a n i a n d N e e l y (1988) a l s o f o u n d d e c r e a s e d d o u b l e p r o d u c t i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c rats. C o r o n a r y f l o w w a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d i n d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s (Taüale 3). I n c o n t r a s t, I n g e b r e t s e n e t a l (1980) f o u n d n o c h a n g e i n c o r o n a r y flow. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d t h e h e a r t rate, c o r o n a r y f l o w a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, w h i l e p i o g l i t a z o n e i n c r e a s e d t h e d o u b l e p r o d u c t in c o n t r o l a n i m a l s ( T a b l e 3). M o r e o v e r, p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t s h o w a n y d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s o n heairt rate, L V D P a n d c o r o n a r y f l o w i n c o n t r o l a n i m a l s. T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t s t h a t p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t m a y b e h a r m f u l o n l y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f i n s u l i n. T h e r e a r e n o p r e v i o u s r e p o r t s a v a i l a b l e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e e f f e c t s

62 52 o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n c a r d i a c p e r f o r m a n c e i n e i t h e r T y p e I o r T y p e I I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e h e a r t r a t e, LVDP, c o r o n a r y f l o w a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t in d i a b e t i c h e a r t s. I n a g r e e m e n t w i t h o u r r e s u l t s, s e v e r a l a u t h o r s h a v e s h o w n in a n i m a l s t u d i e s a n d i n i s o l a t e d p r e p a r a t i o n s t h a t i n s u l i n i n c r e a s e d t h e c a r d i a c p e r f o r m a n c e i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s ( L u c c h e s i e t a l 1972; L e e a n d D o w n i n g 1976). T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s h o w e d t h e s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t b y n o r m a l i z i n g t h e L V D P a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t i n d i a b e t i c rats. T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y s h o w t h a t S T Z - i n d u c e d d i a b e t i c r a t s d i d n o t s h o w a n y i n c r e a s e d r e s i s t a n c e t o M I / R i n j u r y ( T a b l e 4). T a n i a n d N e e l y (1988) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t w h e n w h o l e h e a r t i s c h e m i a w a s m a i n t a i n e d f o r 30 m i n u t e s f o l l o w e d b y 30 m i n u t e s r e p e r f u s i o n a t 37*^C, d i a b e t i c h e a r t s c o m p l e t e l y (101 ± 12%) r e c o v e r e d t h e i r c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n w h e r e a s h e a r t s f r o m t h e c o n t r o l a n i m a l s r e c o v e r e d o n l y 40 ± 6% o f t h e i r p r e - i s c h e m i c c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n. I n c o n t ra s t, o u r r e s u l t s s h o w s t h a t w h e n h e a r t s w e r e r e n d e r e d i s c h e m i c f o r 20 m i n u t e s f o l l o w e d b y 30 m i n u t e s r e p e r f u s i o n, dieüoetic h e a r t s r e c o v e r e d 56 ± 7% o f t h e i r c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n w h e r e a s h e a r t s f r o m c o n t r o l a n i m a l s r e c o v e r e d 49 ± 6% o f t h e i r p r e - i s c h e m i c f u n c t i o n ( Ta b le 4). O u r r e s u l t s a r e i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h o s e o f V o g e l a n d Ap s t e i n (1988), w h o d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t d i a b e t e s d i d n o t a l t e r t h e s e v e r i t y o f M I / R i n j u r y in i s o l a t e d h e a r t p r e p a r a t i o n s. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d, p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o f t h e

63 53 i s o l a t e d h e a r t s u g g e s t t h a t d i a b e t i c h e a r t s a r e m o r e s e n s i t i v e t o i s c h e m i c o r a n o x i c i n j u r y ( F e v u r y e t a l 1980; I n g e b r e t s e n ). I n t h e s e s t u d i e s, i s c h e m i c o r a n o x i c i n j u r y w a s n o t f o l l o w e d b y r e p e r f u s i o n. P i o g l i t a z o n e i n c r e a s e d t h e p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f L V D P a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e D I g r o u p. H o w e v e r, p i o g l i t a z o n e d e m o n s t r a t e d d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s o n p r e - i s c h e m i c c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t m a d e a n i m a l s v e r y s i c k a n d c a u s e d s e v e r e d i a r r h e a. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t s o n p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f h e a r t rate, L V D P, d o u b l e p r o d u c t o r c o r o n a r y f l o w i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. I n c o n t r a s t, T a n i a n d N e e l y (1988) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t d e c r e a s e d t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o M I / R i n j u r y i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. O u r r e s u l t s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e d t h e p o s t i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f h e a r t rate, b u t d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t s o n p o s t - i s c h e m i c r e c o v e r y o f L V D P, d o u b l e p r o d u c t o r c o r o n a r y f l o w i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t m a y b e d e l e t e r i o u s t o p o s t i s c h e m i c h e a r t rate. C o m p a r i s o n o f T y p e X a n d T y p e II D i a b e t e s M e l l i t u s s T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w d e c r e a s e d b o d y w e i g h t, b u t b o d y w e i g h t w a s i n c r e a s e d in T y p e I I d i a b e t i c r a ts. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e b o d y w e i g h t in e i t h e r T y p e I d i a b e t i c o r c o n t r o l r a t s, b u t T y p e II d i a b e t i c

