Contents. Foreword... xi Thierry KRETZ. List of Notations... xiii. Chapter 1. Introduction... 1 Jean SALIN, Jean-Paul BALAYSSAC and Vincent GARNIER

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1 Contents Foreword xi Thierry KRETZ List of Notations xiii Chapter 1. Introduction Jean SALIN, Jean-Paul BALAYSSAC and Vincent GARNIER 1.1. The beginnings of NDE Industrial development of NDE Pressure equipment Aviation Wind energy sector Ski lifts In the absence of standards Civil Engineering works Historical context and challenges Existing regulations The evolution of requirements in an increasingly significant socio-economic context Coordination of the monitoring of Civil Engineering structures and the role played by NDE Summary of the development of NDE Contents of the book Bibliography

2 vi Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures Chapter 2. Ultrasonic Methods Cédric PAYAN, Odile ABRAHAM and Vincent GARNIER 2.1. Introduction Theoretical bases Ultrasonic wave properties Refraction and reflection Description usual methods Categories of techniques Volume waves Guided waves Sensitivity of ultrasonic waves to concrete properties and characteristics Conclusion Innovative techniques Objectives Nonlinear elasticity Diffusion Non-coupled evaluation Non-contact evaluation Conclusions Summary Bibliography Chapter 3. Electromagnetic Methods Xavier DÉROBERT, Jean-Paul BALAYSSAC, Zoubir Mehdi SBARTAÏ and Jean DUMOULIN 3.1. Introduction Theoretical bases Electromagnetic properties and polarization processes Electromagnetic wave propagation Electromagnetic wave reflection at the interface of two media Overview of usual electromagnetic methods Radar technique Capacitive technique Additional measurement methods: measurement cells in TEM mode, co-axial sensors Infrared thermography: overview of the physical principle, active and passive methods, and influential parameters Usual and innovative applications Usual GPR applications Innovative GPR applications Capacitive method: usual applications

3 Contents vii Capacitive method: innovative applications for the characterization of a permittivity gradient Infrared thermography (IRT): usual application Innovative application of IRT: example of exploratory research on coupling using GPR Summary Bibliography Chapter 4. Electrical Methods Jean-François LATASTE, Géraldine VILLAIN and Jean-Paul BALAYSSAC 4.1. Theoretical bases Electrical conduction in concrete Influencing factors Quality of measurements, uncertainties Description of the different resistive methods of non-destructive evaluation General principle Laboratory resistivity measuring cell Two- or four-electrode devices Multi-electrode devices for electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) Sealed devices in concrete Usual applications and developments Resistivity mapping Deep gradient assessment Classification of concretes according to their performance in durability or degree of degradation Evaluation of the orientation of steel fibers in high-performance fiber reinforced concrete (BEFHUP) Development paths Conclusion Bibliography Chapter 5. Electrochemical Methods Stéphane LAURENS and Fabrice DEBY 5.1. Introduction General principles on the corrosion of steel in concrete Elements of theory Causes and typology of steel corrosion in concrete Measurement of electrochemical potential Critical analysis Measurement of linear polarization resistance

4 viii Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures Critical analysis Measurement of the electrical resistivity of concrete Conclusions Bibliography Chapter 6. Quality, Uncertainties and Variabilities Jean-François CHAIX, Jean-Marie HENAULT and Vincent GARNIER 6.1. Introduction Material variability: spatial and temporal aspects General information about concrete Variability from construction Post-construction variability Synthesis and purpose of NDE investigations Representative Volume Element of the concrete with respect to an NDE Metrological terminology and formalism Terminology Formalism Evaluation of the uncertainties of NDEs applied to concrete structures Implementation conditions, influence quantities, observables and indicators Definition of a reference Model errors Qualification of NDE methods Uncertainties and sensitivity Quantification of uncertainty and selection of non-destructive parameters Example Summary Bibliography Appendix Chapter 7. Construction of Conversion Models of Observables into Indicators Denys BREYSSE, Géraldine VILLAIN, Zoubir Mehdi SBARTAÏ and Vincent GARNIER 7.1. Introduction: objectives and methodological needs Identifying conversion model parameters General framework Direct identification of conversion model parameters Identification by calibration of an existing model How can we choose a procedure?

5 Contents ix 7.3. Use of the conversion model to assess indicators Uncertainties and accuracy of estimates, recommendations Conclusions Bibliography Appendix Identification of a bi-objective conversion model References for the conversion models in Figure Chapter 8. Assessment of Concrete by a Combination of Non-Destructive Techniques Zoubir Mehdi SBARTAÏ, Vincent GARNIER, Géraldine VILLAIN and Denys BREYSSE 8.1. Introduction The benefit of combining NDEs How can NDE techniques be combined? Conventional methods Innovative methods Calibration of conversion models for combining and merging NDE techniques Objective and interest of the calibration Calibration methods Calibration of SonReb methods and multiple regression ANN calibration Calibration of data fusion Conclusions Bibliography Chapter 9. Applications In Situ Géraldine VILLAIN, Jean-Paul BALAYSSAC and Vincent GARNIER 9.1. Introduction Structure no. 1: Marly motorway bridge Consultation with the client On-site experimental methodology Experimental program of destructive and non-destructive testing on cores On-site NDE analysis Evaluation and estimation of indicators Conclusions and discussion with the different actors Structure no. 2: enclosure walls of CEA-Saclay Consultation with the owner Non-destructive experimental methodology on-site Destructive and non-destructive experimental programs on cores

6 x Non-destructive Testing and Evaluation of Civil Engineering Structures On-site non-destructive evaluation analysis On-site non-destructive evaluation combinations Conclusions and discussions with the different actors Conclusions and perspectives Bibliography Chapter 10. Methodological Guide Jean-Paul BALAYSSAC, Vincent GARNIER and Jean SALIN Introduction NDE methodology of a structure Definitions Knowledge of the NDE specification Implementation of non-destructive testing and extraction of observables Implementation of destructive testing and evaluation of indicators Implementation of non-destructive techniques Introduction Selection of non-destructive techniques and their combination Sampling and measurement protocols using non-destructive techniques Pre-auscultation Detailed auscultation Characterization of variability Destructive measurements of the reference values of the indicators Cores sampling for destructive testing Destructive testing on cores Fusion of observables Identification of conversion models Fusion of observables Calibration of the fusion Drafting of the evaluation report Evolutions of this guide Bibliography Glossary List of Authors Index