Sedimentary Basins. Gerhard Einsele. Springer-Verlag. Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget. With 269 Figures

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2 Gerhard Einsele Sedimentary Basins Evolution, Facies, and Sediment Budget With 269 Figures Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest

3 Prof. Dr. GERHARD EINSELE Geologisches Institut Universitat Tiibingen SigwartstraBe Tiibingen, Germany ISBN-13: e-isbn-13: DOl: / Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Einsele, Gerhard. Sedimentary basins: evolution, facies, and sediment budget; with 269 figures / Gerhard Einsele. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Sedimentary basins. 2. Sedimentation and deposition. 3. Facies (Geology) I. Title. QE571.E dc j()()2 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfihn or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1992 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. lypesetting: Camera ready by author 32/ Printed on acid-free paper

4 Preface The modern geological sciences are characterized by extraordinarily rapid progress, as well as by the development and application of numerous new and refined methods,most of them handling an enormous amount of data available from all the continents and oceans. Given this state of affairs, it seams inevitable that many students and professionals tend to become experts in relatively narrow fields and thereby are in danger of losing a broad view of current knowledge. The abundance of new books and symposium volumes testifies to this trend toward specialization. However, many geologic processes are complex and result from the interaction of many, seemingly unrelated, individual factors. This signifies that we still need generalists who have the broad overview and are able to evaluate the great variety of factors and processes controlling a geologic system, such as a sedimentary basin. In addition, this also means that cooperation with other disciplines in the natural sciences and engineering is increasingly important. Modern text books providing this broad overview of the earth sciences are rare. Some are written by several authors together to make sure that all topics are treated properly. When individual authors write a book, they run the risk of creating a text that is less balanced, because they cannot avoid indulging their own preferences for specific topics and field examples. However, this disadvantage can be compensated for by the fact that just one author can produce a more concise and uniform text and include appropriate cross references. In this one-author book I have tried to put much information into a considerable number of figures. Once the reader has acquired some basic knowledge and has read the text, he should be able to recall it easily by looking at these composite illustrations, for example the various facies models demonstrating both the depositional environment and the resulting vertical sequences. Many of these figures may be regarded as a kind of summary of the chapter in question; therefore, I did not give written summaries at the end of each chapter as found in many other textbooks. This book addresses both qualitative and quantitative aspects of basin analysis, including topics such as various flux rates, diagenesis, and fluid flow, in the context of plate tectonics and sedimentary geology. Tectonic subsidence and uplift are prerequisites for basin formation and terrigenous sediment supply, but sedimentary processes in a basin are governed by other factors, including water circulation and recycling of nutrients, sediment transport, deposition, and redistribution. The sedimentary facies of a basin are largely controlled by the interrelationship between subsidence, sedimentation rate, and relative sea level change. Basinal sediment budgets are a topic which has been rarely treated in textbooks. Large-scale processes, facies associations, and especially sedimentary sequences are stressed in the book, rather than small-scale sedimentary structures, texture, petrographic characteristics, or detailed descriptions of biogenic sediment components and trace fossils. The latter phenomena are sufficiently described in a number of modern books. Finally, brief sections