64 54 r a t b o d y w e i g h t s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t a l o n e d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t o n b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s in e i t h e r T y p e I d i a b e t i c o r c o n t r o l r a t s. W h e n a d m i n i s t e r e d a l o n g w i t h insulin, p i o g l i t a z o n e s h o w e d a s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t b y d e c r e a s i n g t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s in T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. I n T y p e II d i a b e t e s, p i o g l i t a z o n e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s. H o f m a n n e t al (1991) r e p o r t e d t h a t G L U T 4 t r a n s p o r t e r p r o t e i n s a n d t h e i r m R N A e x p r e s s i o n w e r e d e c r e a s e d i n b o t h T y p e I a n d T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l m o d e l s. T r e a t m e n t o f b o t h t y p e s o f d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s w i t h p i o g l i t a z o n e c o r r e c t s t h e d e f i c i t s i n g l u c o s e t r a n s p o r t, 6 I U T 4 m R N A a n d p r o t e i n l e v e l s. T r e a t m e n t w i t h p i o g l i t a z o n e a l o n e is s u f f i c i e n t f o r c o r r e c t i o n o f g l u c o s e t r a n s p o r t i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, b u t h y p o i n s u l i n e m i c a n i m a l s r e q u i r e i n s u l i n t h e r a p y a l o n g w i t h p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t f o r s i m i l a r c o r r e c t i o n. S i n c e i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e s e e m t o w o r k s y n e r g i s t i c a l l y, i t is l i k e l y t h a t p i o g l i t a z o n e a c t s t o a m p l i f y c e l l u l a r r e s p o n s e s t o i n s u l i n (Fig. 6). T y p e I d i a b e t i c r a t s s h o w e d i n c r e a s e d c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o NE, b u t T y p e I I d i a b e t i c r a t s d i d n o t s h o w a n y c h a n g e in m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o NE. P i o g l i t a z o n e d e c r e a s e d t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o N E in b o t h T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n d Z u c k e r n o n d i a b e t i c r at s, b u t d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t i n e i t h e r T y p e I d i a b e t i c o r n o n d i a b e t i c S p r a g u e D a w l e y rats. I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e d e c r e a s e i n m a x i m a l

65 55 c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E w i t h p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t m a y b e s p e c i e s r e l a t e d. K C l - i n d u c e d m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e w a s d e c r e a s e d i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c rats, b u t n o t a l t e r e d i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c r at s. P i o g l i t a z o n e i n c r e a s e d t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o K C l i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c rats, b u t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e m a x i m a l r e s p o n s e t o K C l i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c rats, c o n c l u s i o n s P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t i n c r e a s e d t h e b o d y w e i g h t a n d d e c r e a s e d t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, b u t d i d n o t a l t e r e i t h e r b o d y w e i g h t o r b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s in c o n t r o l a n d T y p e I diaibetic animals. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d i d n o t a l t e r t h e g l y c o s y l a t e d H b v a l u e s e i t h e r in c o n t r o l o r T y p e I d i a b e t i c rats. M a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i 1 e r e s p o n s e t o N E a n d K C l w a s d e c r e a s e d b y p i o g l i t a z o n e i n T y p e II d i a b e t i c a n d c o n t r o l ani m al s. I n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o K C l w a s d e c r e a s e d w i t h p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t, b u t m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o N E w a s u n a l t e r e d. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e o r i n s u l i n a l o n e d i d n o t s h o w a n y e f f e c t s o n m a x i m a l c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e t o NE. P i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t d e c r e a s e d t h e e n d o t h e l i a l d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n i n c o n t r o l a n i m a l s, b u t e n d o t h e l i a l i n d e p e n d e n t r e l a x a t i o n w a s u n a l t e r e d i n b o t h c o n t r o l a n d d i a b e t i c r a ts. C o r o n a r y f l o w a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t w e r e d e c r e a s e d i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a ls. P i o g l i t a z o n e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o d i a b e t i c

