Do Iceland s volcanoes pose a threat to the UK?
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- Amice Hunt
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1 Do Iceland s volcanoes pose a threat to the UK? JA Stevenson 1 1 Royal Society of Edinburgh / Scottish Government Research Fellow School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh Geographical Association - 15 April 2014 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 1 / 51
2
3 Sort of.
4 Sort of. They re unlikely to kill you, but they can certainly make life miserable.
5 Locations in Iceland Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
6 Outline 1 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds 2 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Volcanoes and climate 3 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Effusive: Laki 1783 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 5 / 51
7 Outline 1 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds 2 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Volcanoes and climate 3 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Effusive: Laki 1783 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 5 / 51
8 Outline 1 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds 2 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Volcanoes and climate 3 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Effusive: Laki 1783 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 5 / 51
9 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Outline 1 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds 2 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Volcanoes and climate 3 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Effusive: Laki 1783 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 6 / 51
10 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 The eruption began with basalt lava Halldor Kolbeins/AFP/Getty Images 23 days eruption; 0.02 km 3 lava; 1.3 km 2 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 7 / 51
11 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 The main eruption had three different phases Páll Einarsson - University of Iceland; Gudmundsson et al (2012) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 8 / 51
12 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Adding water can increase explosivity AP Photo/Brynjar Gauti Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
13 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Phases of the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption Páll Einarsson - University of Iceland; Gudmundsson et al (2012) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 10 / 51
14 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Sticky (viscous) magmas erupt explosively Peter Vancoillie, Your Shot via nationalgeographic.com Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
15 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Deposits record the eruption history 40 days eruption; 0.3 km 3 tephra Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 12 / 51
16 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Ash damages jet engines Image: Wikipedia/Flickr - katjung 95,000 cancelled flights Economic impact: e5 billion Image: Eric Moody, British Airways Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 13 / 51
17 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Eyjafjallajökull dispersed ash across European airspace Gudmundsson et al (2012) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
18 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull and deposited it on the ground Stevenson et al (2012) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
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20 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 was much more powerful 4 days eruption; 0.7 km 3 tephra 900 flights cancelled, mainly in Scotland and Scandinavia Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 17 / 51
21 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 The wind strongly controlled tephra deposition Most of the tephra was deposited south of the crater......from the lowest part of the plume Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
22 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 The wind strongly controlled tephra deposition Most of the tephra was deposited south of the crater......from the lowest part of the plume Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
23 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Expedition to the crater Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
24 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Expedition to the crater Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
25 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Expedition to the crater Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
26 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Gas-rich magma drove high explosivity Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
27 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Gas-rich magma drove high explosivity Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
28 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Ash fell within rain in the UK Stevenson et al (2013) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
29 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Ash affected rainwater chemistry Stevenson et al (2013) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
30 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Air quality monitoring tracked the cloud Stevenson et al (2013) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
31 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Grímsvötn 2011 Citizen scientists collected tape samples Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
32 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds A history of ash clouds and aviation Data from ICAO: Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 25 / 51
33 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds A history of ash clouds and aviation Data from ICAO: Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 25 / 51
34 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds A history of ash clouds and aviation Data from ICAO: Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 25 / 51
35 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds New flight rules limited Grímsvötn disruption Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
36 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
37 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
38 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
39 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
