Table of Contents. Foreword... Jörge DE SOUSA NORONHA. Introduction... Michel BRILLOUËT

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1 Table of Contents Foreword... Jörge DE SOUSA NORONHA Introduction... Michel BRILLOUËT xi xvii Chapter 1. Photolithography... 1 Philippe BANDELIER, Anne-Laure CHARLEY and Alexandre LAGRANGE 1.1. Introduction Principles and technology of scanners Illumination The mask or reticle Projection optics Repeated projection and scanning projection Lithography processes Anti-reflective coating Resists Barrier layers or top coating Immersion photolithography Immersion lithography Resolution improvement Relevance of immersion lithography Immersion liquids Immersion scanners Immersion specific constraints and issues Image formation Lithography performances enhancement techniques Off axis illumination (OAI)... 28

2 vi Lithography Optical proximity corrections (OPC) Phase shift masks (PSM) Contrast Polarized light contrast Influence of contrast on roughness Bibliography Chapter 2. Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography Maxime BESACIER, Christophe CONSTANCIAS and Jean-Yves ROBIC 2.1. Introduction to extreme ultraviolet lithography Chapter introduction Extreme ultraviolet lithography: the successor of optical lithography at 248 nm and 193 nm wavelengths The spectral range of extreme ultraviolet Choice of wavelength and resolution limit for EUV lithography The electromagnetic properties of materials and the complex index Wave vector and complex index Scattering and absorption: the electromagnetic origin of the refractive index Light propagation and refractive index Reflection and transmission of a monochromatic wave Reflective optical elements for EUV lithography The interferential mirror principle: Bragg structure Reflective optics: conception and fabrication Projection optics for EUV lithography Reflective masks for EUV lithography Different mask types Manufacturing processes for EUV masks Mask defectivity Modeling and simulation for EUV lithography Simulation, a conceptional tool Simulation methods EUV lithography sources Constitutive elements of a plasma source Specifications for an EUV source EUV sources Conclusion Appendix: Kramers Krönig relationship Bibliography... 97

3 Table of Contents vii Chapter 3. Electron Beam Lithography Christophe CONSTANCIAS, Stefan LANDIS, Serdar MANAKLI, Luc MARTIN, Laurent PAIN and David RIO 3.1. Introduction Different equipment, its operation and limits: current and future solutions Gaussian beam Shaped electron beam Multi-electron beam Maskless photolithography Optical lithography without a mask Charged particle maskless lithography Alignment Electron-sensitive resists Electron matter interaction Physical effect of electronic bombardment in the target Polymerizing, chemical bond breaking Thermal effect Electrical effect Physical limitations of e-beam lithography Fundamental limit of electrons Resist-related limitations Limitations linked to tooling and electronic optics Diameter of the crossover Optical geometrical aberrations Chromatic aberrations Space charge aberration Electrons energy loss mechanisms The notion of cross-section Elastic scattering on the nuclei Inelastic electron electron collisions Electromagnetic braking of electrons: Bremsstrahlung Energy distribution in the resist Monte Carlo simulation Database preparation Database preparation process Input formats Proximity effects E-beam lithography equipment Principle of electron-beam writing Examples of Gaussian beam tools E-beam resist process

4 viii Lithography The resist The nature of the substrate Proximity effects Development The energy of the electrons Thickness of the resist film Summary Chemically Amplified Resists (CARs) Non-CARs Evacuation of charges on a dielectric Bibliography Chapter 4. Focused Ion Beam Direct-Writing Jacques GIERAK 4.1. Introduction A little history So why did it take so long to implement that suggestion? Main fields of application of focused ion beams Scanning ion microscopy Ion lithography on sensitive resists Implantation Localized etching Reactive gas and metal precursor injection From microfabrication to nanoetching Principles and properties of liquid metal ion sources Principles and properties of an ion column for focused ion beam generation Calculation of the optical properties of an electrostatic system Optimization: a very high resolution FIB column (NanoFIB) Architecture of FIB instruments The applications Thin membrane preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Exploration of the ultimate nanostructuring potential of a focused ion beam Conclusion Acknowledgements Bibliography

5 Table of Contents ix Chapter 5. Charged Particle Optics Peter HAWKES 5.1. The beginnings: optics or ballistics? The two approaches: Newton and Fermat Linear approximation: paraxial optics of systems with a straight optic axis, cardinal elements, matrix representation Types of defect: geometrical, chromatic and parasitic aberrations Geometrical aberrations Chromatic aberrations Parasitic aberrations Numerical calculation Optimization Special cases Guns Aberration correctors Further reading Appendix Bibliography Chapter 6. Lithography resists Amandine JOUVE, Michael MAY, Isabelle SERVIN and Julia SIMON 6.1. Lithographic process Substrate preparation Resist coating using centrifugation Post coating thermal bake/post apply bake (PAB) Exposure Post exposure bake (PEB) Development step Photosensitive resists Resist types PAC resist Chemically amplified resists (CAR) Conclusion Performance criteria Sensitivity/contrast Process window Line roughness Resist outgassing Reflectivity control Pattern collapse Thin film effect Etch resistance

6 x Lithography Implantation resistance Conclusion Bibliography List of Authors Index