66 56 r a t s (DP) s h o w e d t h e h i g h e s t m o r t a l i t y a n d t h e l o w e s t v a l u e s o f h e a r t rate, LVDP, c o r o n a r y f l o w a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t. I n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s, a n d a lso, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n s u l i n a n d p i o g l i t a z o n e t r e a t m e n t n o r m a l i z e d t h e L V D P a n d d o u b l e p r o d u c t i n T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n i m a l s. T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e v e r i t y o f M I / R i n j u r y is i d e n t i c a l in b o t h T y p e I d i a b e t i c a n d c o n t r o l a n i m a l s. N e i t h e r p i o g l i t a z o n e n o r i n s u l i n t r e a t m e n t p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t M I / R i n j u r y in e i t h e r c o n t r o l o r d i a b e t i c rats.

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72 P e n p a r g k u l, S., S c h a i b l e, T. Y i p i n b s o l, T. a n d S c h e u e r, J T h e e f f e c t o f d i a b e t e s o n p e r f o r m a n c e a n d m e t a b o l i s m o f r a t h e a r t s. C i r c. Res. 4 7 : P e t e r s o n, R. G., S h a w, W. N., N e e l, M - A., L i t t l e, L. A. a n d E i c h b e r g, J Z u c k e r d i a b e t i c f a t t y r a t a s a m o d e l for n o n - i n s u l i n d e p e n d e n t d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s. I L A R N e w s 3 2 : 3 :1 6. P f a f f m a n, M. A., B a l l, C. R., D a r b y, A. a n d H i l m a n, R I n s u l i n r e v e r s a l o f d i a b e t e s - i n d u c e d i n h i b i t i o n o f v a s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i l i t y i n t h e rat. Am. J. P h y s i o l (H e ar t Circ. P h y s i o l. 1 1 ) : H H P i e p e r, G. M. a n d G r o s s, G. J D i a b e t e s a l t e r s p o s t i s c h e m i c r e s p o n s e t o a p r o s t a c y c l i n m i m e t i c. Am. J. P h y s i o l : H H P i e p e r, G. M A r a c h i d o n i c a c i d c a u s e s p o s t i s c h e m i c d y s f u n c t i o n i n c o n t r o l b u t n o t d i a b e t i c h e a r t s. Am. J. P h y s i o l Z H H P i e r c e, G. N. a n d D h a l l a, N. S S a r c o l e m m a l N a - K - A T P a s e a c t i v i t y i n d i a b e t i c r a t h e a r t. Am. J. P h y s i o l ( C e l l P h y s i o l. 1 4 ) : C 2 4 l - C P i e r c e, G. N., B e a m i s h, R. E. a n d D h a l l a, S. N H e a r t d y s f u n c t i o n i n d i a b e t e s. B o c a R a t o n, FL: CRC. P i e r c e, G. N., R a m j i a w a n, B., D h a l l a, N. S. a n d F e r r a r i, R N a - H e x c h a n g e in c a r d i a c s a r c o l e m m a l v e s i c l e s i s o l a t e d f r o m d i a b e t i c rats. Am. J. P h y s i o l :H H P o z z o l i, G., V i t a l o, E., C o l l i n i. P., D e M a r i a, R., C a s t e l l i, M. R. a n d C o l o m b o, F A s s e s s m e n t o f l e f t v e n t r i c u l a r f u n c t i o n w i t h M - m o d e e c h o c a r d i o g r a p h y i n a s e l e c t e d g r o u p of dieüaetic p a t i e n t s. A c t a. D i a b e t. Lat. 2 1 : R a m a n a d h a n, S. a n d T e n n e r, T. E A l t e r a t i o n s i n a o r t i c a n d t a i l a r t e r y r e a c t i v i t y t o a g o n i s t s a f t e r S T Z t r e a t m e n t. C an. «7. P h y s i o l. P h a r m a c o l. 6 2 : R a n d l e, P. J., G a r l a n d, P. B., H a l e s, C. N., N e w s h o l m e, E. A., D e n t o n, R. M. a n d P og s o n, C. I I. P r o t e i n h o r m o n e s. I n t e r a c t i o n s o f m e t a b o l i s m a n d p h y s i o l o g i c a l r o l e o f i n s u l i n. R e c e n t. Prog. H o rm. R e s. 2 2 : R o b i s o n, W. G., K a d o r, P. F. a n d A k a g i, Y P r e v e n t i o n o f b a s e m e n t m e m b r a n e t h i c k e n i n g i n r e t i n a l c a p i l l a r i e s b y a n o v e l i n h i b i t o r o f a l d o s e r e d u c t a s e, t o i r e s t â t. D i a b e t e s. 3 5 :