5 VI Preface address the application of basie knowledge to exploration for hydrocarbons, coal, minerals, and deep groundwater. This book is written for advanced students and professionals who require a comparatively straightforward, elementary treatment of sedimentary basin processes and evolution. The reader should already be familiar with general geology and geologic principles and have some basic knowledge of sedimentology. Quantitative aspects are described by simple equations and idealized examples. The book emphasizes broad, large-scale features of sedimentary basins and their facies associations. It provides only a limited number of case studies, which are chosen mostly from Europe and North America, but from other continents as well. Many experts will probably find that their specific topics are not treated thoroughly enough and that important datails have been omitted. Others may criticize that not all publications relevant to their fields are cited in the reference list. I would be grateful if these colleagues were to inform me when important points are missing or not treated properly. All books bear the personal stamp of the author. In keeping with this unavoidable tradition, this book is influenced by my experience in studies of both modern marine sediments and ancient sedimentary rocks on land. Furthermore, I have done some work on mass physical properties and the mechanical behavior of soft and overconsolidated sediments, as well as in the area of groundwater behavior. This volume is based partially on courses which I have taught for many years, as well as on an intensive literature study, particularly of papers and topical volumes published during the past three to four years. Nevertheless, I am afraid and even certain that I have missed a great number of important publications, especially those written in languages I cannot read, such as Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and others. I apologize for these omissions, but then, one person is no longer able to evaluate the enormous literature which is published today, even in a limited field of geology. Finally, I wish to express my thanks to a number of colleagues who reviewed specific chapters of this book and provided me with invaluable comments: Thomas Aigner (TUbingen), Erwin Appel (TUbingen), Robin Bathurst (Liverpool), R. Langbein (Greifswald), Stefan Kempe (Hamburg), Hanspeter Luterbacher (TUbingen), Ulrich von Rad (Hannover), Werner Ricken (TUbingen), RUdiger Stein (Bremerhaven), Jobst Wendt (TUbingen), Jan Veizer (Bochum), and Andreas Wetzel (Basel). Nevertheless, only I can be taken to task for any shortcomings or errors in this text. Linda Hobert and Susanne Borchert reviewed the English text and helped clarify many points. Hermann Vollmer produced most of the text's figures. Wolfgang Engel and Susanne Fink of Springer-Verlag, among others, assisted me in many ways in the production of this volume. All this help is gratefully acknowledged. Last but not least I wish to thank my wife Ruth and my family, who with great fortitude tolerated my incessant work on weekends and in the evenings and did their best to spare me from the usual house chores and many other obligations which I should have taken care of. Gerhard Einsele TUbingen, November 1991

6 Contents Part I Types of Sedimentary Basins Basin Classification and Depositional Environments Introduction Tectonic Basin Classification Pre-, Syn-, and Post-Depositional Basins Basin Morphology and Depositional Environments Part IT Depositional Systems and Facies Models Continental Sediments Glacial Deposits of Lowlands and Shallow Seas Continental Glacial Deposits Glaciomarine Sediments Fluvial Sediments, Alluvial Fans, and Fan Deltas Bed Forms, Sedimentary Structures, and Facies Elements Alluvial Fans and Fan Deltas Various River Systems and Their Sediments Large-Scale Lateral and Vertical Evolution of Fluvial Systems Eolian Sediments Introduction Eolian Sands Clay Dunes Eolian Dust, Loess ' Volcaniclastic Sediments (Tephra Deposits) General Aspects and Terms Tephra Deposits on Land and Below the Sea Volcaniclastic Sediments in Basins of Various Tectonic Settings Alteration, Diagenesis, and Metamorphism of Volcaniclastic Rocks Lake Sediments Different Lake Systems and Their Sediments Recent and Ancient Examples of Lake Sediments Specific Features of Lakes and Lake Sediments Coastal and Shallow Sea Sediments (Including Carbonates) Beach and Shoreface Sediments Coastal Processes, Beach and Shoreface Sands Storms and Storm Deposits (Tempestites) Sediments of Tidal Flats and Barrier-Island Complexes Tidal-Influenced Environments and Sediments Sediments of Barrier-Island Complexes