40 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
41 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
42 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
43 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
44 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
45 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
46 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
47 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
48 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
49 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
50 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
51 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
52 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
53 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
54 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
55 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
56 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds Models predict location and timing well Predicting concentrations is more difficult Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
57 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Outline 1 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds 2 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Volcanoes and climate 3 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Effusive: Laki 1783 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 28 / 51
58 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds An ash cloud every two decades (on average) Leadbetter and Hort (2011) An eruption every 5 years 75% are explosive Wind blows to SE about 33% of the time Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 29 / 51
59 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds Iceland s volcanoes are increasingly active (a bit) Terrametrics / Google Earth Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 30 / 51
60 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds Iceland s volcanoes are getting more active (a bit) Larsen et al (1998) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 31 / 51
61 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Katla s produces big eruptions (often) Larsen (2010) 16 of the past 20 eruptions similar to or smaller than Grímsvötn Recent eruptions ? 1999? (2011?) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 32 / 51
62 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Katla s jökulhlaups are the main hazard Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 33 / 51
63 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Hekla could erupt any day (still) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
64 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Hekla could erupt any day (still) Data from Icelandic Met Office Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
65 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Hekla could erupt any day (still) Recent eruptions: 1947, 1970, 1980, 1991, 2000 Ofeigsson et al (2011) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
66 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Volcanoes and climate Volcanoes affect global climate (sometimes) McCormick et al (1995) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
67 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Outline 1 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 and Grímsvötn 2011 Eyjafjallajökull 2010 Grímsvötn 2011 Mapping volcanic ash clouds 2 Perceptions and reality of Icelandic volcanism Frequency of eruptions and ash clouds Hekla and Katla: ready to blow? Volcanoes and climate 3 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Effusive: Laki 1783 Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 36 / 51
68 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 H3 and H4 were 30 bigger than E2010 Hekla 3: 2879±34 14 C years BP; 12 km 3 Hekla 4: 3826±12 14 C years BP; 9 km 3 (Larsen and Thorarinsson, 1977; Dugmore, 1989) Likely duration of main eruption: hours to days Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 37 / 51
69 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 H3 and H4 were 30 bigger than E2010 Hekla 3: 2879±34 14 C years BP; 12 km 3 Hekla 4: 3826±12 14 C years BP; 9 km 3 (Larsen and Thorarinsson, 1977; Dugmore, 1989) Likely duration of main eruption: hours to days Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 37 / 51
70 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Tephra covered 80% of Iceland Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 38 / 51
71 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Tephra covered 80% of Iceland Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 38 / 51
72 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 H3 and H4 tephras are found across Europe Dugmore (1989) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 39 / 51
73 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Summer 2012 Iceland fieldwork Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 40 / 51
74 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Stratigraphic logs and samples 341 locations, 461 samples Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 41 / 51
75 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Stratigraphic logs and samples 341 locations, 461 samples Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 41 / 51
76 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 H3 and H4 have different characters Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 42 / 51
77 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Explosive: Hekla 3 and Hekla 4 Remobilised ash could be a long-term problem NASA MODIS image via Icelandic Met Office Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 43 / 51
78 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 Large magnitude fissure eruptions United States Geological Survey Keszthelyi et al (2004) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
79 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 Large magnitude fissure eruptions 8 months eruption; 14.7 km 3 lava; 565 km 2 Thordarson and Self (2003) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 45 / 51
80 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 Large magnitude fissure eruptions 8 months eruption; 14.7 km 3 lava; 565 km 2 Thordarson and Self (2003) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 45 / 51
81 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 Laki s toxic gases caused famine in Iceland 60% of livestock died; 20% of people Pollution reached mainland Europe, too Jón Steingrimmsson quotes via Witze and Kanipe, Island on Fire Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 46 / 51