73 S a k a i, Y. a n d H o n d a, H H y p e r a c t i v i t y o f C a c h a n n e l s i n v a s a d e f e r e n t i a s m o o t h m u s c l e o f d i a b e t i c rats. P h a r m a c o l. B i o c h e m. & B e h a v. 2 7 : S c a r b o r o u g h, N. L. a n d C a r r i e r, G. O I n c r e a s e d a l p h a 2 a d r e n o r e c e p t o r - m e d i a t e d v a s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i o n in d i a b e t i c r ats. J. A u t o n. P h a r m a c o l. 3 : S c a r b o r o u g h, S. W. a n d C a r r i e r, G. O N i f e d i p i n e a n d a l p h a a d r e n o r e c e p t o r s i n r a t a o r t a. II. R o l e o f e x t r a c e l l u l a r c a l c i u m i n e n h a n c e d a l p h a 2 a d r e n o r e c e p t o r - m e d i a t e d c o n t r a c t i o n i n d i a b e t e s. J. P h a r m a c o l. E xp. T h e r : S he n, A. C. a n d J e n n i n g s, R. B. 1972a. M y o c a r d i a l c a l c i u m a n d m a g n e s i u m i n a c u t e i s c h e m i c i njury. Am. J. P a t h o l. 6 7 : Shen, A. C. a n d J e n n i n g s, R. B. 1972b. K i n e t i c s o f c a l c i u m a c c u m u l a t i o n i n a c u t e m y o c a r d i a l i s c h e m i c i n j u r y. A m. J. P a t h o l. 6 7 : S i l b e r b a u e r, K., S h e r n t h a n e r, G., S i n z i n g e r, H., P i z a X a t z e r, H. a n d W i n t e r, M D e c r e a s e d v a s c u l a r p r o s t a c y c l i n i n j u v e n i l e - o n s e t d i a b e t e s. N. E n g l. J. M e d : S i m m o n s, K. J. D e f e n s e a g a i n s t f r e e r a d i c a l s h a s t h e r a p e u t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s. J. A. M. A : S u g i y a m a, Y., T a k e t o m i, S., S h i m u r a, Y., I k e d a, H. a n d Fuj i ta, T. 1990a. E f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n g l u c o s e a n d l i p i d m e t a b o l i s m i n w i s t a r f a t t y rats. A r z n e i m - F o r s c h 4 0 : S u g i y a m a, Y., S h i m u r a, Y. a n d I k e d a, H b. E f f e c t s o f p i o g l i t a z o n e o n h e p a t i c a n d p e r i p h e r a l i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n c e i n w i s t a r f a t t y rats. A r z n e i m. F o r s c h. 4 0 : S u l l i v a n, S. a n d S p a r k s, H. V D i m i n i s h e d c o n t r a c t i l e r e s p o n s e o f a o r t a s f r o m d i a b e t i c r a b b i t s. A m. J. P h y s i o l : H H T a n i, M. a n d N ee l y, J. R H e a r t s f r o m d i a b e t i c r a t s a r e m o r e r e s i s t a n t t o i n v i t r o i s c h e m i a : P o s s i b l e r o l e o f a l t e r e d c a l c i u m me t a b o l i s m. C i r c. Res. 6 2 : T u r l a p a t y, P. D. M. V., b u m, G. a n d A l t u r a, B. M V a s c u l a r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s a n d s e r u m b i o c h e m i c a l p a r a m e t e r s i n a l l o x a n d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s. Am. J. P h y s i o l : E E U u s i t u p a, M., S i i t o n e n, O., P y o r a l a, K. a n d L a n s i m i e s, E L e f t ve n t r i c u l a r f u n c t i o n i n n e w l y d i a g n o s e d n o n - 63

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