7 VIII Contents 3.3 Sediments of Shallow Seas {Including Carbonates) Predominantly Siliciclastic Sediments Carbonate Buildups and Reef-Lagoon Complexes Sediments of Marine Delta Complexes Types of Marine Deltas Sedimentary Processes and Facies of Various Delta Types Facies Architecture, Constructional and Destructional Phases Sediments of Adjacent Seas and Estuaries Introduction Water Circulation and Sediments Sedimentary History of Some Modern Adjacent Seas Oceanic Sediments General Aspects Water Circulation in the Oceans Hemipelagic and Pelagic Deep-Sea Sediments Overview Deep-Sea Carbonates and Carbonate Dissolution Red Clay and Manganese Nodules Sediments in Zones of Upwelling Siliceous Sediments Marine Phosphorite Deposits Sediments on Marginal and Oceanic Plateaus, Ridges, and Seamounts Gravity Mass Flow Deposits and Turbidites Gravity Mass Flows Turbidites and Deep-Sea Fan Associations Erosion and Reworking of Deep-Sea Sediments Special Depositional Environments and Sediments Green Marine Clays Oolitic Ironstones Red Beds Marine Evaporites Models for Evaporite Deposition Sequences, Sedimentary Structures, and _ Sedimentation Rates Diagenesis and Geochemical Characteristics of Evaporites Salt Structures Nonactualistic (Precambrian) Depositional Environments The Evolution of the Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Climate Precambrian Sediments Depositional Rhythms and Cyclic Sequences General Aspects Special Features and Examples of Rhythmic Bedding Depositional Cycles in Lakes, Fluvial and Deltaic Systems Cyclic Sequences in Lakes Sediment Successions in Fluvial and Deltaic Systems Sea Level Changes and Sequence Stratigraphy... ~ General Principles and Terms Changes in Sea Level and Storm Wave Base in Shallow Basins

8 Contents IX Sequence Stratigraphy in Continental Margin Settings Long-Term Cyclic Phenomena in Earth's History Superposition of Cycles of Various Orders and Differing Origin Part ill Subsidence, Denudation, Flux Rates, and Sediment Budget I 8 Subsidence General Mechanisms Controlling Subsidence Methods to Determine Subsidence of Sedimentary Basins Modeling of Rift Basins and Observed Subsidence Curves " Passive Continental Margins Subsidence of Basins Related to Tectonic Loading, Subduction, and Strike-Slip Motion Denudation: Solute Transport and Flux Rates of Terrigenous Material Weathering and Soils Chemical and Mechanical Denudation Rates from River Loads Chemical Denudation Rates Mechanical Denudation from Solid River Load Chemical Versus Mechanical Denudation Rates Mineralogical Composition of Suspended River Loads Long-Term Denudation Rates from the Sediment Budget of Various Basins... : Tectonic Uplift, Denudation, and Geomorphology Long-Term Denudation Rates from Changes in Topography Geomorphological Consequences of Denudation Interrelationship Between Tectonic Uplift and Denudation Sedimentation Rates and Organic Matter in Various Depositional Environments General Aspects Average Sedimentation Rates..., Production and Preservation of Organic Matter General Aspects Organic Matter in the Oceans Organic Matter Preservation and Black Shales The Interplay Between Sediment Supply, Subsidence, and Basin Fill Introduction Simple Relationships Between Source Area on Land and Basin FiII Different Modes of Basin FiIIing Vertical and Lateral Facies Associations (Overview)

9 x Contents Part IV Basin Evolution Basin Evolution and Sediments Rift Basins Rift Structures Examples of Young Rift Zones Sediments of Rift Basins Transition from Rift Basins to Continental Margin Basins Continental Margin and Slope Basins General Aspects Sediment Successions of Continental Margin Basins Sediment Successions on Continental Slopes Intracratonic Basins Associated with Mega-Rifting Permian to Mesozoic Basin Development in Europe (Overview) Mesozoic Sediments Between the North Sea and the Western Tethys Continental or Intracratonic Sag Basins Deep-see Trenches, Forearc and Backarc Basins General Features Deep-Sea Trenches Forearc Basins..., Backarc Basins Preservation and Recognition of Ancient Subduction-Related Basins Remnant and Foreland Basins Remnant Basins with Flysch Foreland Basins with Molasse Pannonian-Type Basins Pull-Apart Basins Basin-Type Transitions (Polyhistory Basins) Part V Diagenesis and Fluid Flow Mechanical and Chemical Diagenesis General Aspects of Mechanical and Chemical Diagenesis Compaction, Compaction Flow, and Other Flow Mechanisms... : Principles of Chemical Diagenesis Thermal History of Sedimentary Basins and the Onset of Metamorphism Special Methods and Processes in Diagenesis Hydrocarbons and Coal Source Rocks, Kerogen Types, and Hydrocarbon Potential Generation of Hydrocarbons Examples of Hydrocarbon Habitats Evolution of Coal References Subject Index