82 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 Laki s toxic gases caused famine in Iceland 60% of livestock died; 20% of people Pollution reached mainland Europe, too Jón Steingrimmsson quotes via Witze and Kanipe, Island on Fire On the stench of the lava flows: as if burning coals had been doused with urine Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 46 / 51
83 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 Laki s toxic gases caused famine in Iceland 60% of livestock died; 20% of people Pollution reached mainland Europe, too Jón Steingrimmsson quotes via Witze and Kanipe, Island on Fire On the symptoms of fluorine poisoning: These people who did not have enough older and undiseased supplies of food to last them through these times of pestilence also suffered great pain. Ridges, growths, and bristles appeared on their rib joins, ribs, the backs of their hands, their feet, legs, and joints. Their bodies became bloated, the inside of their mouths and their gums swelled and cracked, causing excruciating pains and toothaches. Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 46 / 51
84 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 Laki s toxic gases caused famine in Iceland 60% of livestock died; 20% of people Pollution reached mainland Europe, too Jón Steingrimmsson quotes via Witze and Kanipe, Island on Fire On the lack of food: cooked what skins and hide ropes they owned, and restricted themselves to the equivalent of one leather shoepiece per meal, which was sufficient if soaked in soured milk and spread with fat Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 46 / 51
85 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 Laki s toxic gases caused famine in Iceland 60% of livestock died; 20% of people Pollution reached mainland Europe, too Jón Steingrimmsson quotes via Witze and Kanipe, Island on Fire Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 46 / 51
86 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 The pollution is dangerous in Europe, too Ken Carlslaw, Leeds Univeristy Schmidt et al (2011) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
87 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 The pollution is dangerous in Europe, too Ken Carlslaw, Leeds Univeristy Schmidt et al (2011) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
88 Potential impacts of the largest eruptions Effusive: Laki 1783 The pollution is dangerous in Europe, too Ken Carlslaw, Leeds Univeristy Schmidt et al (2011) Blog: all-geo.org/volcan / 51
89 Summary 1 Aviation rules and weather are as important as eruption duration and style in determining impact on flights 2 On average, ash clouds reach the UK every two decades 3 The largest eruptions can affect European populations and agriculture Acknowledgements Colleagues at Edinburgh University, the British Geological Survey, the Met Office, University of Iceland, Icelandic Met Office Open source map-making tools: GRASS, QGIS, Python Basemap, OpenLayers Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 48 / 51
90 Further reading Further reading I Books Popular science Witze A, Kanipe J (2014) Island on fire: the extraordinary story of Laki, the volcano that turned eighteenth-century Europe dark. Profile Books, London Introductory guide Jerram D (2011) Introducing volcanology: a guide to hot rocks. Dunedin, Edinburgh Field guide Thordarson T, Hoskuldsson A (2002) Iceland - Classic Geology in Europe. Terra Publishing Undergraduate textbook Francis P, Oppenheimer C (2004) Volcanoes. Oxford University Press, Oxford; New York Websites Global Volcanism Program: British Geological Survey myvolcano app: Volcanoes Top Trumps: Icelandic Met Office: Streva Project (volcanic hazards): Blogs Eruptions: volcan01010: Volcanic Degassing: Volcano news as it Geology-themed science Volcanoes, Iceland, open source Volcanoes and Communicating volcanic General volcanology, #volcanomonday Volcanoes, Iceland, Chile photos Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 49 / 51
91 References References I Dugmore A (1989) Icelandic volcanic ash in Scotland. Scottish Geographical Magazine 105(3): , DOI / Gudmundsson MT, Thordarson T, Höskuldsson A, Larsen G, Björnsson H, Prata FJ, Oddsson B, Magnússon E, Högnadóttir T, Petersen GN, Hayward CL, Stevenson JA, Jónsdóttir I (2012) Ash generation and distribution from the April-May 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland. Scientific Reports 2, DOI /srep00572 Keszthelyi L, Thordarson T, McEwen A, Haack H, Guilbaud MN, Self S, Rossi MJ (2004) Icelandic analogs to Martian flood lavas. Geochem Geophys Geosyst 5:Q11,014, DOI /2004GC Larsen G (2010) 3 Katla: Tephrochronology and Eruption History. In: The Mýrdalsjökull Ice Cap, Iceland. Glacial processes, sediments and landforms on an active volcano, vol Volume 13, Elsevier, pp Larsen G, Thorarinsson S (1977) H4 and other acid Hekla tephra layers. Jökull 27(27):28 46 Larsen G, Gudmundsson MT, Björnsson H (1998) Eight centuries of periodic volcanism at the center of the Iceland hotspot revealed by glacier tephrostratigraphy. Geology 26(10): , DOI / (1998)026<0943:ECOPVA>2.3.CO;2 Leadbetter SJ, Hort MC (2011) Volcanic ash hazard climatology for an eruption of Hekla Volcano, Iceland. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 199(3-4): , DOI /j.jvolgeores McCormick MP, Thomason LW, Trepte CR (1995) Atmospheric effects of the Mt Pinatubo eruption. Nature 373(6513): , DOI /373399a0 Ofeigsson BG, Hooper A, Sigmundsson F, Sturkell E, Grapenthin R (2011) Deep magma storage at Hekla volcano, Iceland, revealed by InSAR time series analysis. Journal of Geophysical Research 116(B5), DOI /2010JB Schmidt A, Ostro B, Carslaw KS, Wilson M, Thordarson T, Mann GW, Simmons AJ (2011) Excess mortality in Europe following a future Laki-style Icelandic eruption RID B Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108(38):15,710 15,715, DOI /pnas , WOS: Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 50 / 51
92 References References II Stevenson JA, Loughlin S, Rae C, Thordarson T, Milodowski AE, Gilbert JS, Harangi S, Lukács R, Højgaard B, Árting U, Pyne-O Donnell S, MacLeod A, Whitney B, Cassidy M (2012) Distal deposition of tephra from the Eyjafjallajökull 2010 summit eruption. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 117(B9):n/a n/a, DOI /2011JB Stevenson JA, Loughlin SC, Font A, Fuller GW, MacLeod A, Oliver IW, Jackson B, Horwell CJ, Thordarson T, Dawson I (2013) UK monitoring and deposition of tephra from the May 2011 eruption of Grímsvötn, Iceland. Journal of Applied Volcanology 2(1):3, DOI / Thordarson T, Self S (2003) Atmospheric and environmental effects of the Laki eruption: A review and reassessment. Journal of Geophysical Research 108:29 PP., DOI /2001JD Blog: all-geo.org/volcan john.stevenson@ed.ac.uk 51 / 51
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